Beate Sturm

Transcrição

Beate Sturm

Beate Sturm
PhD Student at the University of Hanover
Department of History
Im Moore 21
D-30167 Hanover
Supporting Professor: Prof. Dr. K.-H. Schneider
[email protected]
The Early Modern System of Personal Loans
as a Structural Basis for the First Foundations of Savings Banks
The Early Modern System of Personal Loans as a Structural Basis for the First
Foundations of Savings Banks
Introduction
The late eighteenth century was the beginning of a period in which numerous savings banks
were founded in Germany. In secondary literature the foundations of these institutions are
mainly interpreted as a measure demanded by philanthropists with the aim to allow members
of the middle- and working-class to get loans with low interest rates.1 Other reasons which
have been given e.g. the increase of the money supply for the improvement of the industrial
production, trade and the circulation of money as stated in an appeal to establish a savings
bank in the town of Hanover2, or the growth of industrial production under the shelter of the
mercantilist state administration and the suppression of the bourgeoisie pointed out by
DOMES3 have not been much considered in secondary literature. However, the savings banks
were not only used for the purpose proposed by the philanthropists: A considerable number of
savings deposits belonged to members of urban groups which according to the statutes were
1
e.g. STEIN BOCK VERLAG HANNOVER. Im Dienst einer Idee. Ein dokumentarisches Bildwerk über
Werden und Wirken der Sparkassen, Hannover, Stein Bock Verlag, 1963, p. 44; DIETEL, Günther. 125 Jahre
vor Ort. Sparkasse Scheessel 1876-2001, Roteburg (Wümme), Sparkasse Scheessel, 2001, p. 15; TRENDE,
Adolf. Geschichte der Deutschen Sparkassen bis zum Anfang des 20. Jahrhunderts. Vollständiger Nachdruck der
Originalausgabe von 1957 mit einer Einführung von Josef Wysocki, Stuttgart, Deutscher Sparkassen-Verlag,
1993, pp. 1-10. (=Gesellschaft zur Förderung der wissenschaftlichen Forschung über das Spar- und Girowesen
e.V. (ed.). Sparkassen in der Geschichte, Abteilung 2: Reprint, n° 3), p. 21.
2
MLYNEK, Klaus. 175 Jahre Verantwortung in Region und Gesellschaft. Die Stadt Hannover und ihre
Sparkasse 1823-1998, Hannover, Schlüter, 1998, p. 11.
3
DOMES, Richard. Sparkassenwandlungen. Grundzüge einer Wirtschaftsgeschichte der deutschen und
österreichischen Sparkassen. Vollständiger Nachdruck der Originalausgabe von 1930 mit einer Einführung von
Christian Dirninger, Stuttgart, Deutscher Sparkassen-Verlag, 1999, pp. 24-26.
2
not allowed to get loans from savings banks.4 Furthermore, a couple of towns used the
deposits of the clients in order to pay off their own debts or to finance pawnshops.5
Moreover, with regard to the financial situation of the middle- and working-class the
predominant thesis suggests that before the foundation of the early savings banks financial
transactions and credit businesses were “ein Vorrecht der wirtschaftlichen Oberschicht, die
über Kapital, Gundbesitz und Immobilien verfügte” 6 [a privilege of the economic elite which
had capital, land and real property at its disposal]. FISCHER even assumes that the
foundation of savings banks resulted from the lack of credit institutions for the workingclass.7 Generally, it can be pointed out that the period examined in current historical research
mainly starts with the early ideas for the establishment of savings banks or with the date of
foundation of a certain institution. However, how was the situation before savings banks came
into existence? Had there existed a credit system for members of the middle- and workingclass?
4
STEIN BOCK VERLAG HANNOVER. Im Dienst einer Idee. Ein dokumentarisches Bildwerk über Werden
und Wirken der Sparkassen, Hannover, Stein Bock Verlag, 1963, p. 48.
5
DOMES, Richard. Sparkassenwandlungen. Grundzüge einer Wirtschaftsgeschichte der deutschen und
österreichischen Sparkassen. Vollständiger Nachdruck der Originalausgabe von 1930 mit einer Einführung von
Christian Dirninger, Stuttgart, Deutscher Sparkassen-Verlag, 1999, pp. 55-56.
6
Cited from: DIETEL, Günther. 125 Jahre vor Ort. Sparkasse Scheessel 1876-2001, Roteburg (Wümme),
Sparkasse Scheessel, 2001, p. 15.
7
FISCHER, Wolfram. „Gemeinsamkeiten in der sozioökonomischen Struktur der europäischen Länder als
Voraussetzung der Sparkassenidee“. IN PIX, Manfred / POHL, Hans (ed.). Invention - Innovation - Diffusion.
Die Entwicklung des Spar- und Sparkassengedankens in Europa. Zweites europäisches Kolloquium für
Sparkassengeschichte am 28./29. Mai 1990 in München, Stuttgart, Franz Steiner, 1992, pp. 33-43. (=Hans Pohl
u.a. (ed.). Vierteljahresschrift für Sozial- und Wirtschaftsgeschichte, Beihefte, n° 103), pp. 40-41.
3
The so-called “Rentenkauf” [a special credit instrument] already gave members of all classes
the opportunity to receive loans – provided they were credit-worthy.8 Obviously, these loans
were not offered by banks or savings banks because banks were only allowed to give loans to
merchants and savings banks had not existed yet. Who else, then, provided these loans? Some
historians refer to the fact that certain institutions had already fulfilled the role of savings
banks before the latter were founded, but only in marginal notes: e.g. WUNDER points out
that the community treasuries of the Brandenburg Mark lent money and therefore carried out
the function of savings banks.9 GÖMMEL states that the Regensburg poor box also fulfilled
the function of a loan bank10 and emphasises that the foundations of the first savings banks
resulted from the fact that poor boxes were no longer able to give loans for financial
reasons.11 In general, however, it can be summarised that in contrast to British historical
research12 in Germany the examination of these credit businesses have been neglected so far,
8
HELD, Wieland. „Geldwirtschaftliche und marktwirtschaftliche Aspekte der Stadt-Land-Beziehungen in
Thüringen im 16. Jahrhundert“, Jahrbuch für Wirtschaftsgeschichte, n° 3, 1983, pp. 107-122, p. 111.
9
WUNDER, Heide. „Finance in the Èconomy of Old Europe`: The example of Peasant Credit from the Late
Middle Ages to the Thirty Years War“. IN HOFFMANN, Barbara / WUNDER, Heide (ed.). Der andere Blick
auf die Frühe Neuzeit. Forschungen 1974-1995, Königstein / Taunus, Helmer, 1999, pp. 77-103, p. 92.
10
GÖMMEL, Rainer. Merkantilistische und kommunale Sozialpolitik (vom 17. Jahrhundert bis zur
Bismarckzeit). IN POHL, Hans (ed.). Staatliche, städtische, betriebliche und kirchliche Sozialpolitik vom
Mittelalter bis zur Gegenwart. Referate der 13. Arbeitstagung der Gesellschaft für Sozial- und
Wirtschaftsgeschichte vom 28. März bis 1. April 1989 in Heidelberg, Stuttgart, Franz Steiner, 1991, pp. 89-109.
(=Vierteljahresschrift für Sozial- und Wirtschaftsgeschichte, Beiheft n° 95), p. 95.
11
Ibid., p. 105.
12
e.g. MULDREW, Craig. „Zur Anthropologie des Kapitalismus. Kredit, Vertrauen, Tausch und die Geschichte
des Marktes in England 1500-1750“, Historische Anthropologie. Kultur, Gesellschaft, Alltag, n° 6, 1998, pp.
167-199; MULDREW, Craig. Credit and the courts: debt ligitiation in a seventeenth-century urban community,
Economic History Review XLVI (1993); HOLDERNESS, B. A. Credit in an rural community before the
4
as research mainly focussed on the credit system of merchants. A profound analysis of the
German system of personal loans which had existed before the foundations of savings banks
has not been carried out yet, although, in my opinion, this is of great importance with regard
to the examination of the development of early savings banks.
Therefore, this paper concentrates on the question which significance the system of
personal loans in the early modern period had for the foundations of savings banks. First of
all, the system of personal loans will be examined with regard to the persons and institutions
involved, their motives and reasons as well as the problems and conflicts resulting from the
financial businesses. The examination focuses on the town of Hanover in the period between
1550 and 1750. After that, the question will be discussed whether it served as a basis for the
later foundations of savings banks and which importance it had for the latter.
nineteenth century, with special reference to the period 1650-1720, The Agricultural History Review, n° 24,
1976. LASLETT mentions the great importance of the system of personal loans in early modern Britain.
LASSLETT, Peter, Verlorene Lebenswelten. Geschichte der vorindustriellen Gesellschaft, Frankfurt a.M.,
Fischer, 1991. (=Fischer-Taschenbuch vol. 10561), p. 102.
5
Analysis of the Early Modern System of Personal Loans with Reference to the Example
of Hanover
In the context of my PhD thesis with the title “Indebtedness of Private Persons in Early
Modern Urban Society – Examples of the Region of Lower Saxony” I analyse different
primary sources (e.g. court records, books, obligations, documents about bankruptcy
proceedings and compulsory auctions, correspondences of private persons with the district
council, records of the treasury, records of private persons, receipts, announcements, debt
registers) which serve as a basis for the research into indebtedness of private persons. The
examination of the early modern system of personal loans is based on nearly 4.400 cases with
special emphasis on the town of Hanover which have been analysed with a databank
especially created for this purpose.
The results so far have confirmed that cases of indebtedness of private persons as well
as institutions can be detected for the whole period under examination. Thus, in my opinion,
private indebtedness was a usual social phenomenon in early modern Germany. How then did
private persons get into debt in the early modern period? The analysis of the above mentioned
primary sources has shown that cases of indebtedness were not only caused by loans with
fixed conditions but also other financial transactions. The most common of these transactions
was the credit purchase: As recent research has verified, it was a common practice to buy
goods on credit not only in long-distance trade but also every-day businesses in early modern
Germany13. However, since in many cases these credits were not paid back later on, the credit
13
e.g. SISSIKAKIS, Manuela. Territoriale Rechnungslegung in der Frühen Neuzeit. Quellenkritische
Anmerkungen anhand der Kammerrechnungen des 16. Jahrhunderts im Fürstentum Braunschweig-Wolfenbüttel.
IN LIPPELT, Christian / SCHILD Gerhard (ed.). Braunschweig-Wolfenbüttel in der Frühen Neuzeit. Neue
historische Forschungen, Braunschweig, Appelhans, 2003, pp. 93-108. (=Braunschweigischer Geschichtesverein
(ed.). Quellen und Forschungen zur Braunschweigischen Landesgeschichte, vol. 41), p. 105; HOLBACH,
Rudolf. "Ìm auff arbait gelihen`: Zur Rolle des Kredits in der gewerblichen Produktion, 13.-16. Jahrhundert“.
6
purchase often let to claims for payment of the resulting debt. Numerous cases in early
modern Hanover confirm this trade practice.14 Next to the indebtedness caused by credit
purchase, Hanoverians also got into debt when they borrowed things from others and did not
give them back.15 Another reason for indebtedness which is stated in the primary sources was
that different sorts of obligatory payments to the authorities, payments agreed upon with other
private persons16 as well as dowries and heritages that were not paid.17 Moreover, a small
number of cases verifies that some people got into debt because they supported friends or
family members financially.18 To sum up, private persons in the early modern period got into
debt by taking up credits as well as by not paying obligatory payments of different sorts.
Indebtedness often meant far-reaching consequences for the individual debtor, as will be
shown later on.
Based on the frequency of cases in the primary sources, giving credits, buying goods
on credit and the inability to discharge obligatory payments can be evaluated as common
procedures in the early modern period. For which goods or payments, then, did private
persons get into debt? The purchase as well as renovations or extensions of houses and flats
are the most frequently stated reasons in the primary sources why Hanoverians borrowed
IN NORTH, Michael (ed.). Kredit im spätmittelalterlichen und frühneuzeitlichen Europa, Köln / Wien, Böhlau,
1991, pp. 133-158. (=Hansischer Geschichtsverein (ed.). Quellen und Darstellungen zur Hansischen Geschichte,
Neue Folge, vol. 37), p. 151.
14
e.g. StdtA H A 2024, Bl. 3v; StdtA H A 3701, Bl. 3; StdtA H B 8045, Bl. 272.
15
e.g. StdtA H A 1464, Bl. 60-60v; StdtA H A 1465, Bl. 81; StdtA H A 1469, Bl. 81.
16
e.g. StdtA H A 924, Bl. 1; StdtA H A 3769, Bl. 1v; StdtA H AAA 21, 1725/9, Bl. 1v.
17
StdtA H A 3621, Bl. 29; StdtA H Korr. d. Rates, Bartold von Rutenberg, 1611, Bl. 1.
18
e.g. StdtA H A 1460, Bl. 74; StdtA H A 2246, court proceedings against Dierking, Bl. 4v; StdtA H A 4647, Bl.
1.
7
money.19 Another common reason for indebtedness was rent arrears20; in one case a debtor
borrowed money in order to pay the deposit for a flat21. Cases in which debts result from
financial implications related to houses and flats make up 22.59 per cent of all cases under
examination and thus constitute the largest category of reasons for indebtedness.
The second largest category is food, which 20.9 per cent of the debtors borrowed
money for: On top of the list in this context are grain and malt22, but also fish, ham, butter,
lentils, hop, linseed and meat23 as well as other food stuff not further specified24. As far as
beverages are concerned, most private persons spent their money for beer 25 while wine and
spirits are only listed in a few cases 26. Thus, it can be pointed out that private persons in the
early modern period got into debt by buying sorts of food and drinks which, according to
secondary literature27, were among those most commonly consumed or ingredients (e.g. malt)
19
purchase e.g.: StdtA H A 1542, Bl. 1; StdtA H A 2041, Bl. 1; StdtA H A 3766, Bl. 1; StdtA H A 5902, Bl. 1;
extension e.g.: StdtA H A 3786, Bl. 33, Bl. 27, Bl. 46-55; StdtA H Korr. d. Rates, Bartold von Rutenberg, 1611,
Bl. 6.
20
e.g. StdtA H A 1462, Bl. 14-14v; StdtA H A 1964, Bl. 2StdtA H A 1465, Bl. 46, Bl. 67.
21
StdtA H A 1720, Bl. 1-2.
22
e.g. StdtA H A 1462, Bl. 26-27; StdtA H A 1465, Bl. 83; StdtA H A 1948, Bl. 1; StdtA H A 2012, Bl. 1-1v.
23
e.g. StdtA H A 1460, Bl. 115; StdtA H A 1461, Bl. 53, Bl. 136, Bl. 139; StdtA H A 1465, Bl. 61v; StdtA H A
1467, Bl. 35; StdtA H A 1468, Bl. 5, Bl. 56, Bl. 122.
24
e.g. StdtA H A 1465, Bl.33-33v; StdtA H A 1947, B. 1; StdtA H A 3780, Bl. 1; StdtA H A 2006, Bl. 2-2v.
25
e.g. StdtA H A 1465, Bl. 118-118v; StdtA H A 1603, Bl. 2; StdtA H Korr. d. Rates, Bartold von Rutenberg,
1611, Bl. 6-6v.
26
e.g. StdtA H A 1465, Bl. 61; StdtA H A 2949, paper n° X; StdtA H Korr. d. Rates, Bartold von Rutenberg,
1611, Bl. 5.
27
e.g. DIRLMEIER Ulf / FOUQUET, Gerhard. „Ernährung und Konsumgewohnheiten im spätmittelalterlichen
Deutschland“, Geschichte in Wissenschaft und Unterricht, n° 44, 1993, pp. 504-526, p. 521; WILLDERDING,
Ulrich, „Ernährung, Gartenbau und Landwirtschaft im Bereich der Stadt“. IN MECKSEPER, Cord (ed.). Stadt
8
for the production of a common product (e.g. beer). Furthermore, in some cases debts were
caused by stays in guest houses or pubs as well as meals in private homes.28
Apart from that, the analysis of the primary sources gives evidence that a considerable
percentage of cases of indebtedness (9.98 per cent) resulted from obligatory payments to the
authorities. The debtors were either not able to pay certain contributions29 or they borrowed
money from other persons or institutions in order to pay off their debts with the authorities 30.
Different sorts of obligatory payments let to these claims: On the one hand, private persons
had to give regular payments such as taxes, contributions and commissions31 as well as
community contributions for schools, wood, the guards and brewing32. On the other hand, a
number of private persons got into debt, because they were not able to pay the charge for
certain services of the authoritarian administration e.g. costs for the chancellery33, for court or
bankruptcy proceedings34. Another reason for indebtedness mentioned in the primary sources
was the inability to pay contributions to the church for the use of land or estates.35 Evidently,
im Wandel. Kunst und Kultur des Bürgertums in Nordwestdeutschland. 1150-1650, vol. 3, pp. 569-605, Stuttgart
/ Bad Cannstatt, Kohlhammer, 1985, pp. 569-605, KUCZYNSKI, Jürgen. Geschichte des Alltags des Deutschen
Volkes. Mit einem Abschnitt "Alltag und Übergangsepoche" von Gerhard Heitz, vol. 2, 1650-1810, Köln,
Rugenstein, 1982, pp. 279-310.
28
e.g. StdtA H A 1465, Bl. 33-33v; StdtA H A 2225, Bl. 4; StdtA H A 4077, Bl. 25; StdtA H A 4621, Bl. 11-
11v, Bl. 14.
29
e.g. StdtA H A 2103, Bl. 1; StdtA H A 3820, Bl. 1-5v; StdtA H A 4075, Bl. 24-25.
30
e.g. StdtA H A 1673, Bl. 27; StdtA H A 1687, Bl. 4; StdtA H A 3764, Bl. 1.
31
e.g. StdtA H A 2224, Bl. 7-8; StdtA H A 2609, Bl. 235-236v; StdtA H A 4624, Bl. 7.
32
e.g. StdtA H A 1469, Bl. 27; StdtA H A 1964, Bl. 3-3v; StdtA H A 3769, Bl. 1.
33
StdtA H A 1636, Bl. 1.
34
StdtA H A 2246, court proceedings against Dierking, Bl. 4v.
35
e.g. StdtA H A 2249, court proceedings against Tiele, Bl. 1-5v; StdtA H A 3751, Bl. 1; StdtA H A 3820; Bl. 1-
5v.
9
one person borrowed money for the one-off payment to attain the Bürgerrecht (citizen rights).
Moreover, the sources name costs which are not further specified36 and payments to the
church37 as well as one case of indebtedness caused by the refusal to pay a fee and another
case in which the debtor had to pay the Sühnegeld (a special kind of fine)38.
Accommodation, food and other payments were the three most frequent reasons for
indebtedness mentioned in the records. Other causes were the purchase of luxury goods e.g.
jewellery, silver and weapons (7.36 per cent),39 borrowed barrels for the transport of food
which were not given back (6.71 per cent),40 the discharge of debts with other people and the
payment of heritages (5.89 per cent),41 every-day articles, household equipment and working
material (5.24 per cent),42 costs for marriages and funerals (5.07 per cent),43 outstanding
wages and pay (4.58 per cent),44 general costs of living (2.62 per cent),45 expenditures for
clothes, shoes, cloth and yarn (1.64 per cent)46 and for land and animals (1.8 per cent),47
36
37
StdtA H A 1687, Bl. 4; StdtA H A 3764, Bl. 1; StdtA H Korr. d. Rates, Bartold von Rutenberg, 1611, Bl. 1.
38
39
e.g. StdtA H A 1465, Bl. 108-109v; StdtA H A 1470, Bl. 26; StdtA H A 2027, Bl. 2.
40
e.g. StdtA H A 1461, Bl. 57; StdtA H A 1465, Bl. 66, Bl. 81, Bl. 73, Bl. 81-81v.
41
e.g. StdtA H A 3757, Bl. 1-20v; StdtA H A 3786, Bl. 10, Bl. 39; StdtA H A 4633, Bl. 3; StdtA H Korr. d.
Rates, Johannes Sohtmann, 1574, Bl. 1.
42
e.g. StdtA H A 1461, Bl. 127; StdtA H A 1462, Bl. 16-16v; StdtA H A 1668, Bl. 1-2v.
43
e.g. StdtA H A 3755, Bl. 3-3; StdtA H A 3786, Bl. 15, Bl. 35.
44
e.g. StdtA H A 1461, Bl. 49; StdtA H A 1464, Bl. 47-48; StdtA H A 1470, Bl. 28-29v; StdtA H A 4616, Bl.
19, Bl. 6; StdtA H Korr. d. Rates, Bartold von Rutenberg, 1611, Bl. 6.
45
e.g. StdtA H A 4165, Bl. 3; StdtA H A 1466, Bl. 13; StdtA H A 2006, Bl. 2-2v; StdtA H A 2033, Bl. 1.
46
e.g. StdtA H A 1461, Bl. 54; StdtA H A 1462, Bl. 22-22v; StdtA H A 1465, Bl. 20, Bl. 84; StdtA H A 4628,
Bl. 7; StdtA H Korr. d. Rates, Bartold von Rutenberg, 1611, Bl. 1v.
47
e.g. StdtA H A 1464, Bl. 23-24v; StdtA H A 1466, Bl. 31; StdtA H A 1468, Bl. 82; StdtA H A 2014, Bl. 2.
10
financial support of others (1.64 per cent),48 indebtedness for the so-called Ehrgeld49 (1.29 per
cent),50 borrowing for health reasons (0.65 per cent)51 as well as indebtedness for other things
e.g. books which are collected in the category diverse (2.45 per cent)52.
As a result, it can be stated that indebtedness of private persons was caused by
requirements of goods and financial necessities which concerned all areas of every-day life in
early modern society. For the debtor it was an opportunity to survive financially and continue
his or her tasks and businesses in times of crisis. For the creditor, however, borrowing money
either meant to wait for the repayment of the loan, which in many cases only happened after
lengthy court proceedings,53 or it served as a savings deposit,54 which earned interest and
provided for the creditor´s old age55. This system of personal loans had already fulfilled some
of the functions which were taken over by savings banks later on.
48
e.g. StdtA H A 1963, Bl. 2; StdtA H A 2082, Bl. 1-1v; StdtA H A 3689, Bl. 1; StdtA Korr. d. Rates, Thomas
Lampe, 1580, Bl. 1-2v.
49
The sources do not specify the kind of Ehrgeld, it may have been duties or special kinds of fines.
http://www.rzuser.uni-heidelberg.de/~cd2/drw/a/E20.htm.
50
StdtA H A 1461, Bl. 109.
51
StdtA H A 1550, Bl. 6; StdtA H A 2610, Bl. 62-62v; StdtA H A 2225, Bl. 1-1v.
52
e.g. StdtA H A 924, Bl. 1; StdtA H A 1961, Bl. 2-2v; StdtA H A 4166.
53
e.g. StdtA H A 1551, Bl. 4; StdtA H A 1461, Bl. 30-30v; StdtA H A 1660, StdtA H A 1464, Bl. 36-37v; StdtA
H A 1465, Bl. 1-4v; Bl. 10-11v; StdtA H A 1668, Bl. 1-2v, StdtA H A 1968, Bl. 1; StdtA H A 2044, Bl. 2-3v.
54
NORTH, Michael. Geldumlauf und Wirtschaftskonjunktur im südlichen Ostseeraum an der Wende zur Neuzeit
(1440-1470). Untersuchungen zur Wirtschaftsgeschichte am Beispiel des Großen Lübecker Münzschatzes, der
norddeutschen Münzfunde und der schriftlichen Überlieferung, Sigmaringen, Thorbecke, 1990. (=HOFFMANN
Peter u.a. (ed.). Kieler Historische Studien, vol. 35), p. 218.
55
LORENZEN-SCHMIDT, Klaus-Joachim. „Kaufmannskredite in nordwestdeuschten Städten im 15. und 16.
Jahrhundert“. IN NORTH, Michael (ed.). Kredit im spätenmittelalterlichen und frühneuzeitlichen Europa, Köln /
Wien, Böhlau, 1991, pp. 121-131. (=Hansischer Geschichtsverein (ed.). Quellen und Darstellungen zur
11
Who was involved in these financial transactions in times in which savings banks had
not yet existed? The analysis of the primary sources has shown that both members of the
nobility and other classes had a share in these transactions.56 Regarding the professions of the
persons involved the following can be stated: Among the debtors were traders and
merchants57, manual workers and craftsmen (e.g. master builder, carpenter, shoemaker,
goldsmith, pearl embroiderer apprentice, hat maker, tailor, baker, master brewer)58 as well as
workers of other professions (cart driver, coachman, farmer)59 and persons working in the
administration of the town or for the authorities (e.g. town writer and town caster, mayor,
town governor, chancellor, privy councillor)60. Other persons who got into debt were
clergymen61, persons working in the army as well of higher ranks, 62 and professions related to
churches (organist, verger)63.
The analysis of the professions of the creditors confirms that a large number of
persons among this group worked in the field of administration for the town as well as for the
Hansischen Geschichte, Neue Folge, vol. 37), p.127; GERTEIS Klaus. Die deutschen Städte in der Frühen
Neuzeit. Zur Vorgeschichte der „bürgerlichen Welt“, Darmstadt, Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1986, p.
126.
56
e.g. StdtA H A 1184, Bl. 1; StdtA H A 1948, Bl. 1; StdtA H A 2250, Bl. 4.
57
e.g. StdtA H A 1106, Bl. 2; StdtA H A 1958, Bl. 2; StdtA H A 1966, Bl.1-3v.
58
e.g. StdtA H A 1542, Bl. 3-4; StdtA H A 1461, Bl. 132; StdtA H A 1464, Bl. 39-39v; StdtA H A 1465, Bl. 59;
StdtA H A 1470, Bl. 2-3; StdtA H A 2023, Bl. 2v; StdtA H A 2029, Bl. 3-5v; StdtA H A 3196, Bl. o. Zähl. - o.
Zähl. v; StdtA H A 3755, Bl. 15; StdtA H A 3780, Bl. 1; StdtA H A 3817, Bl. 1.
59
e.g. StdtA H A 1461, Bl. 134; StdtA H A 1464, Bl. 32-33v, Bl. 39-39v.
60
e.g. StdtA H A 1461, Bl. 127; StdtA H A 1467, Bl. 11-12v; StdtA H A 1551, Bl. 4v; StdtA H A 1959, Bl. 2;
StdtA H A 1965, Bl.1-2; StdtA H A 2009, Bl. 2; StdtA H A 4631, Bl. 39.
61
e.g. StdtA H A 2221, Bl. 20; StdtA H A 2743, Bl. 2-6; StdtA H A 3755, Bl. 20.
62
e.g. StdtA H A 2614, Bl. 103; StdtA H A 2722, Bl. 1.
63
e.g. StdtA H A 1470, Bl. 2-3; StdtA H A 2221, Bl. 20.
12
authorities (local magistrate of the district of Coldingen, chamberlain of the town of Hanover,
secretary of the town of Hanover, chamberlain of the royal house)64 but also academics65 and
persons working in the army lent money (regimental commander, sergeant) 66. Other
professions (e.g. furrier, trader, scales master, baker and coppersmith)67 are rarely represented.
With regard to the gender of private persons involved in financial business the
examination has proved that not only men but also women borrowed and lent money or got
into debt: The primary sources name married68 and widowed69 debtors as well as single70,
married71 and widowed72 creditors. Generally, it can be stated, however, that men much more
often had a share in situations of indebtedness and credit businesses than women.
Not only private persons but also institutions were debtors (e.g. the town councils of of
Hanover and Bremen as well as some churches)73 or creditor (e.g. the town council of
Hanover and especially the churches, monasteries, convents and the poor box and orphanage
64
e.g. StdtA H A 1615, Bl. 262-263v; StdtA H A 1953, Bl. 3; StdtA H A 1968, Bl. 1; StdtA H A 2034, Bl. 1;
StdtA H A 3755, Bl. 15-15v.
65
e.g. StdtA H A 1461, Bl. 24, Bl. 37, Bl. 71; StdtA H A 1465, Bl. 73.
66
e.g. StdtA H A 1465, Bl. 67, StdtA H AAA 21, 1725/9, Bl. 1-1v, Bl. 14v.
67
e.g. StdtA H A 1106, Bl. 2; StdtA H A 1465, Bl. 67; StdtA H A 1958, Bl. 2; StdtA H A 2029, Bl. 3-5v; StdtA
H A 3591, Bl. 16v StdtA H Korr. d. Rates, Hans von Olffen der Jüngere, 1580 (3x), Bl. 1-1v.
68
e.g. StdtA H A 1461, Bl. 33; StdtA H A 1464, Bl. 10-11; StdtA H A 1465, Bl. 6, Bl. 15.
69
e.g. StdtA H A 1461, Bl. 94, Bl. 136; StdtA H A 1465, Bl. 48; StdtA H A 2026, Bl. 2; StdtA H A 3722, Bl. 1v.
70
e.g. StdtA H A 4011, Bl. 11; StdtA H A 2246, court proceedings against Falckenreich, Bl. 2; StdtA H A 4629,
Bl. 18.
71
e.g. StdtA H A 1461, Bl. 9-9v; StdtA H A 1947, B. 1-1v; StdtA H A 1954, Bl. 1-2v; StdtA H A 3755, Bl. 15.
72
e.g. StdtA H A 1460, Bl. 115, Bl. 124; StdtA H A 1468, Bl. 9; StdtA H B 8045, Bl. 221.
73
e.g. StdtA H A 1500, Bl. 3-3v; StdtA H A 1601, Bl. 2; StdtA H A 2611, Bl. 1; StdtA H A 2629, paper n° 6;
StdtA H A 2746, Bl. 45-46v; StdtA H A 3818, Bl. 2, Bl. 3v; StdtA H A 4629, Bl. 30.
13
in Hanover74) in cases of private indebtedness and thus took over functions which were
transferred to the savings banks later on.
The examination has shown that a large number of private persons and institutions
were involved in financial transactions. Most of them, however, were not in the position of
either creditor or debtor – a large number of persons were both creditor and debtor at the same
time. A connection between the persons involved did not only exist on the basis of the
financial relations between debtors and creditors: Money was borrowed or lent and agreed
payments were paid or refused in different constellations. In the analysed financial relations
the persons involved were family members and relatives,75 friends,76 tenant and landlord,77
neighbours,78 purchaser and seller,79 employee and employer,80 authorities and inhabitants of
the town,81 royal authorities and subject82 as well as the church and its creditors83: Everybody
who was regarded as credit-worthy, which means whom the community trusted84 and who
74
e.g. StdtA H A 2052, Bl. 2; StdtA H A 3769, Bl. 3, Bl. 1; StdtA H A 3890, Bl. 1.
75
e.g. StdtA H A 1464, Bl. 41; StdtA H A 1966, Bl. 2; StdtA H A 2026, Bl. 2; StdtA H A 3764, Bl. 1.
76
77
e.g. StdtA H A 1462, Bl. 14-14v; StdtA H A 1964, Bl. 2; StdtA H A 1465, Bl. 46, Bl. 79v.
78
e.g. StdtA H A 1465, Bl. 79v, Bl. 113-113v; StdtA H A 1954, Bl. 1v.
79
e.g. StdtA H A 1465, Bl. 15; StdtA H A 1603, Bl. 2; StdtA H A 1948, Bl. 1; StdtA H A 2949, vol. X.
80
e.g. StdtA H A 1461, Bl. 49; StdtA H A 1465, Bl. 115-116v; StdtA H A 1470, Bl. 28-29v
81
e.g. StdtA H A 1464, Bl. 47-48; StdtA H A 1601, Bl. 2; StdtA H A 1959, Bl. 2; StdtA H A 2756, Bl. 1-1v.
82
e.g. StdtA H A 2103, Bl. 1; StdtA H AAA 1725/9, Bl. 1-15v.
85
e.g. StdtA H A 3722, Bl. 1; StdtA H A 3735, Bl. 1-1v; StdtA H A 3765, Bl. 1-2; StdtA H A 3817, Bl. 1-1v.
84
MULDREW, Craig. „Zur Anthropologie des Kapitalismus. Kredit, Vertrauen, Tausch und die Geschichte des
Marktes in England 1500-1750“, Historische Anthropologie. Kultur, Gesellschaft, Alltag, n° 6, 1998, pp. 167199, p. 178.
14
could offer financial security or a guarantor to stand surety for him or her85, was involved in
these financial businesses. The system of personal loans was not restricted to the town of
Hanover86: Various relations between private persons in Hanover and other towns or villages
of Northern Germany e.g. Hamburg,87 Hildesheim88, Minden,89 Göttingen90, Bremen,91
Brunswick92, Wolfenbüttel93, Dören94, Rotzebüttel (Amt Herleßen)95, Wettbergen,96
Wetzen97, Verden98 and other villages99 can be detected. On the basis of the analysis of
numerous financial transactions which not only Hanoverians had a share in, I assume that
85
86
e.g. StdtA H A 1465, Bl. 18, Bl. 20, Bl. 21; StdtA H A 1961, Bl. 2-2v.
87
StdtA H A 1539, Bl. 1; StdtA H A 2226, Bl. 4; StdtA H A 2246, court proceedings against Dierking, Bl. 4.
88
89
e.g. StdtA H A 1601, Bl. 1; StdtA H A 2743, Bl. 2; StdtA H AAA 21, 15. Mai 1616, Bl. 1.
90
StdtA H B 8060, Bl. 17.
91
e.g. StdtA H A 2610, Bl. 73v; StdtA H A 2624, Bl. 11; StdtA H A 2629, paper n° 6.
92
e.g. StdtA H A 1603, Bl. 2; StdtA H A 1958, Bl. 2; StdtA H A 2626, vol. 14, Bl. 1.
93
e.g. StdtA H A 1106, Bl. 2; StdtA H A 2045, Bl. 3v; StdtA H A 2224, Bl. 10;.
94
e.g. StdtA H A 1464, Bl. 60-60v; StdtA H A 1465, Bl. 8-8v; StdtA H A 1950, Bl. 1.
95
96
97
StdtA H A 1465, Bl. 16-16v.
98
StdtA H A 1465, Bl. 21-22v.
99
e.g. StdtA H A 1585, Bl. 1; StdtA H A 1586, Bl. 1; StdtA H A 1956, Bl. 1-2v.
15
like in England100 these financial businesses took place in a complex network of indebtedness
which existed throughout Northern Germany and involved a great number of private persons.
This network of indebtedness thus consisted of private persons of both genders
working in different professions; the binding element between debtors and creditors most
often was not only the debt relation but a private and / or professional relationship. Despite
these personal connections, in many cases conflicts resulting from the financial business let to
legal proceedings between creditor and debtor101, creditor and guarantor102 or between the
heirs of the persons who had been involved in a case of indebtedness 103. This also happened
when the opponents were relatives. In Hanover these court cases were negotiated by the
mayor and council of the town104, by the royal low court105 or by the royal court106. The
reasons of the legal conflicts were various: In most cases debtors107 or their heirs108 were not
able to pay back the debts or the debtor died before he had repaid the money109. Moreover, in
some cases private persons denied the existence of debts110 or only admitted parts of them111,
100
Marktes in England 1500-1750“, Historische Anthropologie. Kultur, Gesellschaft, Alltag, n° 6, 1998, pp. 167199, p. 182-184.
101
e.g. StdtA H A 1465, Bl. 21-22v; StdtA H A 1467, Bl. 2; StdtA H A 1470, Bl. 88; StdtA H A 3911, Bl. 22.
102
e.g. StdtA H A 1461, Bl. 26; StdtA H A 1464, Bl. 32-33v; StdtA H A 1468, Bl. 3v.
103
e.g. StdtA H A 1465, Bl. 64; StdtA H A 1660, Bl. 10-11v; StdtA H A 1673, Bl. 7, Bl. 24.
104
e.g. StdtA H A 1654, Bl. 1-7; StdtA H A 1660, Bl. 10-11v; StdtA H A 1668, Bl. 1-2v.
105
e.g. StdtA H A 1461, Bl. 30-30v; StdtA H A 1464, Bl. 36-37v; StdtA H A 1465, Bl. 1-4v.
106
107
e.g. StdtA H A 1651, Bl. 1-3v; StdtA H A 2614, Bl. 103, StdtA H Korr. d. Rates, Hans Brockmann, 1595, Bl.
1-4v.
108
e.g. StdtA H A 1465, Bl. 1-4v; StdtA H A 2250, Bl. 4-6; StdtA H A 4631, Bl. 30.
109
e.g. StdtA H A 1969, Bl. 1; StdtA H A 2044, Bl. 2; StdtA H A 2722, Bl. 1; StdtA H A 4631, Bl. 30.
110
e.g. StdtA H A 1465, Bl. 13, Bl. 62; StdtA H A 2246, court proceedings against Falckenreich, Bl. 3.
16
while in others the financial security was the reason for the dispute. 112 There were also cases
in which the debtor refused to pay, although a request for payment had already been
addressed to him or her by court113 or the debtor declared that the debts were not his or
hers114. In some court proceedings the creditor was not able to present written proofs 115, or the
debtor ignored enquiries concerning the amount of money he had borrowed116. In other cases
even the identity of the debtor was unclear117 or the wrong person was accused118.
Furthermore, the primary sources also give evidence about cases in which the debtor tried to
prevent a compulsory auction with illegal actions119 or in which the money received from
selling the house was not enough to discharge the debts120. Arguments for the inability to pay
back debts in the court proceedings were often personal reasons (e.g. illness, widowhood)121,
the bad financial situation (reference to other debts or the assertion that the debts were
inherited)122 as well as the general reference to hard times123 and war124. In some cases
111
e.g. StdtA H A 1465, Bl. 48; StdtA H A 1950, Bl. 2v; StdtA H A 2629, paper n° 5.
112
e.g. StdtA H A 1565, Bl. 2-3v; StdtA H Korr. d. Rates, Hans Brockmann, 1595, Bl. 1-4v; StdtA H A 3769,
Bl. 1v.
113
e.g. StdtA H A 1415m Bl. 1-3; StdtA H A 1461, Bl. 108; StdtA H A 1465, Bl. 60v, Bl. 61v.
114
StdtA H A 1464, Bl. 45-46v.
115
e.g. StdtA H A 1106, Bl. 2-2v; StdtA H A 1461, Bl. 115-115v; StdtA H A 1469, Bl. 30; StdtA H A 4628, Bl.
5-7v.
116
e.g. StdtA H A 1630, Bl. 1; StdtA H A 1465, Bl. 27, Bl. 29; StdtA H A 2754, Bl. 29-29v.
117
118
119
StdtA H A 3764, Bl. 2-3; StdtA H A Korr. d. Rates, Hans Brockmann, 1595 (2x), Bl. 1-4v.
120
e.g. StdtA H A 1465, Bl. 3-3v; StdtA H A 1978, Bl. 1; StdtA H A 3769, Bl. 1-2.
121
e.g. StdtA H A 2751, Bl. 9v; StdtA H A 3722, Bl. 1-1v; StdtA H A 3757, Bl. 5v.
122
e.g. StdtA H A 1466, Bl. 40; StdtA H A 2751, Bl. 9v.
123
e.g. StdtA H A 4631, Bl. 30; StdtA H A 4075, Bl. 24-25 StdtA H A 4077, Bl. 19v; StdtA H A 4623, Bl. 8v.
17
widows declared that they had inherited nothing from their husbands and thus also no
debts.125 Moreover, private persons involved in court proceedings quoted legal regulations126
or reproached the opponents for procedural mistakes127. It was, however, not always the
creditor who did not get his or her rights: In some cases the debtor summoned his or her
creditors by public appeal with the intention to discharge the debts, but the latter did not
appear to assert their claims.128
Disputes resulting from cases of indebtedness were also carried out outside court
proceedings. In 1611 an argument even let to a violent incidence: A widow who felt that the
debt claims against her were unjustified not only swore at the messenger but also set the dogs
onto him, which bit his leg.129 In general, personal indebtedness in the early modern period
caused a lot of conflicts and court proceedings, which, in my opinion, resulted from a missing
central administration and the problem that probably most often financial agreements were
not put on paper130. For the debtor these conflicts could result in a compulsory auction of his
or her belongings131 as well as the danger to be expelled from town132. However, also cases in
124
e.g. StdtA H A 1582, Bl. 1; StdtA H A 2224, Bl. 12, Bl. 15.
125
e.g. StdtA H A 1461, Bl. 102-103; StdtA H A 1464, Bl. 2; StdtA H A 1465, Bl. 1-4v; StdtA H A 4623, Bl. 8v.
126
127
e.g. StdtA H A 1603, Bl. 2; StdtA H A 1628, Bl. 2;StdtA H A 4616, Bl. 19v.
128
StdtA H A 4075, Bl. 29; StdtA H AAA 21, 1725/9, Bl. 1.
129
StdtA H A 4616, Bl. 19-12v.
130
Marktes in England 1500-1750“, Historische Anthropologie. Kultur, Gesellschaft, Alltag, n° 6, 1998, pp. 167199, p. 182.
131
e.g. StdtA H A 2220, Bl. 3; StdtA H A 2226, Bl. 1-20v; StdtA H A 2232, Bl. 1-24.
132
e.g. StdtA H A 1464, Bl. 23-24v; StdtA H A 1469, Bl. 19; StdtA H Korr. d. Rates, Jacob Lange, 1598 (2x),
Bl. 2v.
18
which the creditor and debtor reached an amicable settlement can be found in the primary
sources.133
Private indebtedness and the conflicts resulting from it thus belonged to every-day life
in the early modern period. How did the authority react on this problem? Generally,
indebtedness was not necessarily regarded as negative – it was even actively supported by the
authorities e.g. in times of crop failures or livestock diseases134, if the impoverishment of the
population could not be prevented by other means. In order to standardise the business with
private loans and prevent conflicts, numerous regulations were enacted: For the period
between 1500 and 1800 various regulations enacted by the sovereign of the town or region,
the Imperial Diet (Reichstag) and the Provincial Diet (Landtag). These regulations contained
rules and restrictions concerning
the financial business as such (interest rates, ban on
usurious contracts, credits in general, repayment, surety etc.)135 and concerning the
133
134
e.g. StdtA H A 1461, Bl. 125; StdtA H A 1465, Bl. 86-86v; StdtA H A 1470, Bl. 2-3v.
e.g. StdtA H A 571, Bl. 2-8v; StdtA H B 8093, pp. 255-257; Neue und vollständige Sammlung der
Reichs=Abschiede, welche von den Zeiten Kayser Conrads des II. bis jetzo auf den Teutschen Reichs=Tagen
abgefasset worden, sammt den wichtigsten Reichs=Schlüssen, so auf dem noch fürwährenden Reichs=Tage zur
Richtigkeit gekommen sind. In vier Theilen, vol. 3, Neudruck der Ausgabe 1747, Osnabrück 1967, pp. 672-673.
134
e.g. StdtA H B 8091, Bl. 670-670v; StdtA H A 4391, Bl. 4; FREDERSDORFF, Leopold Friedrich.
Promtuarium der Fürstlichen Braunschweig-Wolfenbüttelschen Landes-Verordnungen in einem wesentlichen
Auszuge, vol. 1, Braunschweig 1777, p. 185.
135
e.g. StdtA H A 2996; Neue und vollständige Sammlung der Reichs=Abschiede, welche von den Zeiten Kayser
Conrads des II. bis jetzo auf den Teutschen Reichs=Tagen abgefasset worden, sammt den wichtigsten
Reichs=Schlüssen, so auf dem noch fürwährenden Reichs=Tage zur Richtigkeit gekommen sind. In vier Theilen,
vol. 1, Neudruck der Ausgabe 1747, Osnabrück 1967, p. 94; Neue und vollständige Sammlung der
Richtigkeit gekommen sind. In vier Theilen, vol. 2, Neudruck der Ausgabe 1747, Osnabrück 1967, p. 341-342.
19
administration and authoritarian measures (regulations for court proceedings, how to deal
with debtors who are on the run etc.)136. Moreover, the regulations also specified rules for
indebtedness in times of crisis (crop failures, livestock diseases, war etc.)137 as well as rights
and responsibilities of certain groups and institutions (Jews, church, farmers, members of the
Academy of Wolfenbüttel, persons working for the armed forces, students, minors etc.)138.
Apart from that, a number of regulations were related to those areas of the law which were
connected to the law of contract (family law, law of inheritance, wage law as well as market
law etc.)139. Regulations enacted in the eighteenth century specified rights and responsibilities
of institutions which borrowed money (pawnshops, knights credit company etc.) 140. On the
one hand, the aim of these regulations was to maintain the ability to pay of the persons
136
e.g. StdtA H A 2048, Bl. 1; StdtA H B 8034, p. 324-325; EBHARDT, Christian Hermann (ed.). Sammlung
der Verordnungen für das Königreich Hannover aus der Zeit vor dem Jahre 1813, vol. 1 part. 1, Hannover 1854,
pp. 210-212.
137
e.g. StdtA H A 571, Bl. 2-8v; StdtA H B 8093, pp. 255-257; Neue und vollständige Sammlung der
Richtigkeit gekommen sind. In vier Theilen, vol. 3, Neudruck der Ausgabe 1747, Osnabrück 1967, pp. 672-673.
138
e.g. StdtA H B 8091, Bl. 670-670v; StdtA H A 4391, Bl. 4; FREDERSDORFF, Leopold Friedrich.
Promtuarium der Fürstlichen Braunschweig-Wolfenbüttelschen Landes-Verordnungen in einem wesentlichen
Auszuge, vol. 1, Braunschweig 1777, p. 185.
139
e.g. StdtA H A 571, Bl. 2-2v; StdtA H A 2994, Bl. 1-22; StdtA H B 8093, Bl. 277-279.
140
e.g. SPANGENBERG, Ernst Spangenberg (ed.). Sammlung der Verordnungen und Ausschreiben welche für
sämmtliche Provinzen des hannoverschen Staats jedoch was den Calenbergischen, Lüneburgischen, und
Bremen= und Verdenschen Theil betrifft, seit dem Schlusse der in denselben vorhandenen Gesetzsammlungen
bis zur Zeit der feindlichen Usurpation ergangen sind, vol. 3, Hannover 1821, p. 321, p. 81.
20
involved141 and prevent conflicts which happened e.g. when the debtor was on the run142 or
the repayment was delayed due to inflation143. On the other hand, however, the regulations
were used by the authorities to push through political interests e.g. the ban on mortgages for
Jews so that they were not able to purchase residences in the town 144. The great number of
regulations and the fact that certain aspects have been published again and again verifies the
immense importance of the private loan system in the early modern period. Although these
regulations are of importance for research, they should not be overvalued: A closer analysis of
the records has shown that they were mainly understood as guidelines which should be ideally
met and therefore they often did not match with reality.
The analysis of the Hanoverian primary sources gives evidence that the content of
specific regulations was not only known among the inhabitants of Hanover, but also cited as
arguments in disputes about money: In 1657, for example, the Hanoverian citizen Hans
141
FREDERSDORFF, Leopold Friedrich (ed.). Promtuarium der Fürstlichen Braunschweig-Wolfenbüttelschen
Landes-Verordnungen in einem wesentlichen Auszuge, vol. 2, Braunschweig 1777, p. 558; EBHARDT, Christian
Hermann (ed.). Sammlung der Verordnungen für das Königreich Hannover aus der Zeit vor dem Jahre 1813,
vol. 1 part 1, Hannover 1854, p. 262-263.
142
StdtA H A 2228, Bl. 1; Neue und vollständige Sammlung der Reichs=Abschiede, welche von den Zeiten
Kayser Conrads des II. bis jetzo auf den Teutschen Reichs=Tagen abgefasset worden, sammt den wichtigsten
Reichs=Schlüssen, so auf dem noch fürwährenden Reichs=Tage zur Richtigkeit gekommen sind. In vier Theilen,
vol. 4, Neudruck der Ausgabe 1747, Osnabrück 1967, p. 78-79; PACHNER VON EGGENSTORFF Johann
Joseph (ed.). Vollständige Sammlung aller von Anfang des noch führwährenden Teutschen Reichs-Tags de anno
1663 biss anhero abgefaßten Reichs-Schlüsse, vol. 1, 1663 bis 1675, Hildesheim / Zürich / New York 1996.
(=Bernhard Fabian u.a., Historia Scientiarum, Fachgebiet Geschichte und Politik), p. 313.
143
StdtA H A 571, Bl. 2-2v; StdtA H A 3893, Bl. 34; FREDERSDORFF, Leopold Friedrich (ed.). Promtuarium
der Fürstlichen Braunschweig-Wolfenbüttelschen Landes-Verordnungen in einem wesentlichen Auszuge, vol. 2,
Braunschweig 1777, p. 261-262.
144
StdtA H AAA 21, 1731/7, Bl. 1.
21
Schaper argued with reference to his difficult situation as an orphan that according to the
“Reichstagsabschied of Regensburg” [a law enacted by the Imperial Diet] from 1654 he was
entitled to a moratorium of this payments.145 In addition to this claim, he also asked for more
moderate conditions to repay the interest.146 The creditor Johann Witte from Celle argued
with reference to a regulation from 1617: Witte said that he was not willing to accept a
further deadline, because the debtor had confessed her debts and already promised to pay
several times; according to the regulations enacted by the royal court in 1617, he argued, he
was now entitled to receive the secutity.147 Regulations decided by the town council were also
used as arguments in cases of indebtedness: In 1704, a debtor who owed the church St. Crucis
money sold a part of his house, which served as a security, to one of his neighbours.148
Resulting from this purchase, the value of the house decreased so that the creditors feared
they would not get back the whole amount of the loan. In the following dispute, the church St.
Crucis argues towards the mayor and town council of Hanover that the debtor did not act
according to the regulations enacted by the town council.149
By publishing these regulations, the authorities tried to standardise the procedures of
indebtedness – however, these regulations often had its limits especially in cases in which
authorities themselves were involved: As numerous record listing the assets and liabilities of
the town of Hanover show, the administrative procedures were complicated: On the one hand,
the financial situation of the town of Hanover itself was so difficult, that e.g. in 1646 the
treasurer of the town threatened the council to resign from his post.150 Again and again the
145
146
Ibid, Bl. 4.
147
148
StdtA H A 2249, court proceedings against Wedekind, Bl. 1-29v.
149
StdtA H A 3764, Bl. 2-3.
150
StdtA H A 2642, Bl. 4-5.
22
financial policy of the town was criticised.151 On the other hand, it was generally difficult for
town and church authorities to keep to deadlines in procedures which they were involved in
themselves as debtors or creditors as well as to check whether debtors had transferred the
payments in time in order to send out reminders or to claim the payments at court. The
analysis of the documents gives evidence that these difficulties mainly resulted from logistical
problems e.g. the organisation of the lists on the basis of certain criteria as the places of
living, names or dates of payment of the debtors152: With regard to the expected payments it
was useful to structure the records according to the dates of payments. On the other hand,
however, due to this structure in many cases the overview of the total amount of the expected
payments of the different debtors and creditors was missing. As a consequence of the missing
overview, many debtors were heavily in debt: In some cases the amount of debts was higher
than the property so that in case of bankruptcy the debts could not be covered.153
The analysis of a selection of primary sources from the town of Hildesheim shows that
the documents and records which list assets and liabilities in Hildesheim are not only more
clearly laid out than in Hanover154 but the town of Hildesheim also tried to prevent private
persons from being heavily in debt by issuing so-called Ratspfandbriefe [a special credit
instrument]. That means that a private person who got a loan from a citizen of Hildesheim or
a stranger was obliged to report this financial business to the town council and lay open all
other existing debts. This information was registered in the Ratspfandbrief so that the creditor
not only had a proof for the money borrowed but also a list of other creditors whom the debtor
151
StdtA H A 2621, Bl. 1-5, Bl. 17-20.
152
e.g. ; StdtA H A 1757; StdtA H A 2749; StdtA H B 7764; StdtA H B 8043; StdtA H B 8046; StdtA H B
8060; StdtA H B 8075; StdtA H B 8081; StdtA H B 8242; StdtA H B 16613.
153
e.g. StdtA H A 1465, Bl. 3-3v; StdtA H A 1978, Bl. 1; StdtA H A 3769, Bl. 1-2.
154
e.g. StdtA Hild., Best. 50, n° 1756, n° 2789; StdtA Hild., Best. 100 – 113, vol. 163, n° 98.
23
owed money.
155
Thus, the town council of Hildesheim intended to keep a central
administration of debts. As the numerous Ratspfandbriefe give evidence, this central
administration worked out in most cases of indebtedness.156 Despite that a number of
individuals again and again tried to circumvent this standardisation by the town council.157
Therefore, Hildesheim is an early example of a town which not only listed assets and
liabilities but intended to register all credit businesses of its citizens centrally. In Hanover a
mortgage record, which included not only credit businesses but also the mortgages of all
houses, was only kept from 1700 onwards in order to prevent heavy debts on houses.158
155
StdtA Hild., Best. 100 – 173, n° 111, Bl. 2.
156
StdtA Hild., Best. 51, n° 51; StdtA Hild., Best. 100 – 129, n° 3-6, n° 9, StdtA Hild., Best. 100 – 171, n°1, n°
5, n° 12, StdtA Hild., Best. 100 – 204, n° 19.
157
StdtA Hild., Best. 100 – 173, n° 111, Bl. 1v.
158
StdtA H B 8045.
24
The Importance of the Early Modern System of Personal Loans for the Foundations of
Savings Banks
As a summary, the following can be stated: In contrast to the results of secondary literature so
far, this paper has shown that a system of personal loans, which not only private persons but
also institutions like administrative bodies and churches were involved in, did exist in the
early modern period already. Therefore, not only members of the upper-class but also of the
middle- and working-class had the opportunity to get loans if they faced difficult situations in
which they needed to borrow money. This possibility was vital for many people in early
modern society: In a society, in which human rights159 and social security systems160, health
insurance or an insurance against the inability to work did not exist and individuals were not
entitled to social welfare such as unemployment benefit and income support, the basis of
one´s livelihood was continuously threatened: Despite the existing poor welfare, 161 the
majority of the early modern population lived in a continuous financial insecurity as e.g.
159
VAN DÜLMEN, Richard. Der ehrlose Mensch. Unehrlichkeit und soziale Ausgrenzung in der Frühen
Neuzeit, Köln / Weimar / Wien, Böhlau, 1999, p. 97.
160
SCHARENBERG, Klaus, Winsen 1619-1826. Die Münzen und die Jahre der Not, mit Beiträgen zu den
Münzen aus Harburg und Moisburg, Winsen (Luhe), Heimat- und Museumsverein Winsen (Luhe) und
Umgebung, 2000. (=Heimat- und Museumverein Winsen (Luhe) und Umgebung (ed.). Winsener Schriften, vol.
8), p. 44.
161
FISCHER, Fischer. „Armut, Bettler, Almosen. Die Anfänge städtischer Sozialfürsorge im ausgehenden
Mittelalter“. IN MECKSEPER, Cord (ed.). Stadt im Wandel. Kunst und Kultur des Bürgertums in
Nordwestdeutschland. 1150-1650, Stuttgart / Bad Cannstadt, Kohlhammer, 1985, vol. 4, pp. 271-286, p. 279;
BRIETZKE, Dirk. Arbeitsdisziplin und Armut in der Frühen Neuzeit. Die Zucht- und Arbeitshäuser in den
Hansestädten Bremen, Hamburg und Lübeck und die Durchsetzung bürgerlicher Arbeitsmoral im 17. und 18.
Jahrhundert, Phil. Diss. Hamburg, Verein für Hamburgische Geschichte, 2000. (=Verein für Hamburgische
Geschichte (ed.). Beiträge zur Geschichte Hamburgs, vol. 59), p. 46; JETTER, Dieter. Grundzüge der
Hospitalgeschichte, Darmstadt, Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1973. (=Grundzüge, vol. 22), p. 35.
25
natural disasters, political decisions such as wars and tax increase and the increase of
population often led to worse living conditions and greater poverty. 162 Therefore, in my
opinion, the existing system of personal loans was a social phenomenon which for many
people in the early modern period offered the only opportunity to survive periods of financial
crisis.
What does this analysis mean with regard to the foundations of savings banks? Current
historical research interprets the foundations of savings banks as a completely new
development which offered new opportunities for the population. The examination of the
early modern system of personal loans, however, has shown that this thesis is not valid:
Getting loans or borrowing money in other forms were financial businesses which many
people were involved in: In the early modern society credit businesses of different kinds were
nothing new or unusual and the system of personal loans was part of every-day life for
women as well as men. In my opinion, the system of personal loans was important and
necessary for the preservation of the early modern socio-economic system. The thesis
described at the beginning of this paper that only members of the upper-class were able to get
credits is proved wrong as well. The analysis of the professions carried out by the persons
involved in financial businesses has shown that not only members of the upper-class but also
of the middle- and working-class benefited from the system of personal loans. Moreover, a
special case in the town of Hanover can be analysed. In 1682 the town council of Hanover
even lent money without interest requests to a widow who did not have any property and
wanted to buy a house. The council guaranteed its securities in a different way: It reserved the
162
SIEVERS, Kai Detlev / ZIMMERMANN, Harm-Peer. Das disziplinierte Elend. Zur Geschichte der sozialen
Fürsorge in schleswig-holsteinischen Städten 1542-1941, Neumünster, Wachholtz, 1994. (=Seminar für
Volkskunde der Christian-Albrechts-Universität Kiel (ed.). Studien zur Volkskunde und Kulturgeschichte
Schleswig-Holsteins, vol. 30), p. 17.
26
right to confiscate the house which was bought with the borrowed money in cases it is
needed.163 With this arrangement both parties guaranteed their interests: The debtor had a
place to live in and the creditor had the right to confiscate the house as a security.
With regard to the analysis of the foundations of savings banks in the late eighteenth
century, the following aspects have to be taken into consideration: The foundations of savings
banks did not generally mark a watershed in the development of private financial businesses
in so far as they were not the starting point for new opportunities for the members of the
middle- and working-class – the structures were already there. These structures have most
probably contributed to the fact that the savings banks as new institutions were soon accepted:
If the majority of the population had never had the opportunity before to borrow money and
invest capital in credit businesses on the basis of certain regulations, the acceptance of the
new institutions would probably have taken longer. The early modern system of personal
loans had therefore shaped an attitude in society which contributed to the acceptance of
borrowing, lending and saving money as these businesses were not unusual but had been
practised already before. In my opinion, also the situation to live with debts was a usual
phenomenon in the early modern period. The early modern system of personal loans can
therefore be regarded as the structural basis for the foundations of savings banks.
With regard to the administrative procedures, however, the foundations of savings
banks, in my opinion, were of great importance, because financial businesses were now
carried out and regulated by a central institution: As already presented, the organisation of
these businesses was difficult as very many persons were involved in the network of
indebtedness and the administration of such procedures was carried out by different
institutions, if at all. In contrast to that, the newly-established savings banks served as a
central institution which offered different services for private persons e.g. the opportunity to
163
StdtA H A 2745, Bl. 47.
27
open savings deposits164 but also to get credits for important expenditures such as the dowry
of the daughter, the paying out of the second farmer´s son, the enlargement of workshops or
houses as well as credits in times of financial difficulties e.g. caused by crop failures. 165 Thus,
conflicts caused by private financial businesses as described earlier could be prevented. In my
opinion, the new system was more transparent for the persons involved than the early modern
network of personal loans.
To sum up, it can be stated that the foundations of savings banks in the late eighteenth
century can only in so far be interpreted as a novelty as savings banks served as the first
central institutions for personal loans. Therefore, the thesis is proved that before the existence
of savings banks other institutions had already carried out the functions of savings banks as
e.g. WUNDER166 and GÖMMEL167 have emphasised. However, in my opinion, also this
thesis is only valid with limits: Not the institutions of the system of personal loans had carried
out over functions of savings banks in times when the latter had not existed yet, but vice
164
TRENDE, Adolf. Geschichte der Deutschen Sparkassen bis zum Anfang des 20. Jahrhunderts. Vollständiger
Nachdruck der Originalausgabe von 1957 mit einer Einführung von Josef Wysocki, Stuttgart, Deutscher
Sparkassen-Verlag, 1993, pp. 1-10. (=Gesellschaft zur Förderung der wissenschaftlichen Forschung über das
Spar- und Girowesen e.V. (ed.). Sparkassen in der Geschichte, Abteilung 2: Reprint, n° 3), p. 21.
165
DIETEL, Günther. 125 Jahre vor Ort. Sparkasse Scheessel 1876-2001, Roteburg (Wümme), Sparkasse
Scheessel, 2001, p. 15.
166
167
GÖMMEL, Rainer. Merkantilistische und kommunale Sozialpolitik (vom 17. Jahrhundert bis zur
Bismarckzeit). IN POHL, Hans (ed.). Staatliche, städtische, betriebliche und kirchliche Sozialpolitik vom
Mittelalter bis zur Gegenwart. Referate der 13. Arbeitstagung der Gesellschaft für Sozial- und
Wirtschaftsgeschichte vom 28. März bis 1. April 1989 in Heidelberg, Stuttgart, Franz Steiner, 1991, pp. 89-109.
(=Vierteljahresschrift für Sozial- und Wirtschaftsgeschichte, Beiheft n° 95), p. 95.
28
versa: After their foundations, the savings banks took over important functions which before
had been carried out by private persons and various institutions. Therefore, savings banks
continued an economic aspect of the early modern economic system on a new level – a level,
which can be valued as progress with regard to the administrative procedure and the new
possibility to borrow and lend money to safe and constant conditions. On the other hand, the
new system never completely replaced the purely private personal loan system, despite its
new transparency and improved administrative procedures.
29
References:
Primary:
Stadtarchiv Hannover (Archives of the Town of Hanover)
Akten: (Records)
StdtA H A 571, Verfahren bei Konkursen, 1597-1712.
StdtA H A 924, Franz Beckmanns Klage an den Rat wegen Vertragsbruch, 1558.
StdtA H A 1106, Hans von Sprengel in Wolfenbüttel an Herzog Franz zu Sachsen-Lüneburg
wegen Schuldforderung gegen Heinrich von Sode, 1582.
StdtA H A 1184, Michael Meyenburg, Amtmann zu Schkeuditz, bittet den Rat um Befragung
des gefangenen Juden Mosche über den Verbleib von Pfändern, 1576.
StdtA H A 1415, Prozeß des Matthias Ernst Ebeling gegen den Regimentsfeldscher Wilhelm
Merker wegen Forderung, 1679.
StdtA H A 1460, Richtscheine des Untergerichtes zu Hannover, 1597-1599.
StdtA H A 1461, Richtscheine des Untergerichtes zu Hannover, 1605- 1619.
StdtA H A 1462, Richtscheines des Untergerichtes zu Hannover, 1631, 1651.
StdtA H A 1464, Richtscheine des Untergerichtes zu Hannover, 1557, 1588, 1594-1596.
StdtA H A 1465, Richtscheines des Untergerichtes zu Hannover, 1603.
StdtA H A 1466, Richtscheine des Untergerichtes zu Hannover, 1601.
StdtA H A 1468, Richtscheines des Untergerichtes zu Hannover, 1600.
StdtA H A 1500, Sebastian Heuer, Prediger zu Wolfenbüttel, gegen Stadt Hannover wegen
rückständiger Zinsen, 1630.
StdtA H A 1539 Hans Volger gegen Peter Schmale wegen Geldforderung, 1658.
StdtA H A 1540, Witwe Kannischer gegen Hans Schaper wegen 200 Taler, 1657.
StdtA H A 1542, Daniel Ludwig Helmholtz gegen Hilmar Zindel und seine Ehefrau Anna
geb. Spinnbecker wegen Geldforderung, 1657.
30
StdtA H A 1550, Konkursverhandlung über den Nachlass des verstorbenen Hans Stüver,
1671.
StdtA H A 1551, Andreas Kraus, Hofrichter zu Pattensen, an den Rat zu Hannover wegen
Klage der Witwe des Jürgen von Anderten gegen Hans Kruckenberg zu Eldagsen
wegen Forderung, 1569.
StdtA H A 1565, Tilcke Nolte, Bürger zu Hannover, reicht Klage gegen den Bürger Arndt
Duve Klage beim Hofgericht wegen einer Pfandsache ein, 1571.
StdtA H A 1579, Öffentlicher Gläubigeraufruf in Konkurssachen des Christoph Neddermeier,
Wettbergen, 1650.
StdtA H A 1582, Öffentlicher Gläubigeraufruf in Konkurssachen des Knochenhaueramtes zu
Hildesheim, 1648.
StdtA H A 1585, Öffentliche Gläubigerladung in der Konkurssache v. Bennnigsen zu
Banteln, 1648.
StdtA H A 1586, Öffentliche Gläubigerladung in Konkurssachen des Tile Bartram und
Heinrich Tönnies in Ahrbergen, 1590.
StdtA H A 1601, Hennings Kinder zu Minden gegen Erben des verstorbenen Dr. Hoyer zu
Hannover wegen Geldforderung, 1677.
StdtA H A 1603, Joachim Bödeker gegen Jacob Michael wegen acht Tonnen Broyhan, 1594.
StdtA H A 1615, Jobst Vilter gegen Johann Kakell wegen Schulden, 1605.
StdtA H A 1628, Kämmerer Johann Witte zu Celle gegen Anna Bartels, Witwe des Ludolf
Poppelbaum, wegen Schulden, 1668-1669.
StdtA H A 1630, Konrad Winterstein gegen Heinrich Alers wegen 50 Reichstaler Kapitalrest,
1666.
StdtA H A 1636, Kirche zu Wilkenburg gegen Anton Vorpagen, Bürger zu Hannover, wegen
Forderung, 1668.
StdtA H A 1651, Levin und Curdt von Windheim gegen die städtischen Kämmerer wegen
Forderung, 1666.
StdtA H A 1654, Hans Wulfhagen jun. gegen Hans Behre wegen rückständiger Zinsen, 1667.
StdtA H A 1660, Anton Theodor Wedekind wegen Magister Georg Erysthopels Kinder
wegen Forderung, 1671.
StdtA H A 1668, Erich von Windheim gegen Schwertfegermeister Jürgen Kellner wegen
Restforderung, 1665.
StdtA H A 1673, Einzelblätter aus Prozessen, 1654-1674.
31
StdtA H A 1687, Martkirche gegen Dietrich von Anderten wegen einer Obligation über 400
Goldgulden, 1628-1638.
StdtA H A 1720, Darlehens- und Mietvertrag zwischen Berend Hoffmeyer und Hermann
Jacobs, 1657.
StdtA H A 1757, Quittungen über an St. Nicolai zurückgezahlte Obligationen, (1701) 17291772.
StdtA H A 1947, Schuldurkunde des Heinrich Schmiedes, Bürger und Brauer zu Hannover,
über 50 Taler gegen Frau Catharina Rust, geb. Barteldes 1666.
StdtA H A 1948, Schuldurkunde des Anton Meyer zu Hannover über 200 Taler gegen Otto
Otten. Gogrefe zu Hallerburg. (Abschrift), 1639.
StdtA H A 1950, Schuldurkunde des Lüder Feise zu Döhren über 13 Gulden gegen Heinrich
Voß (Fosse), Bürger zu Hannover, 1592.
StdtA H A 1953, Schuldurkunde des Barthold v. Rutenberg zu Rethmar über 1000 Reichstaler
gegen die Kämmerer der Stadt Hannover. (Abschrift), 1599.
StdtA H A 1954, Schuldurkunde Sander Gretermanns über 100 Gulden gegen seine Frau
Matte, Jörg Wolders Witwe, und deren Erben, 1587.
StdtA H A 1956, Schulurkunde Kurt v. Sodes, Jakobs Sohn, über 100 Gulden, die sein
verstorbener Bruder von Helmhold Kote, Kircherr zu Limmer, geliehen hat.
(Abschrift), 1538.
StdtA H A 1958, Schuldurkunde des Hans Gante, Bürger und Kürschner zu Hannover, über
127 1/2 Taler gegen Hans Pralle in Braunschweig, 1590.
StdtA H A 1959, Schuldurkunde des lüneburgischen Kanzlers Balthasar Klammer über 80
rheinische Goldgulden gegen die Stadt Hannover, 1551.
StdtA H A 1961, Schuldurkunde des Johann Duve zu Hannover über 93 Gulden gegen
Albrecht Melbohm und Kurt Henke zu Behuf der Gläubiger des Albrecht Grobe, 1583.
StdtA H A 1963, Schuldurkunde des Harmen Kortfleisch, Riedemeister und Bürger zu
Hannover, über 100 Gulden, gegen seinen Schwager Heinrich Gruben, 1577.
StdtA H A 1964, Urteil des fürstlichen Gerichts zu Hannover, daß Wulbrandt Remmers dem
Conrad Wiedenborg in Vollmacht des Joachim Meyer 15 Taler Hausmiete schuldig
ist, 1631.
StdtA H A 1965, Schuldurkunde des Thomas Lampe über 200 Gulden gegen den Juden
Phebus zu Hannover, 1583.
StdtA H A 1966, Schuldurkunde des Brand Rösenhagen, Bürger und Kaufmann zu Hannover,
über 400 Reichstaler gegen die genannten Vormünder der Kinder des verstorbenen
Conrad Block weil. Amtmann zu Coldingen (Abschrift), 1661.
32
StdtA H A 1968, Öffentliche Citation der Gläubiger des verstorbenen Engelke Scholle durch
den Rat zu Hannover vor die genannten Kommissare des Hofgerichts nach Pattensen,
1589.
StdtA H A 1969, Öffentliche Citation der Gläubiger und Bürgen des verstorbenen Jasper
Spissing und Kurt Hake auf das Rathaus zwecks Schuldenregulierung, 1589.
StdtA H A 1978, Citation der Gläubiger des verstorbenen Georg Kepper wegen der
Kaufgelder des Hauses, das Christoph Hansemann von dem verstorbenen David Grupe
gekauft hat, 1629.
StdtA H A 1979, Citation der Gläubiger des verstorbenen hannoverschen Bürgers Heineke
Kuke wegen Schulden, 1621.
StdtA H A 2006, Schuldurkunde des Arnd Rosenhagen, Bürger zu Hannover, der für Herzog
Friedrich Ulrich zu Braunschweig-Lüneburg 10.000 Taler von den Juden Abraham
Levy Münzenberg, dem kleinen Abraham und Muschen, alle wohnhaft auf der
Neustadt Hannover geliehen hat, (Original und Abschrift), 1621.
StdtA H A 2009, Schuldurkunde des hannoverschen Bürgers Nikolaus Freitag gegen Frau
Ilse, Witwe des verstorbenen Ern Nikolaus Wessel über 40 Taler, 1558.
StdtA H A 2012, Urkunde des hannoverschen Bürgers Hans Koch und seiner Frau Cäcilia
Eggeling über den schuldig gebliebenen Preis für 15 Malter Gerstenmalz und 5 Malter
Weizenmalz, (Abschrift), 1609.
StdtA H A 2014, Schuldurkunde des Hans Roterberg gegen seinen Schwager Hans Meienberg
über 15 Gulden als Kaufpreis für einen halben Morgen Land vor Münder, 1563.
StdtA H A 2023, Schuldurkunde des Andreas Hennings, Christophs Sohn, zu Niedenstein,
Amt Gudenberg, gegen den hannoverschen Bürger Georg Junge über 80 Taler,
(Abschrift), 1609.
StdtA H A 2024, Schuld des Dietrich von Heimburg gegen Lüdeke Bösenberg über 100
Goldgulden, 1560.
StdtA H A 2026, Schuldbrief des Michael von Sode, Bürger zu Hannover, gegen den Senior
und Kapitel der Kapelle Maria Magdalena am Dom zu Hildesheim über 100 rheinische
Goldgulden, 1562.
StdtA H A 2027, Schuldbrief des Bernd Mögelke, Bürger zu Hannover, gegen die namentlich
genannten Provisoren der Marktkirche über 120 Gulden, das Sühnegeld des Ludolf
Klenke, für die der Schwiegervater des Schuldner, Hans Smedes, die Bürgschaft
übernimmt, 1609.
StdtA H A 2029, Schuldbrief des hannoverschen Bürgers, Brauers und Bäckers, Cord Hans
Scheer und seiner Frau Margareta Catharina Wagemann gegen Hans Stein, Bürger und
Brauer der Altstadt, auch Bürger und Bäcker der Neustadt, über 100 Taler, 1699.
StdtA H A 2033, Schuldbrief des Arndt v. Lüpke gegen Magnus Mettenkopf über 100
rheinische Goldgulden, 1573.
33
StdtA H A 2034, Schuldbrief des Georg Volger gegen Burghard Arneke, Sekretär der Stadt
Hannover, über 50 Taler, 1599.
StdtA H A 2041, Schuldbrief des hannoverschen Bürgers Johann Frömeling gegen Dietrich
Behre und dessen Frau Alheit Rode über 100 Gulden, 1613.
StdtA H A 2044, Rezeß betreffend die Hypotheken auf den Strickmannschen Häusern im
Wulfeshorn zu Hannover, 1668.
StdtA H A 2045, Listen über die auf dem Haus des verstorbenen Hans Bargmann – jetzt
Joachim Bodenstab – ruhenden Hypotheken, ca. 1730.
StdtA H A 2048, Hannöversche Rathäusliche Gerichtsordnungen, (Drucksache), 1744.
StdtA H A 2052, Kaufvertrag zwischen Hans Meier und seinen Kindern erster Ehe über das
diesen erblich zustehende, an der Schmiedestraße gelegene Haus des verstorben
Heinrich Stalmann, 1652.
StdtA H A 2082, Die Konkursliquidation des Hans Druve, 1598.
StdtA H A 2103, Brief Melchior von Steinbergs an den Stadtvogt Hans Hake wegen
angeblicher Schulden des H. Raven, 1559
StdtA H A 2220, Bekanntmachung des Rates zu Hannover über Konkurssachen einzelner
Personen, 1586-1611.
StdtA H A 2221, Bekanntmachung des Rates zu Hannover wegen Konkurssachen einzelner
Personen, 1621-1645.
StdtA H A 2224, Bekanntmachung auswärtiger Behörden über Konkurssachen einzelner
Personen bzw. Justikationen, 1630-1649.
StdtA H A 2225, Konkurs des Johann Anton Splicker, o. O. (Amt Lauenau?), 1675.
StdtA H A 2226, Konkurs des Johann Rahders zu Hannover, 1666-1671.
StdtA H A 2228, Bekanntmachung des Rates zu Hannover über die Verfestung flüchtiger
Schuldner unter Bezug auf den betreffenden Erlaß von 1597, 1603.
StdtA H A 2232, Zwangsverkauf des Hauses des weil. Sebastian Schubart zu Hannover,
1705-1707.
StdtA H A 2246, Prozesse der Marktkirche wegen Forderungen gegen Einzelpersonen, 16981706.
StdtA H A 2249, Prozesse der Marktkirche wegen Forderungen verschiedene Parteien, 16991704.
StdtA H A 2250, Niederschriften, Gerichtsprotokolle, Entwürfe, Notizen betreffend
Bürgereid, Schulden, Bürgerbeschwerden, 1519, 1622-1625, 1825.
34
StdtA H A 2609, Kämmerei: Akten zu Registerführung (Brauerei, Schloß, Neubürger-Geld,
Kopfsteuer, Varia), ca. 1550- ca. 1800.
StdtA H A 2610, Kämmerei: Obligationen und Verschreibungen, Quittungen, 1610-1750.
StdtA H A 2611, Kämmerei, 1645.
StdtA H A 2614, Kämmerei: Obligationen, Kontributionen, Borngulden, Vorschoß,
Proviantgeld, Schoß, 1552-1678/1750.
StdtA H A 2621, Acta betreffend den Zustand der Kämmerei mit einem Memorial der
Ehrlichen Gemeinde, 1646-1659.
StdtA H A 2624, Kämmerrei: Varia, ca. 1600-1677.
StdtA H A 2626, Reichssteuern: Briefe an die Stadt, 1568, 1564.
StdtA H A 2629, Briefe an die Stadt Hannover, 1577, 1579.
StdtA H A 2642, Quittungen über bezahlte Kontributions- und angeliehene Gelder, nebst
Bewilligung des Gemeinen wegen Erschöpfung der Kämmerei, 1632-1650.
StdtA H A 2722, Städtische Kämmerei: Quittungen und Abtretungserklärung für den
Hauptmann Johann v. Berkhausen betreffend Schulden seines Bruders Erasmus aus
dem Jahr 1593, 14. Juni 1638
StdtA H A 2743, Stadt-Aktiv-Schuld: Schuldverschreibungen Aschen von Heimburg, 15861598.
StdtA H A 2745, Stadt-Aktiv-Schuld: Schuldverschreibungen einzelner Bürger, 1552-1716.
StdtA H A 2746, Stadt-Aktiv-Schulden: Schuldverschreibungen einzelner Bürger und
auswärtiger Kreditnehmer, 1535-1682.
StdtA H A 2749, Stadt-Passiv-Schuld, 1539-1563.
StdtA H A 2751, Obligationen der Stadt Hannover, 1623-1660.
StdtA H A 2754, Obligationen der Stadt, (1520), 1572-1620, (1675).
StdtA H A 2756, Obligationen der Stadt Hannover u.a. für Stadt Wunstorf 1610-1612, Stadt
Münder (1502), 1611-1613, 1452-1638.
StdtA H A 2949, Wirtshäuser, Schenken, (1585), 1732-1793.
StdtA H A 2996, Wechselordnung von 1598 und 1623 mit zwei Tabellen betreffend die
Ordnung von 1623 für die Zinsberechnung, je eins für Bürger und Fremde, 1623.
StdtA H A 3196, Gärten der St. Gallen-Güter, 1691, 1762.
35
StdtA H A 3591, Sammelmappe: Angelegenheiten des Currenden-Registers, Obligationen,
Spendenliste, Restanten, Anlage der Rubriken des Registers, 1584-1793.
StdtA H A 3621, Rechtsstreit: Diakone der Aegigienkirche gegen Michael Knolle als Erbe
eines Hauses von Tönnies Meier wegen auf dem Hause lastender Schulden sog
„Klencken-Opfer-Geld“, 1657-1663.
StdtA H A 3689, Obligationen gegenüber dem Register ad fabricam der Marktkirche
(Papiersiegel der Stadt), L. Meh(de)feld beurkundet den Erhalt 50 Reichstalern, 31.
März 1657.
StdtA H A 3701, Sammelmappe: Große Spende, 1664-1746.
StdtA H A 3722, Begräbnisschrift, insbesondere Begräbnisplatz der Kirche, 1668, 1727-1763.
StdtA H A 3735, Anforderung von Urkunden aus dem „Kirchenarchive“ der Aegidienkirche
durch Stadtsekretär H. Mertens zur Revision der Regsiter, 1612-1727.
StdtA H A 3751, Briefe, 1547-1681.
StdtA H A 3755, Angelegenheiten der Register der Aegidienkirche, – ohne spezifischen
Registerbezug (Fragmente), 1612, 1649-1711.
StdtA H A 3757, Prozeß in Sachen Dr. Gebhardt Harlebuschs Erben gegen Vorsteher der
Kreuzkirche betreffend Zinsforderungen, 1668, 1670.
StdtA H A 3764, Aktenfragmente betreffend Kreuzkirche, 1588-1664.
StdtA H A 3765, Obligation Geverth von Sode gegenüber den Vorstehern der Kreuzkirche,
12. April 1596.
StdtA H A 3766, Obligation Curdt Sander gegenüber dem Register ad fabricam der
Kreuzkirche (Registrator Laurentius Wolkenhaar), 7. April 1651
StdtA H A 3769, Bescheid des Stadtgerichtes betreffend das u.a. gegen die Kreuzkirche
hochverschuldete und verfallene Haus von Curdt Sander, 16. Oktober 1682.
StdtA H A 3780, Obligation vom Schuhmacher Henning Quehrmann gegenüber dem Register
ad fabricam der Kreuzkirche, 1. Oktober 1692.
StdtA H A 3786, Alte Obligationen des Fabrikregisters der Kreuzkirche, welche längst
zurückgezahlt sind (Nummerierung mit rotem Stift), 1653-1764.
StdtA H A 3817, Schuldenverzeichnis von Maurermeister Hans Gunter gegenüber dem St.
Annenregister (ein Blatt 4°), o. D. (1677).
StdtA H A 3818, Verzeichnis derjenigen Obligationen und Urkunden, die von Johann
Wiedenburg aus dem Stadtarchiv an Hans Christoph Herbst als Registrator der
Kreuzkirche ausgegeben wurden, 8. Juni 1681.
36
StdtA H A 3820, Verhandlung wegen Schulden von Matthias und Tonnies Limburg
gegenüber den Diakonen der Marktkirche und der Armen, 1616-1618.
StdtA H A 3890, Armen- und Waisenhaus; enthält nur: Drei Fragmente betreffend Schulden
gegenüber dem Register, um 1673.
StdtA H A 3893, Legat von Ilse von Offensen; enthält nur: Korrespondenz zwischen Ilse von
Offensen und Stadt Hannover betreffend Testamentsvollstreckung sowie auch
Nachlaßverwaltung durch Bürgermeister und Rat, 1600, 1622-1628, (1662).
StdtA H A 3911, Verhandlungen betreffend das Legat von Johann Georg Schultz für die
Armen und Not leidenden sowie insbesondere für den alten Schneider Scheem
(Testamentseröffnung am 11. April 1739), 1734-1799.
StdtA H A 4011, Schuldsachen (Obligationen) des Armen- und Waisenhauses, 1643-1683.
StdtA H A 4075, Briefe: Rechtsstreitigkeiten und Bittschriften, 1544-ca. 1700.
StdtA H A 4077, Briefe (an Bürgermeister und Rat), 1586-1699.
StdtA H A 4165, Briefe: /Fi(e)bes Heylbartt (auch Heilbott) an den Bürgermeister und Rat der
Stadt Hannover, 1565-1597.
StdtA H A 4166, „Erwerbsleben“-Sammelmappe, 22. Februar 1575.
StdtA H A 4391, Leihen auf Pfände, Wechsel, Leihhaus: Prozess Winter und Konsorten
gegen die Wechsel, nach 1673, 17. Jh.
StdtA H A 4616, von Döhren, 1482-1640.
StdtA H A 4621, Idensen, 1533-1630.
StdtA H A 4623, Knigge, 1570-1755.
StdtA H A 4624, von Lenthe, darin: Einzelbetreffe aus Slg Homeister, 1592-1675.
StdtA H A 4628, von Lüpke, 1578-1781.
StdtA H A 4629, von Limburg, 1539-1635.
StdtA H A 4631, Mithoff, 1596-1666.
StdtA H A 4633, Meienberg; Heinrich, 1577-1582
StdtA H A 4647, Rust, Jobst Moritz: Briefe und Akten, ca. 1658-1655.
StdtA H A 5902, von Wintheim leiht 100 Species-Taler, 1618.
StdtA H A 5958, Moritz von Sode, Probst des Stiftes Maria Magdalena in Hildesheim
beurkundet (quittiert) eine Verschreibung beim Rat der Stadt Hannover; Original mit
Papiersiegel, 16. April 1593.
37
Verordnungen (Regulations)
Alte Abt. A, 21 (Verordnungen), 1725/9.
Alte Abt. A, 21 (Verordnungen), 1731/7.
not recorded until now (provisional shelf mark):
StdtA H AAA 21 (Verordnungen), 15. Mai 1616.
Bücher (Books)
StdtA H B 7764, Verzeichnis der städtischen Creditoren, 1700-1707.
StdtA H B 8043, Stadtobligationsbuch vol. 1 zusammengestellt, 1726.
StdtA H B 8045, Hypothekenbuch der Altstadt, 1700-1745.
StdtA H B 8046, Amtseidebuch, etwa 1700-1740.
StdtA H B 8060, Schuldbuch des Rates, 1542-1574.
StdtA H B 8075, Kopialbuch von Stadtobligationen, 1706-1715.
StdtA H B 8081, Erläuterung zum Stadtobligationsbuch, o.J. (etwa 1725).
StdtA H B 8242, Stadtobligationsbuch, 1387-1533.
StdtA H B 16613, Zinsregister der Schuldner der Stadt Hannover, 1694-1700.
StdtA H B 8093, Hannoversche-Cellische Landeskonstitution und Polizeiordnung, Lit. L. u.
M., 1725-1750.
Korrespondenz des Rates (Correspondence of the Town Council)
StdtA H Korr. d. Rates, Hans Brockmann, 1595 (2x).
StdtA H Korr. d. Rates, Thomas Lampe, 1580.
StdtA H Korr. d. Rates, Jacob Lange, 1598 (2x).
StdtA H Korr. d. Rates, Hans von Olffen der Jüngere, 1580 (3x).
StdtA H Korr. d. Rates, Bartold von Rutenberg, 1611.
StdtA H Korr. d. Rates, Johannes Sohtmann, 1574.
38
Stadtarchiv Hildesheim (Archives of the Town of Hildesheim)
Bestand 50, Stadtbücher der Altstadt Hildesheim, 1368-1938. (Books of the Old Town)
Stadtarchiv Hildesheim, Best. 50 n° 1756, Kapitalienverzeichnis, Manuale, 1632-1685, 17181720.
Stadtarchiv Hildesheim, Best. 50 n° 2789, Pfandbuch, 1630.
Bestand 51, Amtsbücher und Handschriften der Neustadt (Books and Manuscripts of the New
Town)
Stadtarchiv Hildesheim, Best. 51 n° 51, Register ausgegangener Ratsbriefe und
Verschreibungen, 1612-1620.
Bestand 100, Akten der Altstadt (Records of the Old Town)
Stadtarchiv Hildesheim, Best. 100 – 113, n° 98, Rechnungen über die Schulden und
ausgelieferten Kapitalien des Wechselamtes und andere Rechnungen desselben, 16161617, 1622, 1623, 1625, 1627, 1628, 1630, 1631, 1633-1637, 1739.
Stadtarchiv Hildesheim, Best. 100 – 113, n° 163, Inventar des Wechselamtes über aus- und
angeliehene Gelder. Mit zwei Registern, 1650.
Stadtarchiv Hildesheim, Best. 100 – 129, n° 1, Kopien von einzelnen Obligationen und
anderen Verschreibungen, 1572-1631.
Stadtarchiv Hildesheim, Best. 100 – 129, n° 3, Inventar über die Auslieferung von
Ratspfandbriefen, Schmalfolio, 1583.
Stadtarchiv Hildesheim, Best. 100 – 129, n° 4, Vollmachten und Konsens zu
Ratspfandbriefen, Verlassungen und dergleichen, 17. Jahrhundert.
Stadtarchiv Hildesheim, Best. 100 – 129, n° 5, Konzepte von Obligationen, Konsensen zu
Ratspfandbriefen, und dergleichen, 17. Jahrhundert.
Stadtarchiv Hildesheim, Best. 100 – 129, n° 6, Konzepte zu Ratspfandbriefen, 17.
Jahrhundert.
Stadtarchiv Hildesheim, Best. 100 – 129, n° 9, Verschiedene Obligationen, Cessionen,
Verschreibungen, vergleiche etc., auf Ratspfandbriefe bezüglich, 2. Hälfte 17.
Jahrhundert.
Stadtarchiv Hildesheim, Best. 100 – 171, n°1, Verschiedene Kauf und Mietkontrakte,
Subhastationsscheine und dergleichen, 16.-19. Jahrhundert.
Stadtarchiv Hildesheim, Best. 100 – 171, n° 5, Konzepte von Ratspfandbriefen, 1615-1640.
Stadtarchiv Hildesheim, Best. 100 – 171, n° 12, Konzepte von einzelnen Ratspfanbriefen und
Verlassungen, 1709, 1711.
39
Stadtarchiv Hildesheim, Best. 100 – 204, n° 19, Konzepte resp. Kopien von Ratspfandbriefen
der Neustadt, 1652-1700.
Stadtarchiv Hildesheim, Best. 100 – 173, n° 11 l, Pfandbriefe, 1649 bis 1791.
Edited Primary Sources:
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FREDERSDORFF, Leopold Friedrich (ed.) Promtuarium der Fürstlichen BraunschweigWolfenbüttelschen Landes-Verordnungen in einem wesentlichen Auszuge, vol. 1,
Braunschweig 1777.
FREDERSDORFF, Leopold Friedrich (ed.). Promtuarium der Fürstlichen BraunschweigWolfenbüttelschen Landes-Verordnungen in einem wesentlichen Auszuge, vol. 2,
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PACHNER VON EGGENSTORFF Johann Joseph (ed.). Vollständige Sammlung aller von
Anfang des noch führwährenden Teutschen Reichs-Tags de anno 1663 biss anhero
abgefaßten Reichs-Schlüsse, vol. 1, 1663 bis 1675, Hildesheim / Zürich / New York
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Conrads des II. bis jetzo auf den Teutschen Reichs=Tagen abgefasset worden, sammt
den wichtigsten Reichs=Schlüssen, so auf dem noch fürwährenden Reichs=Tage zur
Richtigkeit gekommen sind. In vier Theilen, vol. 1, Neudruck der Ausgabe 1747,
Osnabrück 1967.
Osnabrück 1967.
Osnabrück 1967.
Osnabrück 1967.
40
SPANGENBERG, Ernst (ed.). Sammlung der Verordnungen und Ausschreiben welche für
sämmtliche Provinzen des hannoverschen Staats jedoch was den Calenbergischen,
Lüneburgischen, und Bremen= und Verdenschen Theil betrifft, seit dem Schlusse der
in denselben vorhandenen Gesetzsammlungen bis zur Zeit der feindlichen Usurpation
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41
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Internet:
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List of Abbreviations:
Bl.
Korr. d. Rates
StdtA H
Stdt. Hild. Best.
Sheet (Blatt)
Correspondence of the Town Council (Korrespondez des Rates)
Archives of the Town of Hanover (Stadtarchiv Hannover)
Archives of the Town of Hildesheim (Stadtarchiv Hildesheim)
43

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