The German Hansa and Bergen 1100-1600

TABLE OF CONTENTS
PREFACE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
INTRODUCTION
1. Who were the Hansa merchants? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2. Earlier reseach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3. Issues for discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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14
22
CHAPTER I
THE BERGEN TRADE AND THE COMMERCIAL REVOLUTION
OF THE MIDDLE AGES, 1100–1350
1. Norwegian foreign trade befor the Hansa merchants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
a The origins of Norwegian foreign trade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
b. The English connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
c. Continental North Sea ports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
d. The Baltic connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2. Hansa merchants take control of trade between Norway and the Baltic. . .
a. Gotland and Russia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
b. The Scania market and its offshoot in Bohuslän . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
c. German ports along the Baltic coast . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
d. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3. Trade with England after the Hanseatic expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
a. The expansion of the Wendish towns – the chronology . . . . . . . . . . . .
b. English customs accounts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
c. Goods exported from Norway to England . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
d. Goods exported from England to Norway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
e. Norwegian and German merchants after the Hanseatic expansion . . . .
f. English merchants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
g. Quantifying stockfish imports to England . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
h. Local distribution of Bergen fish in England in the 14th century . . . . .
i. Boston emerges as centre of the Hanseatic stockfish trade after 1303 . .
j. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4. Trade with continental western Europe after Hanseatic expansion. . . . . . .
a. The Flemish connection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
b. Merchants from the Zuiderzee in Norway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
c. Merchants from Bremen and Hamburg in Norway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
d. The marginalisation of Westphalian merchants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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CHAPTER II
THE BERGEN TRADE IN THE GOLDEN AGE OF THE HANSA,
1350–1537
1. Lübeck as a “staple” for Bergen fish in the Late Middle Ages? . . . . . . . . . .
2. How important was Lübeck in Bergen’s foreign trade from 1518 to 1522? . .
3. Bergen’s Baltic trade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
a. Bergen–Lübeck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
b. Bergen–Wismar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
c. Bergen–Rostock. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
d. Bergen–Stralsund. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
e. Between Stralsund and Danzig . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
f. Bergen–Danzig . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
g. Bergen–Livonia (Livland) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
h. Bergen–Swedish and Danish ports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
i. Quantifying Bergen’s Baltic trade in the Late Middle Ages . . . . . . . . . .
4. Bergen’s English connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
a. The Hanseatic settlement in Boston . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
b. Quantifying the goods of Hansa merchants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
c. The Hanseatic merchants’ home towns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
d. English merchants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
e. Bergen–Scotland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
f. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5. Trade between the western European continent and Bergen . . . . . . . . . . .
a. Bergen–Flanders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
b. Bergen–Zeeland and Brabant. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
c. Bergen–Zuiderzee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
d. Bergen–Holland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
e. Bergen–Bremen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
f. Bergen–Hamburg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
g. Merchants from German inland towns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
h. Trade routes from Bergen to markets along the Rhine . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6. Conclusion: trade routes and merchant groups, 1350–1537 . . . . . . . . . . .
7. Conclusion: quantifying the goods exchanged 1350–1537 . . . . . . . . . . . .
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CHAPTER III
THE BERGEN TRADE AND THE COMMERCIAL REVOLUTION
OF THE 16TH CENTURY
1. Quantifying the goods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
a. Imports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
b. Exports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2. Trade routes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3. The merchants’ home towns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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CHAPTER IV
HOW THE HANSA ACHIEVED ITS DOMINANT POSITION
IN BERGEN, 1250–1380
1. Economic factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
a. Landowners and professional merchants in Norwegian foreign trade . .
b. Capital. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
c. Commercial networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
d. Specialisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2. The legal framework in a period of free trade, 1247–1299. . . . . . . . . . . . .
a. Laws, ordinances and privileges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
b. Developments until the national urban law of 1276 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
c. Privileges and ordinances in the years 1278–1299 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3. The legal framework in a period of active state legislation, 1299–1380 . . .
a. Shipwrecks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
b. Prohibitions against sailing further north than Bergen . . . . . . . . . . . . .
c. Customs duties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
d. The Crown’s right to pre-emptive purchase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
e. Hansa merchants’ legal obligation to sell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
f. Bans on the export of Norwegian goods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
g. Price regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
h. Winter residency and the taxation of foreign merchants. . . . . . . . . . . .
i. Prohibitions against trading in the countryside . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
j. Prohibitions against Hansa merchants’ retail trade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
k. Prohibitions against guests trading with each other . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
l. Pre-emptive purchase rights which benefitted the inhabitants
of Norwegian towns. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
m. The collapse of the King’s trade policy in Bergen, 1319–1380 . . . . . . .
4. Why the Hansa merchants prevailed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
CHAPTER V
HOW THE HANSA RETAINED ITS DOMINANT POSITION
IN BERGEN, 1366–1537
1. The Kontor – the organisation of the winter residents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
a. The founding of the Bergen Kontor in 1366 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
b. The emergence of a Hansa identity among the Bergenfahrer . . . . . . . .
c. The German community at Bryggen as an honour group. . . . . . . . . . .
d. Internal unity through Lübeck’s dominance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
e. Lübeck caught between altruism and self-interest in the Bergen trade . . .
f. The Kontor’s demographic strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
g. The Kontor militia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
h. The Kontor’s extraterritorial jurisdiction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
i. Judicial conflicts between Germans and Norwegians . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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j. Did the Kontor undermine state power in Bergen? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2. The winter residents’ trade with Norwegian customers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
a. The winter residents’ credit system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
b. The peasant fishermen’s trade with Hansa merchants in Bergen . . . . . .
c. The role of Bergen and Trondheim citizens in trade with the stockfishproducing regions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
d. Clerical and secular officials’ trade between Bergen and the stockfishproducing regions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
e. Local magnates’ trade between Bergen and the stockfish regions . . . . .
f. The Kontor’s trade policy and its consequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3. The winter residents’ trade with European ports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
a. The winter residents’ own trade in overseas ports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
b. The winter residents’ trade with Hanseatic summer guests in Bergen . .
4. The Kontor’s policy towards merchants from England and Holland . . . . .
5. State and Kontor at the close of the Middle Ages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
a. Baltic and North Sea merchants in Bergen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
b. Challenges from a stronger state, 1507–1537 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
c. The Kontor’s response to challenges created internal tensions . . . . . . . .
d. Bergen citizens in foreign trade before the Reformation? . . . . . . . . . . .
e. I ntegration into Norwegian state society, 1538–1560 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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CHAPTER VI
PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION OF BERGEN FISH,
1100–1600
1. Prices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
a. Stockfish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
b. Grain products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
c. Stockfish compared to herring and salmon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2. Consumption and demand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
a. Food products from animals, fish and grain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
b. Dried and salted fish before 1370 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
c. Dried and salted fish after 1370 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
d. Why did stockfish prices fall compared to the price of saltfish? . . . . . .
3. Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
a. Fish resources along the Norwegian coast . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
b. The flexible peasant fishermen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
c. Hanseatic grain made Norway larger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
d. Late medieval fishing communities – the first circle of paradise? . . . . .
e. Poverty without progress in the 16th century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
f. The attitude of the coastal population to the Hansa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4. Could the Hansa obtain political power by creating famine? . . . . . . . . . . .
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PERSPECTIVES
1. The commercial revolutions of the Middle Ages and the 16th century . . . .
2. Rise and decline of the Hansa’s commercial network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3. The Bergen Kontor and the state . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4. The consequences of Hansa trade for Norwegian society . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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578
582
DEUTSCHE ZUSAMMENFASSUNG
Kurze thematische Zusammenfassung . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 584
Chronologische Zusammenfassung . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 587
APPENDICES
Appendix I:
Ships registered in the customs accounts from Ravensere,
Hull, Lynn and Boston 1303–49, with a cargo from
Norway. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Appendix II: Ships registered in the English customs accounts 1350–1500,
with a cargo from Norway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Appendix III: Skippers, merchants and values registered in the Lübeck
Pfundzoll as departing for or arriving from Bergen
1368–1400 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Appendix IV: Home towns of skippers registered in Lübeck’s Pfundzoll as
sailing between Lübeck and Bergen 1368–1400.
Empirical basis for table II.10. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Appendix V: Home towns of merchants registered in the customs
accounts from Boston 1365–1413 with goods from Bergen.
Empirical basis for table II.25. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Appendix VI: Home towns of Hanseatic skippers who sailed between
Bergen and East England 1350–1440. Empirical basis for
table II.26.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Appendix VII: Shipping through Øresund on its way to or from Bergen
1566/7 and 1577/8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Appendix VIII: Prices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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615
652
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678
687
691
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SOURCES, LITERATURE AND ABBREVIATIONS
Printed sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 723
Literature and reference books . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 729
Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 742
INDEXES
Index of matters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Index of place names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Index of historical persons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Index of modern scholars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Map of the Atlantic and North Sea coast of Norway (caption) . . . . . . . . . . . .
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764
785
792