"Is walking transport?" - Perceptions and ideologies of sustainable
Transcrição
"Is walking transport?" - Perceptions and ideologies of sustainable
“Is walking transport?” Perceptions and Ideologies of Sustainable Transport Modes Daniel Sauter, Urban Mobility Research, Switzerland 6th International Symposium of Networks for Mobility University of Stuttgart, 27-28 September 2012 Daniel Sauter, Urban Mobility Research, Switzerland Declared objective by most governments: Making transport more sustainable e.g. by promoting walking, cycling, public transport Daniel Sauter, Urban Mobility Research, Switzerland The reality Slow progress, many barriers and setbacks, difficult changes Sauter, Mobility Research, Zürich DanielDaniel Sauter, UrbanUrban Mobility Research, Switzerland Why? An observation: The will for change is usually there, but when it comes to walking and cycling, we come across interesting perceptions and ideologies that (unconsciously) undermine the good intentions. Daniel Sauter, Urban Mobility Research, Switzerland Overview How the spirit of the times influences perceptions – of walking, streets & public spaces. A historical-sociological approach Institutional perceptions and treatment of walking – what the figures say – and what they imply Three paradoxes – “Ceci n’est pas une pipe” or “This is not a crossing” Daniel Sauter, Urban Mobility Research, Switzerland Spirit of the times In 5 steps through 100 years… …of how walking, streets and public spaces have been perceived and treated Daniel Sauter, Urban Mobility Research, Switzerland Futurism (ca. 1910 to end of 1920‘s) Glorification of unleashed technological forces, of speed, violence and war “We declare that the glory of the world has been enriched by a new beauty: the beauty of speed…” F.T. Marinetti, Futurist Manifesto 1909 Luigi Russolo: Dinamismo di un automobile, 1912/13 Sources: Hansgeorg Schmidt-Bergmann, 1993; Martin & Grosenick 2006 Sauter, Mobility Research, Zürich DanielDaniel Sauter, UrbanUrban Mobility Research, Switzerland Futurism (ca. 1910 to end of 1920‘s) • • • • • Unleashing of speed: from 10 km/hr to no limit at all Sharp rise of accidents; fear for safety of pedestrians / other road users Battle for street space – who can use it for what purpose (also legally) Social inequality reflected on the street (class / culture struggle) Pollution (dust, noise) Swiss Postcard; Source: Merki 2002 Advertisement for Spyker cars 1910 Source: Beduhn/Klocksin 1995 Daniel Sauter, Urban Mobility Research, Switzerland Functionalism & Totalitarianism (end of 1920‘s to ca. 1945) ”Traffic channels must be classified according to type and constructed in terms of the vehicles and speeds they are intended to accommodate.“ (§ 60) “The pedestrian must be able to follow other paths than the automobile network.” (§ 62) (The Athens Charter 1933 / 1943/1973) Excerpt from Le Corbusier‘s 3 million city, source: Le Corbusier 1945: Grundfragen des Städtebaus • Functional view of city, street and traffic; city as machine (also socially/culturally – e.g. films: Fritz Lang’s Metropolis, Charlie Chaplin’s Modern Times) • Separation of functions (horizontally & vertically) Daniel Sauter, Urban Mobility Research, Switzerland Functionalism & Totalitarianism (end of 1920‘s to ca. 1945) • Traffic education and disciplining with two objectives: 1) reduce accidents & casualties; but in reality: more of both, because structural changes went into exact opposite direction 2) obedience and subordination under the (totalitarian) rule(r)s, dominant social classes & the car; disguised as „in the interest of the nation, of the commons“ Wall picture for schools, Swiss Automobile Club; source: velojournal 2/2011 Street as place to demand obedience and to demonstrate the ruler’s power: Munich 1937; source: Franke 1987, p.83 Daniel Sauter, Urban Mobility Research, Switzerland Internal and external disciplining and subjection to the car logic Chur 1939 Sources: St. Galler Verkehrsbüchlein 1930 (Haettenschwiler 1990), BfU 1997 Interlaken 1953 Daniel Sauter, Urban Mobility Research, Switzerland Mass-Motorisation & Consumer Society (starting) (ca. 1945 to early 1970‘s) Source: Heathcote Williams: Autogeddon, 1992 “The decline of the price of fossil fuels, which began in the fifties and intermittently continued to this day, has decisively influenced the economy and society.” Christian Pfister, The 1950‘s Syndrom, 1996, p. 27 Daniel Sauter, Urban Mobility Research, Switzerland Mass-Motorisation & Consumer Society (starting) • Loss of space and network for pedestrians without gaining safety • Changing public spaces into driving and parking places • Traffic safety campaigns: individualising a structural problem • Motorways, shopping malls and suburbanisation (=> car dependency) Opening of first Swiss motorway 1955 Horw; source: VCS Magazin 2011 Schaffhausen, 1969; source: Stadtpolizei Schaffhausen Daniel Sauter, Urban Mobility Research, Switzerland Turning advantages of walking into disadvantages Daniel Sauter, Urban Mobility Research, Switzerland Limits to growth (mid 1960‘s to mid 1980‘s) • Visionary ideas by pioneers Dennis Meadows et al. („Limits to growth“, 1972); Jane Jacobs (“The death and life of great American cities”, 1961); Colin Buchanan („Traffic in Towns“, 1963); William H. Whyte (“The social life of small urban spaces”, 1980); Jan Gehl (“Life between buildings”, 1980); Donald Appleyard („Livable Streets“, 1981) • Cultural and social liberalisation (music, gender, race, nature, world solidarity etc.) • Structural and institutional changes (e.g. re environmental protection laws) • Creation of advocacy organisations (e.g. WWF 1961; Greenpeace 1971) Source: Meadows et al., 1972 “If the present growth trends in world population, industrialization, pollution, food production, and resource depletion continue unchanged, the limits to growth on this planet will be reached sometime within the next 100 years.” (Club of Rome; Meadows et al. 1972, p.29) Daniel Sauter, Urban Mobility Research, Switzerland Limits to growth (mid 1960‘s to mid 1980‘s) • Singular improvements and “experiments”: first pedestrian areas in old cities, first woonerven, introduction of speed limits in built-up areas; start of bicycle renaissance; pedestrian routes (linear A to B) • Peak of traffic casualties in late 1960‘s, early 1970‘s First woonerf (Wohnstrasse) in Switzerland 1979/1980 Pedestrian zone Cologne 1976, Deutsches Bundesarchiv Daniel Sauter, Urban Mobility Research, Switzerland Neoliberalism (early 1980‘s to today?) Neo-liberal assumptions: “Freedom can only materialise itself within the market logic. (…) Justice is when no one is prevented from free-market access, social is, when the market-economy can freely develop its momentum." (Ralf Ptak 2005, p. 63, translation D.S.) • Deregulation reaches the streets; e.g. Shared Space • „Walking is more than just walking“ (Jan Gehl); „Link & Place“ from linear to area wide planning – public space, social aspects • Health and active lifestyles Source: www.begegnungszonen.ch Daniel Sauter, Urban Mobility Research, Switzerland Neoliberalism (early 1980‘s to today?) • High quality public spaces as economic assets for tourism, businesses, investors => ‘liveable cities’ ranking discovery of pedestrian as consumer; (over-) commercialisation • City as party place: intense use, conflict, surveillance & social exclusion Daniel Sauter, Urban Mobility Research, Switzerland Institutional perceptions and treatment of walking What the figures say… …and what they imply Daniel Sauter, Urban Mobility Research, Switzerland 100% 3% 3% 4% 1% 90% 80% 51% 70% 60% 69% 12% 50% 11% 40% 12% 30% 6% 20% 37% 41% 20% 10% 6% 0% 5% 40% 45% time spent number of stages 28% 2% distance walking 5% trips (main modes) cycling public transport Common effects and assumptions: “If it looks negligible it will be neglected” “The longer the trip the more important it is” motorized transport other Source: FSO, ARE, Swiss Mobility and Transport Microcensus 2005 Mode share based on distance underestimates walking Average distance/day in CH: 36.7 km but: 72% < 36.7 km; 29% < 5 km Median: 14.8 km Daniel Sauter, Urban Mobility Research, Switzerland Distance and income: both very unevenly distributed Household income (per month) 810 up to 3.300 € 7'843 3.300-6.700 € 2'406 11'059 3'216 1'518 12'433 Change 2005/2010 -2‘100km / -16% 18'285 4'334 5'852 6.700-10.000 € 1'996 17'232 6'403 25'631 8'399 10.000 € & more 21'273 2'227 10'117 33'617 12'344 Everyday mobility . 0 5'000 Day trips 10'000 Overnight trips 15'000 Change 2005/2010 +3‘100km / +12.4% 20'000 25'000 30'000 35'000 Distance in km (per year) Source: FSO, ARE, Swiss Mobility and Transport Microcensus 2010 Daniel Sauter, Urban Mobility Research, Switzerland Distances and resource distribution Distribution of trip distances Distribution of resources Long-distance trips Distances more than 30 km (7%) Middle-range trips Distances 5 to 30 km (30%) Short-distance trips Distances up to 5 km (63%) Daniel Sauter, Urban Mobility Research, Switzerland “Funds spent” should follow “time spent” not mobile: 23 hours a day = 96% being mobile: 1 hour per day = 4% => Necessity for a fundamental shift of political focus, planning resources and funding towards public space and walking/cycling Daniel Sauter, Urban Mobility Research, Switzerland Paradoxes Daniel Sauter, Urban Mobility Research, Switzerland The subsidy-for-sustainability paradox The most sustainable modes – walking & cycling – are often excluded from sustainability programs because there is nothing to make them more sustainable. As non-technical, non-commercial mode the situation for walking is worst… Why not include walking in the emission trading schemes, in reward and subsidy programs, in energy saving promotions, in research et cetera? Source: American Stock Photography 1988 Daniel Sauter, Urban Mobility Research, Switzerland The commuter-tax-deduction paradox Commuter tax deductions reward those who put the biggest strain on infrastructure, environment, resources and other people. The further you go, the more you can deduct. Those not commuting or those walking can’t deduct anything. On the contrary, they have to cover the tax losses from the others. Example of deductions according to distance 30 km 90 km Car € 6.400 € 20.200 Public transport € 1.500 € 2.500 € 580 € 580 €0 €0 Bicycle Walk Source: St. Galler Tagblatt, 25. Mai 2012 Urban Rural Building Maintenance € 2.200 € 45 Costs per € 19.000 € 400 person Source: Schalcher et al. 2011, Ecoplan 2000 Daniel Sauter, Urban Mobility Research, Switzerland The public-transport-acceleration paradox Before and after each public transport ride, passengers are pedestrians. This requires an integral view. In the Swiss railway system it costs about € 80 Mio to gain one minute of journey time. It sometimes is forgotten that at the end of the trip the passengers stand for 2 minutes at a traffic light…. Traffic signals are often optimized for trams and busses but not for the passengers wanting to reach them…. Daniel Sauter, Urban Mobility Research, Switzerland Photo: Dirk Buwalda 1986, Kyoto, Japan Daniel Sauter, Urban Mobility Research, Switzerland Thank you! Enjoy your walks! Daniel Sauter, Urban Mobility Research, Switzerland [email protected] Daniel Sauter, Urban Mobility Research, Switzerland