PROCEEDINGS of the Protected Areas and Place Making

Transcrição

PROCEEDINGS of the Protected Areas and Place Making Conference 2013
1
2
Protected Areas
and Place Making
Conference
P R O C E E D I N G S
April 21-26, 2013
Foz do Iguaçu - PR - Brazil
3
Protected Areas
and Place Making
Conference
Editors
Teresa Cristina Magro
Lucas Milani Rodrigues
Demóstenes Ferreira da Silva Filho
Jefferson Lordello Polizel
Jessica Leahy
Citation
Magro, T. C.; Rodrigues, L. M.; Silva Filho, D. F. ; Polizel, J. L.; Leahy, J.; (Eds.) 2013.
Protected Areas and Place Making : How do we provide conservation, landscape management,
tourism, human health and regional development?
Review
Saulo Eduardo Xavier Franco de Souza
Layout
Thiago D’Angelo
Cover Pictures
Taylor Stein
Published by
Forestry Sciences Departament – ESALQ/USP
Printed by
Copiadora Luiz de Queiroz - ESALQ/USP
ISBN
978-85-86481-25-3
Protected areas and Place Making Conference: how do we provide conservation, landscape management, tourism, human health
and regional development? , 1, Proceedings / [Edited by] Teresa Cristina Magro et al. – Piracicaba: ESALQ, 2013.
204p.: Il
CDD 333.72
ISBN:
4
978-85-86481-25-3
CONTENTS
Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................10
Keynote Addresses ...............................................................................................................................................13
Making Sense of Place: Enhancing Protected Area Experience and Governance
Daniel R. Williams....................................................................................................................................................15
Integrating People’s Diverse Needs into Collaborative Forest Management: Is it Possible?
Taylor V. Stein...........................................................................................................................................................21
Concurrent Session A1: Conservation and Sustainable Rural Development in Contested Landscapes:
International Perspectives ..................................................................................................................................25
Reconnecting social-ecological systems: biocultural conservation in protected areas
Fikret Berkes.............................................................................................................................................................26
Contested landscapes in Brazilian coast: lessons from two case studies in Santa Catarina
Natalia Hanazaki, Mel Simionato Marques, Elaine Mitie Nakamura........................................................................27
New use of an old threatened species triggering conservation and socio-economic improvement in southeastern
Brazil
Saulo E. X. F. de Souza, Germano F. Chagas, Edson Vidal.........................................................................................32
Pluralistic approach to governance of protected areas: A case study with Indigenous peoples from northern Colombia
Julia Premauer, Fikret Berkes....................................................................................................................................34
Issues of sustainability of protected areas: Traditional practices as a symbol of sustenance of local communities and
conservation
Emdad Haque, Shah Raees Khan..............................................................................................................................40
Concurrent Session A2: Conservation and Sustainable Rural Development in Contested Landscapes:
International Perspectives ..................................................................................................................................43
Biocultural design: Weaving cultural landscapes into community-based enterprises in and around protected areas
Iain Davidson-Hunt, Carlos Julián Idrobo, Michael Campbell....................................................................................44
Gourmets of the Juatinga Ecological Reserve, Brazilian Atlantic Forest: Culinary creativity through the lens of
biocultural design
Carlos Julián Idrobo, Iain Davidson-Hunt.................................................................................................................45
Implementation of a national park over traditional lands of the Trindade community in Paraty, Brazil
Natália C. Fidelis Bahia, Cristiana S. Seixas, Luciana G. Araujo, Juliana S. Farinaci, Paula Chamy...........................46
Practicalities of building co-management in complex landscapes: North East Australia’s tropical rainforest and reef
Helen Ross.................................................................................................................................................................52
Sustainable territorial development in a marine reserve in coastal Brazil: is it feasible?
Rodrigo R. de Freitas, Cristiana S .Seixas...................................................................................................................53
Sustainable rural community development in Western Uganda: Tourism’s potential to alleviate poverty and support
community solidarity.
Michael Campbell......................................................................................................................................................59
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Concurrent Session B: Florestas Urbanas e Qualidade de Vida (language Portuguese)...................................61
Arboreal native vegetation at the Natural Municipal Park “Corredores da Biodiversidade”, Sorocaba, SP, Brazil, and
its importance to conservation at the urban context
Samuel Coelho, Eliana Cardoso Leite, Ana Carolina D. Castello.................................................................................62
Urban tree cover and human comfort in Campinas, Brazil
Lea Yamaguchi Dobbert, Demóstenes F. Da S. Filho, Jefferson Lordello Polizel ............................................................69
Challenges in implementing a Municipal Natural Park in a Petrochemical Pole: the case of the Natural Park
Municipal Cotia-Pará, Cubatão (SP), Brazil
Juliana F. de Castro, Sidnei Raimundo.......................................................................................................................73
Analysis of public spaces titled as “Park” in Sorocaba, SP, Brazil, as a subsidy for its management
Mauricio Tavares da Mota, Eliana Cardoso Leite.......................................................................................................79
Impact of plat size in stock biomass of urban trees Sibipiruna (Poincianella pluviosa var. peltophoroides) in Maringá
– PR
Flávia Gizele König Brun, Demóstenes F. da S. Filho, Eleandro José Brun, Hilton Thadeu Z. do Couto........................80
Tree canopy cover assessment using the Urban Forest Index in São Carlos, SP (Brazil)
Sabrina Mieko Viana, Demóstenes F. Da S. Filho.......................................................................................................86
Concurrent Session C: Urban Forestry, Health and Well Being .......................................................................89
Creating a Tree Culture
Mark Duntemann, Nicole Stuart...............................................................................................................................90
Concurrent Session D: Nature-based Recreation and Tourism ........................................................................91
The value of ecotourism to residents around a national park: Does proximity and perceptions matter?
Eugene Ejike Ezebilo.................................................................................................................................................92
The biobynamic agent course in Prudentópolis – Brazil: Strategy to preserve the araucaria moist forests using
ecoturism as a tool for sustainable development
Jasmine Cardozo Moreira, Vania M. M. dos Santos....................................................................................................95
Indicators for Sustainable Recreational Use of Forests and Other Natural Resources – Experiences from Northern
Europe
Tuija Sievänen, David Edwards, Peter Fredman, Frank Søndergaard Jensen, Odd Inge Vistad...................................96
Use of indicators as a tool for park visitation management
Ginessa Corrêa Lemos, Getulio Batista Teixeira, Maria de Jesus Robim.....................................................................100
Managing tourism in protected areas from a landscape perspective: An exploratory study from Sweden
Peter Fredman, Daniel Laven, Sandra Wall Reinius.................................................................................................102
Dilemmas and challenges to implementation the use public programme of protected area in São Paulo Metropolitan
region, Brazil
Sidnei Raimundo, Reinaldo T. B.Pacheco.................................................................................................................103
Indicators of landscape valuation - Serra do Mar St ate Park, Santa Virginia Nucleus, São Paulo, Brazil
Juliana M. Bussolotti, Solange T. de L. Guimarães, Maria de Jesus Robim.................................................................108
The three-banded armadillo and the World Cup 2014: opportunities for the preservation of Caatinga
Rodrigo Castro, Samuel Portela, Daniele Ronqui.....................................................................................................114
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Concurrent Session E: Community Values in Conservation ..........................................................................115
Visitor Management in Brazil Parks and Protected Areas: Benchmarking for Best Practices in Resource Management
Robert C. Burns.......................................................................................................................................................116
Claiming space and identity in a contested landscape: Traditional agriculture in and around the Estação Ecológica
de Juréia-Itatins
Alaine Ball..............................................................................................................................................................122
Environment History and Education: Linking people and institutions to nature
Douglas de S. Pimentel, Ana Angélica M. de Barros...................................................................................................129
Protected Areas for Regional Development in Latvia
Evija Plone, Ilze Stokmane, Buļipopa Nataļja..........................................................................................................136
Do the sociocultural realities implies in production of tropical forestry seeds from Upper Xingu in Brazil?
Lilla Jessica Brokaw, Danilo I. Urzedo, José N.M.N. Costa, Edson J. V. Silva ............................................................137
Usage of plant resources of coastal ecosystems by the fishermen community in the Environmental Protection Area
of the Restinga of Maricá, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
Patrick de Oliveira, Alexandre Verçosa Greco, Ana Angélica M. de Barros, Maria Célia R. Correia, Ana Tereza A. Rodarte,
Douglas de S. Pimentel.............................................................................................................................................139
Concurrent Session F: Boosting Connectivity: Trans-boundary Parks and Corridors ...................................141
Environmental compensation and biodiversity bank in Brazil: Study Case Harpia harpya eagle at green farm CO²
free project, Itaquiraí, MS
Eder Zanetti, Luiz Samartano.................................................................................................................................142
Enlargement Protected Areas System by Increasing Connectivity
Taiichi Ito, Akihiro Nakamura, Atsushi Kawabata....................................................................................................148
Concurrent Session G: Human – Wildlife Conflict Management ..................................................................149
Biocultural design: Weaving cultural landscapes into community-based enterprises in and around protected areas
Iain Davidson-Hunt, Carlos Julián Idrobo, Michael Campbell..................................................................................150
Gourmets of the Juatinga Ecological Reserve, Brazilian Atlantic Forest: Culinary creativity through the lens of
biocultural design
Carlos Julián Idrobo, Iain Davidson-Hunt................................................................................................................151
Implementation of a national park over traditional lands of the Trindade community in Paraty, Brazil
Natália C. Fidelis Bahia, Cristiana S. Seixas, Luciana G. Araujo, Juliana S. Farinaci, Paula Chamy.........................155
Practicalities of building co-management in complex landscapes: North East Australia’s tropical rainforest and reef
Helen Ross...............................................................................................................................................................159
Sustainable territorial development in a marine reserve in coastal Brazil: is it feasible?
Rodrigo R. de Freitas, Cristiana S .Seixas................................................................................................................168
Sustainable rural community development in Western Uganda: Tourism’s potential to alleviate poverty and support
community solidarity.
Michael Campbell....................................................................................................................................................172
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Concurrent Session H: Conservação da Natureza e Desenvolvimento Rural (language: Portuguese) ..........179
The impact of timber forest management on the livelihoods of local managers: Case study of the Mamirauá Reserve
of Sustainable Development
Philippe Waldhoff, Saulo E.X.F. de Souza, Edson J. Vidal da Silva, Andrea Abdala...................................................180
Tropical forest seed production chain: Diagnosis in communities of Alto Xingu, Brazil
Sarah D. de O. Andrade, Danilo I. de Urzedo, Edson J. Vidal da Silva......................................................................185
Legal forest reserv – transition from rural use to urban use
Fernando Almeida Costa, Alisson Santos Neves, Natanael Antunes Abade.................................................................188
Concurrent Session I: Private Sector on Nature Conservation .......................................................................191
Mato Grosso healthy & prosper: Green Infrastructure proposal
Eder Zanetti, Paulo Borges......................................................................................................................................192
Assessment of High conservation value areas in a private forest company (Fibria –Aracruz Unit)
Ana Paula C. do Carmo, Ana Paula Pulito, Antonio do N. Gomes.............................................................................193
.
The importance of natural areas conservation in the private sector - a regional perspective
Ivone Satsuki Namikawa, Samantha Nazaré de Paiva............................................................................................194
Monitoring ecological processes for Fibria’s Environmental Restoration Program
Roberto Mediato, Angelo Conrado Moura, Tathiane Santi Sarcinelli, Juliano Ferreira Dias, Ana Paula Pulito............195
Biodiversity Conservation Planning for Klabin S.A. in Brazil: a corporate experience in partnership with The
Nature Conservancy
Giovana Baggio de Bruns, Leandro Baumgarten, Anna Julia Passold, Marcelo Matsumoto, Camila Kotsifas, Ivone Satsuki
Namikawa, Samantha Nazaré de Paiva, Mireli Moura Pitz....................................................................................197
Innovation and Biodiversity Conservation
Vinicius S. G. dos Reis, João Carlos Augusti, Ana Paula Pulito..................................................................................199
Index of Authors ................................................................................................................................................201
8
9
Introduction
and
Demóstenes Ferreira da Silva Filho
It´s a challenging task to keep the ecological functions and values of protected areas alive around the world and
especially in Brazil. This involves a variety of expertise. By identifying the social values beyond the knowledge of
natural environments associated with these areas, we may come closer to achieving the fundamental objectives of
nature conservation. Also, we need key strategies for improving the quality of urban life. We have a good number of
protected areas around the world, but most of them are far from urban centers. Having semi-natural environments
close to urban areas and recovering some sites within cities provides a chance for people to live a healthier life, both
physically and spiritually. And also fulfills the function of protection of water resources and other ecosystem services.
These reflections prompted us to design the Protected Areas and Place Making Conference (PAPM 2013) in Foz
do Iguaçu, PR, Brazil, April 21th through April 26th. This international meeting was organized by Section 6:04:00
- Nature conservation and protected areas of the IUFRO (International Union of Forest Research Organizations).
IUFRO is a non-profit, non-governmental international network of forest scientists, which promotes global
cooperation in forest-related research and enhances the understanding of the ecological, economic and social
aspects of forests (http://www.iufro.org/). Our intent was to bring together relevant researchers in the forest sector,
working with social aspects of forests and forestry. After an intensive week, participants and invited speakers had
the opportunity to find new inspiration in their daily work after sharing this special “place” - Iguazu National Park.
We firmly believe that environmental research has a strong human and social component. This reflects interesting
contributions on the following sessions reported in this document: 1) Conservation and Sustainable Rural
Development in Contested Landscapes: International Perspectives, 2) Urban Forestry, Health and Well Being, 3)
Nature-based Recreation and Tourism, 4) Community Values in Conservation, 5) Boosting Connectivity: Transboundary Parks and Corridors, 6) Human – Wildlife Conflict Management, 7) Nature Conservation and Rural
Development, 8) Private Sector on Nature Conversation. We would like to thanks the session coordinators who
devoted much of their time during the conference to the smooth functioning of each section.
Ensuring the scientific quality, each submitted abstract was reviewed by two experts. We are very grateful to all the
reviewers for their support and comments in this process. The accepted works for presentation at the conference
comprise this volume. The authors had the choice of submitting a simple summary or an expanded one. The order
of presentation of the work in the respective sections was used to compose this volume. And two invited keynote
speakers are included. At the end of this publication we included an index of authors. We hope it will make easier
to find your contributions.
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During the sessions, some presentations focused on the social aspects of conservation and aimed to stimulate
discussions on how to improve the management of protected areas in Brazil, a country with up to 1, 5 million
square kilometers divided over 1700 protected unities. Financial concerns are not an exclusive issue for the
undeveloped countries anymore. It carries a big challenge for society on how to manage these areas. The
conference organizers wants to emphasize that the admission of the social importance of conservation is a
societal interest and that research must point towards finding different values in each ecosystem or protected area.
Using sense of place is a necessary concept in the process leading to recognition of these values. Understanding
the role of different meanings of “place”, conservationists will admit that protected areas are better identified
by meaningful stakeholders, governments – local, state and federal - , and the private sector. We also want to
remembers that it´s important to combine forces in order to come to new research – and management methods.
When this is taken in account it will lead to a growing recognition of the importance of conservation units and
its value. As a result social actors will show more willingness to cooperate amongst themselves in a dynamic and
sensible way in order to preserve the “place“ and this consequently contributes to the quality of life of everyone.
Thanks to people and institutions that contributed to PAPM 2013, specially to the Scientific Committee and
the commission of organizers. We are sincerely grateful to the sponsors: CAPES, CNPq, Fundação Grupo o
Boticário de Proteção à Natureza, Itaipu Binacional, Klabin, Fealq; and to the partners: Instituto Chico Mendes
de Conservação da Biodiversidade (ICMBio), Administración de Parques Nacionales (APN), Parque Nacional
do Iguaçu, Parque Nacional Iguazú, Restaurante Porto Canoas, Cataratas do Iguaçu S/A, Iguassu Convention &
Visitors Bureau. Itaipu Binacional also contributed with logistic and place for scientific sessions, thus we are very
thankful. We are also thankful to the coordinators of the scientific sessions, who dedicated a lot of time during
the conference, and mainly to the readiness of the participants of PAPM 2013 conference, which was reflected in
the punctuality and quality of lectures, discussions and work presentations. We are sincerely grateful to everyone.
11
12
K E Y N O T E
A D R E S S E S
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14
Keynote Adresses
Making Sense of Place: Enhancing Protected Area
Experience and Governance
Daniel R. Williams 1
Research Social Scientist, US Forest Service,
Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fort Collins, Colorado USA
1
[email protected]
www.fs.fed.us/rm/human-dimensions
Introduction
My career-long journey to understand “place making”
began 34 years ago, when I started my graduate studies.
I was involved in a survey of visitors to Canyonlands
National Park, a relatively undeveloped park in
southern Utah. We asked visitors a simple question:
Which was the more important reason for visiting
the park: “I like the park itself ” or “It is a good place
to go for four-Wheeling” (referring to the use of their
off-road vehicle)? We found that how this question
was answered revealed much about visitor motives and
behaviors. Our findings cemented my belief that visitor
use studies had not paid enough attention to the visitors’
“relationships to places”. In fact the majority (65%)
rated the “park itself ” as their primary motivation and
therefore sought a very different experience from those
who said their primary reason was that the park was
a good place for 4-Wheeling. I mention this because,
at that time, outdoor recreation places were understood
as “substitutable commodities” -- as means to some
experiential goal rather than an experiential end in itself.
Building on these initial studies, I have subsequently
spent most of my career exploring the connection
between the concept of “place” and conservation
practice. My goal for this presentation is to “unpack” the
idea of place-making which, in the English language
literature, has many parts and meanings. Hopefully
I can illuminate this topic in a way that will help set
the tone for this conference. I will focus on this basic
question: What does place and place making have to do
with protected area conservation? There are two facets
to this work as it pertains to protected areas. One comes
from the perspective of experiencing places (for example
as a tourist) and the other involves governing places (as
the core practice of protected area management).
Place-making, both as experience and governance, can
be viewed through four conceptual lenses:
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to organize conservation practice.
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practices that govern places.
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relationships to place.
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of sustainable governance of protected places.
The first lens focuses on a basic understanding of place
as a concept. The second focuses on understanding the
social processes that govern and transform places. These
two are very active concerns of human geographers and
it is important to examine how human geographers
study place and place making to understand place
making as an outcome of experiencing a place and as
an aim of professional practice. The third lens refers
to the arena of place making that comes from everyday
interactions with places, whether as visitors or residents
and has been the focus of much of my empirical
research over the course of my career. The fourth lens
turns our attention to place making as the spontaneous
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Keynote Adresses
and deliberate efforts of people to try to shape and
govern the landscape. This topic brings with it a range of
normative considerations as to what constitutes a good
place and the best practices for making better places.
Making Sense of ‘Place’
What makes a place, a place? There is a working
consensus among scholars that place embodies three
elements. First, there is a materiality to place. Places
have shape and features that distinguish them in space
as a locale or setting. These features are both natural and
built. Second, places are “located”. What distinguishes
place from mere physical reality is that a place has
humanly imposed boundaries, dimensionality and
scale. Third, and most important, places carry meaning
and significance. Places have histories that shape and
define cultures and individual identities. These are hard
to capture and appreciate in resource assessments but
they are critically important to people who affiliate with
these places. We can’t just look at protected areas as
biodiversity reserves for example. Much of the debate
among those who study sense of places comes down
to different assumptions about the original locus of
meaning.
Rather than argue, as some have, that place meaning
can be definitively linked to material, experiential,
or socio-cultural factors, I think it is better to look at
meanings as a four-layer cake. This is especially so when
you consider the diversity of disciplinary perspectives.
First, certain places or landscape features can be said to
have some inherent meaning that transcends cultures.
Second, people learn to perceive and experience the
environment in instrumental ways – to meet individual
needs. Third places have socio-cultural meanings,
which have to do with the way they symbolize group
membership, shared culture, and common history. But
here different groups might assign very quite different
meaning to the symbolism. Finally, it is important to
recognize the very personal way certain places become
meaningful to individuals.
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Making Sense of ‘Place Making’
Turning to the idea of place making as a central theme
of the conference, I think the idea of place making
is aptly captured in this quote by Gieryn (2000):
“Places are not only materially carved out of space but
interpreted, narrated, understood, felt, and imagined
– their meanings are pliable in the hands of different
people or cultures, malleable over time, and inevitably
contested” (p. 465). This statement emphasizes how
places are socially created, how their meaning varies
across different groups and cultures, change over time
(they are not static – though we often try to manage
them as if they are), and most importantly how their
meanings are invariably contested. In everyday life, we
take the existence of place for granted. Yet, if there is
a central focus in human geography it is how humans
fashion their world into places. Geographers pay
attention to both the material practices of place making
– what we do physically to transform the landscape,
build cities, homes, streets, etc. -- as well as the social
or discursive practices of interaction with the landscape,
such as through tourism. Place naming, for example,
is one of these discursive practices. Think about the
meaning of place names like Brazil, the Amazon, Rio
de Janeiro, or Foz do Iguacu.
Robert Sack (1992) illustrates this geographic process
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1). He starts by dividing the forces that make up place
into three categories. For him places are the confluence
of nature (or materiality), and social relations (e.g.,
economic relations, political processes) and meaning
(such as religion and other sources of belief ). Place
weaves these forces or processes together. He adds a
fourth aspect he calls perspectives. Awareness of place
involves multiple perspectives or views ranging from an
intimate, embedded view from somewhere to an abstract,
remote view from nowhere. The key idea represented in
this dimension is that our knowledge, experience, and
values towards a place vary along a continuum between
somewhere and nowhere. This perspective exists in
a vertical plane relative to the place forces (which
occupy the horizontal plane). A good illustration of
the difference between the view from somewhere and
nowhere is how I initially investigated the venue for
Keynote Adresses
this conference, Foz do Iguacu. I read accounts on
Wikipedia and used Google Maps and got the view
from nowhere. This gives the “birds-eye” or God’s eye
view of a place. Even the street view in Google is still
an experience from nowhere as you can’t get that truly
intimate feeling for a place compared to experiencing
it first-hand. But even as I began to experience Foz do
Iguacu first hand yesterday, my experience is still largely
that of an outsider compared to a Brazilian or a local
resident who can read and interpret what they see and
feel from a different, more local cultural perspective.
One of the ideas driving place-based thinking is the
recognition of competing forms of knowledge existing
along this continuum from somewhere to nowhere.
Figure 1 illustrates examples of Knowledge and social
relations organized at various levels of contextual
specificity (e.g., traditional ecological versus scientific
knowledge) and also shows how scientific knowledge
tends to become “dis-integrated” over time – not more
integrated. Though modern society tends to “privilege”
the view from nowhere, the subjective world of day-today place (somewhere) is also part of reality and needs
to be included in scientific accounts of reality.
To summarize my way of thinking about place making
I offer a definition, adapted from one that recently
appeared in Pierce et al. (2011): Place making refers
to the set of social, political, and material practices by
which people construct and contest the experiential
geographies in which they live, work and play.
Making ‘Sense of Place’
A third lens by which we can discuss place focuses on
everyday interactions with places whether as visitors
or residents. Recreation and tourism are important
contexts within which people develop relationships to
places (senses of place). Place is a core notion in tourism
in part because tourism trades on the character of places.
In addition, park users often develop bonds with the
park over time (recall my early work at Canyonlands
National Park, where I found that 65% said they visited
for the place itself ). Likewise local residents hold special
meanings for these locales, which are sometimes in
conflict with visitors. So the governance of parks and
protected areas often involves a delicate balance as local
residents livelihoods are intertwined with the place
whether as providers of tourist services, or users of the
landscape for other aspects of their livelihoods.
This idea of building relationships to places hasn’t
always been widely recognized in conservation practice.
Again my early work in Canyonlands National Park
was motivated by my own sense that the place itself
didn’t seem to matter in the research models of the day.
Instead managers adopted what I called the commodity
or consumer model in which parks were considered
substitutable so long as the alternative satisfied the same
experience goals. In a recent study at Rocky Mountain
National Park (RMNP), for example, we highlighted two
statements that exemplify these different orientations
to the place. Representing the “commodity model”
one visitor wrote on an open-ended section of a survey
(Brook et al., 2006): “I was pleasantly surprised by the
quality of RMNP. I expected the trails, picnic areas, and
campsites to show signs of the large number of people
who visit June-August. Overall I found the trails well
maintained and the campsites in good shape and clean!
I only found a few pieces of litter in the campsites
during my stay.” Representing the “relationship model”
on the same survey another visitor offered the following
comment: “I love RMNP. It was a special place that
my family would always visit every year from the time I
was 6 months old. Every year I visit as much as possible.
Anything that can be done to preserve this area would
just be great, so that I can bring my children to visit. I
hope to carry on my family tradition in this way and
have my children love and respect RMNP as much
as my parents have taught me to do so.” Going back
to Figure 1 we can consider these as different lenses
between somewhere and nowhere, with the idea of
identifying places as an experience of place closer to
somewhere, whereas merely consuming places is more
of an experience from nowhere. Likewise local residents
in and around protected areas have meanings, bonds
and relationships that matter and need to be considered
in decision making. Again these meanings are diverse,
sometimes contested within the community.
17
Keynote Adresses
Making ‘Sensible’ Places
Now I shift from the lens of describing place making
(as the social, political, and material practices by
which people construct and contest the experiential
geographies in which they live, work and play) to a
fourth lens that involves prescribing a set of (normative)
practices for making better (more sensible) places.
The theme of this conference, place making, builds
on a normative definition offered by the Project for
Public Spaces in which place making is described as
“a multi-faceted approach to the planning, design
and management of public spaces [for] creating good
public spaces that promote people’s health, happiness,
and well being” (PPS, 2013). But what people consider
to be “sensible” or good places varies widely and often
leads to confusion about what people mean by sense
of place. Looking across the literature, I see three
major prescriptive (normative, political) ideas about
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is the idea of ecological stewardship (place as bios),
which argues that good places are ones that work
in harmony with nature. Second, coming out of the
communitarian political philosophy there is the idea
of place as ethnos, referring to shared ways of life and
parochial attachments. Third, geographers have tried to
articulate the idea of place as demos characterized as
a progressive, cosmopolitan or global sense of place,
which forms the basis for a “political commons” in an
increasingly globalized world dominated by plurality
and difference (See Williams and Van Patten, 2006).
This latter perspective is important for the concept of
governance or the way in which “sensible places” fits
into conservation and resource management as a sociopolitical process.Thinking of sense of place as an ongoing,
often contested social creation helps us recognize that
people have strongly held but competing meanings
or claims. We cannot wish away the very ambiguous
situation that the value and meaning of a place is “up for
debate” rather than grounded in ethics, science or some
technical assessment. Thus these competing claims are
not subject to “rational” control or management, but
instead must be politically adjudicated.
The challenge of place making in conservation practice
18
is finding a balance among these different normative
conceptions of place (bios, ethnos and demos)
-- a balance requiring a complex mix of parochial
attachments, cosmopolitan openness and diversity, and
environmental stewardship. Thus, taking some liberties
with the PPS definition of place making, I would suggest
the following definition: a multi-faceted and inclusive
approach to the planning, design and governance of
(usually) public spaces with the aim of creating a shared
sense of a place that promotes human well being and
environmental stewardship. The argument I am making
here is that “place” functions as both a context for
governance -- gives adaptive governance its structure
– and is constituted by governance process (e.g., placemaking, contestation). Broadly conceived governance
involves “place centric” coordination of networks, and
collaboration across diverse actors and organizations.
This coordination may be unplanned emergent as well
as intentional or purposeful.
Conclusion
There is much yet to learn about collaborative place
based governance and conservation, but let me close by
suggesting a few key ideas that came from my recently
published book, Place-Based Conservation (Stewart et
al., 2013).
R5 )!(#45 \&)&]5 *&5 -*#ŀ5 '(#(!-5 (5
sentiments (e.g., using participatory mapping of place
meanings, values and uses and establishing “learning
circles” to elicit place specific knowledge and stories)
R5(.# 35**,)*,#.5,)&-5 ),52*,.5%()1&!
R5/&.#0.5(15"((&-5) 5)''/(#.#)(
R50&)*5#0#5*#.35 ),5*,.##*.#)(5B8!865(!!5
volunteers as place-makers)
R5/-.)'#45(5)(.2./&#45!)0,((5-.,.!#-5
Integrate multiple geographic scales of analysis and
collaboration
To summarize:
R5&5#-5")15*)*&5'%5-(-5) 5."51),&
Keynote Adresses
R5)*&5 ),'5)(-5(5,&.#)(-"#*-51#."5*&-5.".5
give meaning and identity to their lives
R5 -,#*.#0&365 *&5 '%#(!5 #(0)&0-5 '.,#&5 (5
discursive practices of diverse competing institutions
and actors operating at different scales
R5 ,-,#*.#0&35 *&5 '%#(!5 #-5 ."5 )(!)#(!5 *,)--5
of many actors guided by competing norms of what
constitutes a good place
R5 )0,(#(!5 *,)..5 ,-5 #(5 (5 ,5 ) 5 '/&.#7-&5
complexity requires collaborative approaches that bring
diverse points of view from somewhere to nowhere
together
Figure 1. Sack’s geographic framework on place applied to knowledge, experience, and governance of conservation areas.
Related References and Literature Cited
Brooks, J. J., Wallace, G., & Williams, D. R. (2006).
Place as a relationship partner. Leisure Sciences, 28,
331-349.
PPS (2013). What is placemaking? http://www.pps.
org/reference/what_is_placemaking/ (accessed July
9, 2013).
Gieryn, T. (2000). A space for place. Annual Review of
Sociology, 26, 463-496.
Pierce, J., Martin, D. G., & Murphy, J. T. (2011).
Relational place-making: The networked politics
of place. Transactions of the Institute or British
Geography, 36, 54-70.
Sack, R. D. (1992). Place, modernity and the consumer’s
world. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
Stewart, W.P., Williams, D. R., & Kruger, L. E. (Eds.),
Place-based conservation: Perspectives from the
social sciences. Springer Publications.
19
Keynote Adresses
Williams, D. R. (2008). Pluralities of place: A user’s
guide to place concepts, theories, and philosophies
in natural resource management. In L. Kruger, T.
Hall, & M. Stiefel (Tech. Eds.), Understanding
concepts of place in recreation research and
management (USDA Forest Service, Tech. Report
PNW-GTR-744, pp. 7-30). Portland, OR: Pacific
Northwest Research Station.
Williams, D. R., & Van Patten, S. R. (2006). Home
and away? Creating identities and sustaining
places in a multi-centred world. In N. McIntyre,
D. R. Williams & K. E. McHugh (eds.), Multiple
dwelling and tourism: Negotiating place, home and
identity (pp. 32-50). Cambridge, MA: CABI.
Williams, D. R. (2002). The social construction
of Arctic wilderness: Place meanings, value
pluralism, and globalization. In A. Watson, L.
Alessa, & J. Sproull (Comps.), Wilderness in the
Circumpolar North: Searching for compatibility in
traditional, ecotourism and ecological values (Proc.
RMRS-P-26, pp. 120-132). Ogden, UT: U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky
Mountain Research Station.
Williams, D. R., & Patterson, M. E. (1996).
Environmental
meaning
and
ecosystem
management: Perspectives from environmental
psychology and human geography. Society and
Natural Resources, 9, 507-521.
20
Keynote Adresses
Integrating People’s Diverse Needs into
Collaborative Forest Management: Is it Possible?
Taylor V. Stein 1
1
Professor, School of Forest Resources and Conservation
University of Florida
It is challenging, and practically impossible, to solve
any major problem facing communities and regions
today without multiple parties coming together to
develop and implement complicated solutions. The
field of natural resource management is replete with
issues composed of a variety of stakeholders who have
drastically contrasting values and firm opinions about
the environmental issue under debate. Therefore,
planning strategies and decision-making processes that
bring diverse stakeholders together to develop realistic
land management tools that integrate people’s diverse
needs are needed.
This paper provides a broad overview of the concept of
collaboration and briefly discusses two case studies of
unique collaborative strategies. There are a variety of
ways to think about collaboration, but for purposes here,
collaboration is the “pooling of knowledge, skills and/or
tangible resources, e.g., information money, labor, etc.
by two or more stakeholders to solve a set of problems,
which neither can solve individually” (Gray, 1985, p. 912).
Even with this definition, collaboration is a very broad
concept, and it might be difficult to put into practice. To
help operationalize the collaborative concept, a variety
of authors (Wondolleck and Yaffee, 2000; Steiner, 2008)
have attempted to describe key elements necessary to
successfully implement collaboration on both small
(e.g., working with a researcher on a specific problem)
or large scales (e.g., planning and managing a world
biome spread that crosses multiple national boundaries,
like the Amazon). Several key elements necessary for
successful collaboration include:
Leadership: The overall collaborative process and the
specific strategies involved in the process must have a
leader and organizer. If no person or organization is
initiating the overall process and specific strategies, the
process will likely be forgotten and ignored.
Two-way communication: Collaboration is not a
synonym for education. Both the powerful players in the
process (e.g., government agencies) must listen to and
learn from the less powerful players (e.g., community
residents and small businesses).
Flexibility and openness: Although a collaborative
strategy should be planned, implementers of the process
must understand that they need to adapt to unforeseen
challenges and opportunities. Also, although not all
stakeholders will be invited to participate in every aspect
of the process, all stakeholders should have the ability to
follow and understand the process.
Accessible: All stakeholders must have the opportunity
to play some role in the collaborative process.
Agreement: Major decisions must have some sort
of agreement by the representatives of the major
stakeholders in the process. These decisions could
be simple decisions like when a meeting should be
scheduled, as well as, the final approval of a plan.
Progress: Meetings should clearly move the process
forward. If participants believe they are putting their
time into meetings that are not productive the process
will quickly fail.
Active Involvement: Strategies should be developed
that give all stakeholders some active role in the
process. Meeting that inspire and promote new ideas
21
Keynote Adresses
and solutions will motivate participants to continue
to participate in the process and take part in the final
solutions.
Reward Participation: Not only should participants
feel like their participation is resulting in tangible
rewards for their organizations, but the leader of
the collaborative process should acknowledge all
participants’ participation in some way that shows that
their work is valued.
Case Study 1: U.S. Cooperative for Conserved Forests
The state of Florida in the southeastern U.S. is more
known for its beaches and amusement parks than for
its forests; however, over half of Florida’s land base
is forested and a variety of government agencies are
working to conserve these forests in the face of increased
urban development. In 2007, seven Florida public land
management agencies developed a cooperative, known as
Conserved Forest Ecosystems: Outreach and Research
(CFEOR), under the administration of the School of
Forest Resources and Conservation at the University of
Florida to collaboratively develop scientific solutions to
difficult forest management problems (Kreye, 2012).
This collaborative process is particularly successful in
showing good two-way communication through biannual steering committee meetings, active outreach and
scientific sub-committees, and a bi-weekly newsletter
composed of articles written by all CFEOR members.
CFEOR struggles by missing a few key elements.
Specifically, participants often do not see rewards in their
participation. Often CFEOR meetings do not actively
result in tangible results for participating members, so it
is difficult to maintain consistent participation among
agency representatives.
Case Study 2: Community-based Conservation
In 1985, the Community Baboon Sanctuary (CBS) in
Belize was established to protect black howler monkey
populations and their forest habitat along the Belize
River about 40 miles northeast of Belize City. It is a
fairly unique area because the land is entirely privately
owned, and is protected through voluntary agreements
from the 220 households who live in the area (Wyman
22
and Stein, 2010). These agreements are based around
two conservation strategies. First, residents who own
riparian land were asked to make a pledge to protect the
monkey habitat. Second, the communities within the
CBS were hoping to capitalize on nature-based tourism
to the area, with howler monkeys serving as the main
attraction. This required healthy monkey habitat and a
commitment from landowners to ensure the habitat is
sustained and accessible (Wyman and Stein, 2010).
Today, CBS is struggling to ensure healthy livelihoods
for residents and simultaneously conserve howler
monkey habitat. In terms of the essential elements of
collaboration, participants had access to all strategies of
the process if they chose (Wyman and Stein, 2010). They
also had many opportunities for active involvement. In
fact, CBS was close to becoming a model for community
based conservation because of the ample opportunities
for community residents to both conserve and improve
their livelihoods. However, the process was initially
conceived and implemented by people outside the
community, so there was no true leader of the process.
Since this is a unique example of a conserved property
not managed by a government agency, community
residents had to develop a leader on their own to move
through the process. Leadership was inconsistent and
often not apparent, so a collaborative process to ensure
conservation and tourism practices were sustained never
fully developed.
Conclusion
As evidenced in these case studies, collaboration is
difficult. However, researchers and natural resource
managers are continually identifying new strategies and
techniques to better integrate people’s diverse needs into
natural resource decision-making. All natural resource
managers need to understand that collaboration can be
a logical solution to many of the issues they work with,
but it requires strong and effective science, planning,
and management to truly be successful.
Keynote Adresses
tCitations
Kreye, Melissa. 2012. CFEOR Annual Report.
University of Florida, School of Forest Resources
and Conservation: Gainesville, FL. 16 pp.
Gray, Barbara. 1985. Conditions facilitating
interorganizational collaboration. Human Relations
38: 912.
Steiner, Frederick. 2008. The Living Landscape: An
Ecological Approach to Landscape Planning. New
York: McGraw-Hill, Inc. 470 pp.
Wondolleck, Julia M. and Steven L. Yaffee. 2000.
Making Collaboration Work: Lessons from
Innovations in Natural Resource Management.
Island Press: Washington, D.C. 277 pp.
Wyman, Miriam and Taylor Stein. 2010. Examining the
linkages between community benefits, place-based
meanings, and conservation program involvement:
A study within the Community Baboon Sanctuary,
Belize. Society and Natural Resources 23 (6): 542556.
23
24
Concurrent Session A1
Conservation and Sustainable Rural
Development in Contested Landscapes:
International Perspectives
Session organizer:
Michael Campbell, Professor and Director Natural Resources,
Institute University of Manitoba, Canada.
25
Protected Areas and Place Making: How do we provide conservation, landscape management, tourism, human health and regional development?
Reconnecting social-ecological systems: biocultural
conservation in protected areas
Fikret Berkes 1
1
Natural Resources Institute, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3T 2N2 Canada
1
[email protected]
Keywords: biodiversity, cultural diversity, social-ecological systems, indigenous peoples, biocultural conservation
Modern society seems to have disconnected itself from
nature. Can this process be reversed? Reconnecting
humans to the biosphere requires a new social contract
for sustainability based on a shift of perception from
people and nature seen as separate parts, to interacting,
co-evolving and interdependent social-ecological
systems. Here I make the argument that we already
have working examples of reconnected social and
ecological systems to conserve biological and cultural
diversity together (i.e., biocultural conservation). Many
of these examples involve indigenous groups and
are based on indigenous views of sustainability and
stewardship. Some of these systems are recognized
and supported by formal protected area governance
systems, and some are not. These experiences provide
valuable lessons on how to involve local communities
in the process of conservation. What are some of
the alternative conservation pathways embracing a
biocultural approach? How can such an approach be
adopted, and what policy mechanisms can be used?
What are some of the challenges?
I use biocultural conservation examples from Canada,
Namibia, Mexico, and Colombia to explore these
questions, based on ongoing participatory projects
at the Natural Resources Institute, University of
Manitoba. These examples show that conservation
planning is beginning (a) to deal with multifunctional
and/or cultural landscapes; (b) to accommodate
multiple objectives of the local people (political, social,
cultural, and environmental) and their livelihoods; and
(c) to address multi-level governance needs. Canada,
Mexico, and Colombia cases show that existing social-
26
ecological systems (with people living in and making
a livelihood from a protected area) are consistent with
conservation. In Namibia, as in most of Africa, longstanding policies exclude people from national parks.
However, there are possibilities for re-connecting
social-ecological systems in the Namibia case (Etosha
National Park) by providing local people access to the
Park for specific livelihood needs at specific times that
may be made compatible with conservation.
Is reconnecting social-ecological systems in protected
areas a realistic policy goal? Obviously, this approach
cannot be used everywhere. But where communitybased resource management institutions and
local stewardship ethics exist, it may be feasible.
International conservation is increasingly recognizing
the need to involve local communities as conservation
partners. At the international level, policy mechanisms
to assist biocultural conservation include (1) flexibility
under IUCN Category V and VI protected areas; (2)
recognition of Indigenous and Community Conserved
areas (ICCAs); and (3) recognition of local and
indigenous knowledge and ways to combine such
knowledge with science. The relatively new IUCN
categories V and VI are consistent with biocultural
conservation. In fact, Brazilian Extractive Reserves
served as the basis for the development of IUCN
Category VI protected areas. Conservation in a
rapidly changing complex world requires collaborative
approaches with partnerships, social/institutional
learning and adaptive governance to design finegrained conservation, and stewardship ethics with
cultural connections to the land.
Conservation and Sustainable Rural Development in Contested Landscapes: International Perspectives
Contested landscapes in Brazilian coast:
lessons from two case studies in Santa Catarina
Natalia Hanazaki1, Mel Simionato Marques2, Elaine Mitie Nakamura3
1
Laboratório de Ecologia Humana e Etnobotânica, Centro de Ciências Biológicas – Departamento de
Ecologia e Zoologia. Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Florianópolis-SC, Brasil.
1
[email protected]
Programa de Pós-Graduação em Biologia de Fungos, Algas e Plantas. Laboratório de Ecologia Humana e
Etnobotânica, Centro de Ciências Biológicas – Departamento de Ecologia e Zoologia. Universidade Federal
de Santa Catarina, Florianópolis-SC, Brasil.
2
2
3
[email protected]
Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ecologia. Laboratório de Ecologia Humana e Etnobotânica, Centro de
Ciências Biológicas – Departamento de Ecologia e Zoologia. Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina,
Florianópolis-SC, Brasil.
3
[email protected]
Keywords: Protected areas, Atlantic forest, traditional ecological knowledge
Introduction
One major mechanism of in situ conservation is
the creation of protected areas, known in Brazilian
context as conservation units. According to Brazilian
legislation, these protected areas can be created under
different categories, depending on the constraints of
resource use. These categories are divided into two
major groups: integral protection, which allows only
indirect uses, and sustainable use, which allows the
direct uses of resources with some restraints.
The protected areas are often created in areas where
local and traditional people live and/or use the natural
resources, relying on some degree of local biodiversity,
creating conflicts between the goals of conservation
and the livelihoods of these populations (Carrillo and
Charvet, 1994; Diegues, 2000). Adding complexity
to this scenario, the definition of local or traditional
people is not consensual. According to the Federal
Decree number 6040 (Brasil, 2007), which establishes
the National Policy for the Sustainable Development
of Traditional Peoples and Communities, peoples and
traditional communities are “culturally diverse groups
and who recognize themselves as such, who have their
own forms of social organization, and who occupy and
use territories and natural resources as a condition for
their cultural, social, religious, ancestral and economic
reproduction, using knowledge, innovations and
practices generated and transmitted by tradition”.
The same law defines traditional territories as the
spaces needed for the cultural, social and economic
reproduction of traditional peoples and communities,
whether they are used on a permanent or temporary
basis (Brasil, 2007), thus creating a clear association
between traditional peoples or communities and
territorial areas which can be delimited, at least in part.
The concept of traditional areas can also be related
to traditional landscapes ( Johnson and Hunt, 2012)
or areas in which the historical and continued use
and management through traditional practices have
resulted particular features of the landscape. However,
given the overlapping uses and interests in the same
area, these landscapes may be subject to several
conflicts, whether they are (or not) officially declared
as traditional territories, protected areas or regarded
as traditional landscapes. The existence of contested
landscapes is usually known where a protected area is
27
created encompassing parts of a traditional land, when
not the whole of it. In this paper we explore two cases
where contested landscapes between protected areas
and traditional lands are still unsolved. Both cases are
from the southern Brazilian coast, in Santa Catarina
state.
The Brazilian coast is undergoing a process of increasing
occupancy, being target of urbanization and real state
land speculation. In Santa Catarina, the situation does
not differ from the national scenario, and economic
interests overlaps the biological conservation goals in
threatened ecosystems, and the areas intended for this
purpose are scarce. The local and traditional people are
also embedded in the context in which, on the one hand,
there are strong pressures for economic growth and, on
the other, there is the need to protect the environment
encompassing these threatened ecosystems. Regarding
protected areas, the dispute over territories and rights
is observed both in cases of areas created for integral
protection, where the establishment of the protected
area imposes restrictions on use of land and resources,
as in cases of areas for sustainable use, whose creation
whose creation must have been under a local initiative.
In this paper we use an approach based in the
understanding of the ethnoecology and ethnobotany
of traditional people in these areas to discuss the
contested landscapes. Such approaches allow the
understanding of the patterns of use of resources and
habitats by local people and the local or traditional
knowledge associated with these uses and practices,
supporting discussions on the use and conservation by
reinforcing the importance of biodiversity conservation
combined with social diversity, and adding elements for
the controversial discussions about traditional peoples.
The cases studied
One of the cases we analyze here is the integral
protection area recently created as a measure of
environmental compensation due to the installation of
a steel company in the municipality of São Francisco
do Sul, called Acaraí State Park (Parque Estadual do
28
Acaraí). The environmental relevance of this area is
unquestionable, but parts of its boundaries include
traditional lands used by local people for artisanal fishing,
plant harvesting and small-scale farming (Foppa and
Medeiros 2011). Although the local people do not live
within this area, there are sites related to the history of
this community that became inaccessible. The second
case analyzed here is related to another area with high
environmental relevance, where traditional people also
practice small-scale farming and plant harvesting, in the
municipality of Imbituba, called Areais da Ribanceira
(Hanazaki et al. 2012, Zank and Hanazaki 2012). This
area is already within a protection regime through
the Environmental Protected Area of the Southern
Right Whale (Área de Proteção Ambiental da Baleia
Franca). However, this protection regime is not enough
to assure the permanence of traditional practices and
of the traditional people. Thus, a community-based
organization is requesting the creation of another
protected area for Sustainable Development (Reserva
de Desenvolvimento Sustentável dos Areais da
Ribanceira), but with no success due to the economic
and political forces in the region (Zank et al. 2012).
The areas studied are located in Santa Catarina coast:
São Francisco do Sul, at the northern part of the coast,
and Imbituba, at the southern-central portion. Both
are located in the area of the Atlantic Forest domain
and have “restinga” sand dune vegetation between their
main ecosystems. The “restinga” is composed mostly of
endemic vegetation, which includes herbs, shrubs and
small trees in sandy areas under influence of sea salinity
(Falkenberg 1999). In São Francisco do Sul there
are also important areas of mangroves and a fragile
estuarine system. Some socioeconomic characteristics
are common to both areas, such as the occupation
of the territory by farmers and fishermen, and the
historical importance of gardens of cassava (Manihot
esculenta) to supply flour mills, being currently an
activity in decline across the whole coast. Growing
plants for food and medicinal gardens and backyards,
as well as the extraction of wild plants are present in
both sites, for local consumption. The extraction of
species for marketing also occurs in areas of study such
as the fern Rumohra adiantiformis in São Francisco
do Sul and the fruits of the palm Butia catarinensis in
Imbituba (Figure 1).
a
b
Figure 1: Two important plant resources harvested: a)
Rumohra adiantiformis in São Francisco do Sul, and b) fruits
of Butia catarinensis in Imbituba (photos by M.S. Marques
and L. Kumagai)
In São Francisco do Sul, the Acaraí State Park, an
integral protection area, was created in 2005 and
since then there are controversial discussions on
the rights of traditional people who live around this
protected area. We developed two studies on the use
of resources and habitats in the region, seeking to
contribute to understanding the relationship between
human populations and neighboring protected area.
The studies focused on the cultivation and extraction
of plant resources (Marques 2013) and in local
food resources and habitat uses by the surrounding
communities (Nakamura 2013), in three communities
surrounding the park – two with urban characteristics,
by the seaside, and one with rural characteristics, by the
river. We checked some conflicts related to resource
use in the region, such as fishing in the Acaraí river
and extraction of non-timber forest products such as
ferns (Rumohra adiantiformis) and mosses (Sphagnum
spp.). A total of 242 plant species are used in the
three communities. Most cited plants grown in the
surrounding communities were the species of Citrus
spp., seasonings such as Petroselinum crispum and
Allium fistulosum, and different varieties of Manihot
esculenta and Brassica oleracea. Native plants were also
harvested, such as Varronia curassavica (for medicine)
Eugenia uniflora (for medicine and food), Butia
catarinensis (food and crafts), Rumohra adiantiformis
(ornamental, harvested with commercial purposes),
and Eupatorium cf. inulifolium (medicinal). The
consumption of dairy products, originated from the use
of habitats near the houses, and processed products of
cassava (Manihot esculenta) also helps to understand
the local dependence and use of natural resources.
Fishing in the Acaraí river is part of local livelihoods,
especially in the community with rural characteristics.
The main fish resources are Geophagus brasiliensis,
Eugerres
brasilianus, Micropogonias
furnieri,
Centropomus undecimalis and Mugil liza. Fishing for
Geophagus brasiliensis is a social activity, which binds
local families to the Acaraí river.
Different plant resources are used within the
environmental mosaic that constitutes the Areais
Ribanceira, in Imbituba municipality. According
to Hanazaki et al. (2012), these resources include
agrobiodiversity (mainly varieties of Manihot
esculenta) and native biodiversity (especially Butia
catarinensis and medicinal plants). Unlike South San
Francisco, agricultural activities are more present and
annual planting areas range from 0.5 to 5ha and are
used between 6 months to 2 years, with 1-5 years of
fallow. We registered 30 varieties of bitter cassava and
15 of sweet cassava (“aipins”), used to feed local families
and livestock. We identified 197 species of medicinal
plants, many of them harvested from areas of native
vegetation. The ethnobotanical studies summarized in
Hanazaki et al. (2012) started from a demand from
the community, which was already in the process of
requesting the establishment of the protected area of
sustainable use. The region has intense land conflicts,
with diverse interests, such as installing high-impact
environmental industries, and also a port property
speculation and investments geared to tourism. The
organization and coordination of community were
identified as facilitators in the process of creating this
proposed protected area (Zank et al. 2012).
Contested landscapes
The understanding of which local resources are
perceived and used is critical to identify potential
solutions to rural development, identifying
opportunities that can be economically encouraged
29
and other traditional practices that should have their
conditions of reproduction ensured. For example,
mechanisms to ensure the continued harvested of
ferns in the area of Acaraí State Park are mandatory
for the permanence of families that depend on this
activity. More important, we identified few families
depending of such activity, thus a solution need to be
directed to these few harvesters, and not for the whole
group of inhabitants of the surrounding communities.
Understanding the importance of certain resources for
local livelihoods also points toward the need for an
adjustment to the restrictions imposed by the creation
of a protected area, such as in the case of Geophagus
brasiliensis seasonal fishing. In the case of Areais da
Ribanceira, the intense dependence by the mosaic of
environments for agricultural practices can ensure
the maintenance of traditional practices that are not
guaranteed by the existence of a protected area such
as the Environmental Protected Area of the Southern
Right Whale.
In the region of Acaraí State Park there is already
under discussion a term of adjustment of conduct to
facilitate the activities of resource extraction by families
who traditionally depend on these resources for their
livelihoods. There are discussions about changing
the category of the park, converting the category of
integral protection to sustainable use, which could
allow the maintenance of livelihoods of families based
on natural resources. The weakness of this solution lies
in the characteristic of the region of intense real estate
land speculation, which could threaten the interests
of conservation of the biodiversity and sociodiversity.
The solution proposed by the environmental agency
regarding the term of adjustment requires the
registration of families that have been shown to
depend on the environment, however, this does not
guarantee the maintenance of livelihoods of these
people indefinitely, since it has an expiration date. The
case is ongoing and the outcome is still uncertain. In
the case of the Areais Ribanceira, the threat of loss
of territory led to local articulation and community
organization (Zank et al.) In this location the local
people recognizes the importance of community
management for local empowerment, and it is quite
30
clear that the effective conservation of plant resources
and local ecosystems, process initiated by community
practices of management of local biodiversity, will only
be effective if the traditional territory is assured.
For both cases, the understanding of the full array of
resources and environments used and traditionally
managed is key to perceive and qualify the interaction
between local and traditional people and the protected
areas. The relationship between traditional people and
natural resources historically used is eminent, since it
is a condition for their cultural, social, and economic
reproduction. Moreover, for both cases, the appreciation
of collective identity is central to traditional people be
recognized as such. One of the possible actions is to give
subsidies to local people so that their self organization
capacities are enhanced, which is directly related to
their empowerment (DeBoef et al., 2007). By the
other hand, the regional drivers towards urbanization
to meet the demands of tourism and leisure, and the
growing of industrial facilities are key to find (or not)
these solutions, especially in this period of Brazilian
economic growth.
References
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Carrillo, G.O.; Charvet, P.S. 1994. Areas silvestres
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para a proteção da natureza nos trópicos. 2 ed. São
Paulo: Editora Hucitec/NUPAUB.
Falkenberg, D.B. 1999. Aspectos da flora e da vegetação
secundária da restinga de Santa Catarina, sul do
Brasil. Insula, v. 28, p. 1–30.
Zank, S.; Hanazaki, N.; Assis, A.L.A.A.; Boef,
W.; Peroni, N. 2012. Empoderamento de
Comunidades Rurais e o Estabelecimento de uma
Reserva de Desenvolvimento Sustentável: Estudo
de Caso nos Areais da Ribanceira, Imbituba – SC.
Biodiversidade Brasileira, v. 2, p. 33-49.
Foppa, C.C.; Medeiros, R.P. 2011. Nosso Acaraí:
dinâmica socioecológica e relações territoriais das
populações tradicionais da área de entorno do Rio
Acaraí, município de São Francisco (SC). Relatório
técnico apresentado aos autos da Ação Civil
Publica Número: 061.07.009145T6. Ministério
Público Estadual/FATMA. Itajaí: UNIVALI, 157
p.
Hanazaki, N.; Zank, S.; Pinto, M.C.; Kumagai, L.;
Cavechia, L.A.; Peroni, N. 2012. Etnobotânica nos
Areais da Ribanceira de Imbituba: Compreendendo
a Biodiversidade Vegetal Manejada para Subsidiar
a Criação de uma Reserva de Desenvolvimento
Sustentável. Biodiversidade Brasileira, v.2, p. 5064.
Johnson, L.M.; Hunt, I.D. 2012. Landscape
Ethnoecology: Concepts of Biotic and Physical
Space. Oxford, New York: Berghahn Books
Marques, M.S. 2013. Pessoas e Plantas no Entorno
de Unidade de Conservação de Proteção Integral:
o caso do Parque Estadual Acaraí, São Francisco
do Sul, Litoral Norte de SC. Master thesis.
Florianópolis: UFSC.
Nakamura, E.M. 2013. A dimensão alimentar do nicho
ecológico de populações humanas no entorno de
unidade de proteção integral: o contexto do Parque
Estadual Acaraí, SC. Master thesis. Florianópolis:
UFSC.
Zank, S.; Hanazaki, N. 2012. Exploring the Links
between Ethnobotany, Local Therapeutic Practices,
and Protected Areas in Santa Catarina Coastline,
Brazil. Evidence-Based Complementary and
Alternative Medicine (Print), v. 2012, p. 1-15.
31
New use of an old threatened species triggering
conservation and socio-economic improvement
in southeastern Brazil
Saulo E. X. Franco de Souza1,2, Germano F. Chagas2, Edson Vidal3
1,2,3
ESALQ /Universidade de São Paulo, Piracicaba, Brazil.
1
[email protected]
Keywords: Atlantic Forest, management, local communities, NTFP.
Establishing strictly protected areas has been a common
effort for biodiversity conservation. Some reserves
have been established upon territories traditionally
inhabited for centuries, substantially affecting local
livelihoods. Seeking conservation and socio-economic
improvement, community based management of non
timber forest products (NTFPs) is a sound strategy.
One of the most important NTFP resources along
the Atlantic Forest of Brazil is the conspicuous
palm, Euterpe edulis Martius. Overharvesting and
habitat loss led authorities to formally recognize it
as endangered twenty years ago. Despite controlling
legislation and promotion of a sustained yield system
for palm heart production, E. edulis populations are, in
general, still fragmented, reduced or isolated. Recently,
focus on management systems for fruit production has
been considered a new chance to the species, its forests
and local livelihoods.
We intended to assess if local management systems for
E. edulis fruit production could trigger conservation
and socio-economic improvement inside and around
a strictly protected area in southeastern Brazil. We
addressed ecological and social predictors for sustainable
management of E. edulis in four local communities
associated with Serra do Mar State Park (SMSP). Then,
we compared density and fruit yield along a gradient
of management intensity and calculated potential
income. Our study area lies in northeastern São Paulo
State, focusing on communities living inside and
surrounding SMSP. One was that of Vargem Grande
in Natividade da Serra, next to Santa Virgínia base.
The other three were those coastal communities of
32
Ubatumirim, Cambury and Fazenda in Ubatuba, lying
inside and surrounding Picinguaba base. We performed
seven formal and eight informal interviews with
key actors, besides participant observation, analysis
of experimental management plans and relevant
scientific literature. We used Cunningham`s (2001)
and Stockdale`s (2005) framework, rating the species`
and system`s attributes. Income was estimated from
E. edulis population assessments in permanent plots
covering 1.91 ha. Density and infructescences number
were pooled with mean fruit weight per infructescence
(2.8 kg, n=20), mean actual harvesting rate (49%), mean
fruit to pulp yield (50%) and price (US$ 5.10/kg) to
estimate income.
Most ecological attributes assessed (57%) indicated
high potential for sustainability. Reproduction
mediated by animals and medium to slow growth were
the ecological attributes requiring higher input to the
system. We found a need for higher input to improve
social traits like community cohesion and conflict
resolution mechanisms. Presence of defined identity
and local knowledge could trigger such improvements.
Density of palms averaged 1,116 and 667 ind.ha-1 in
low and high intensity regimes, respectively. Strictly
protected areas had lower density (461 ind.ha-1;
p<0.001). Areas most intensively managed had the
highest infrutescences number (679 infruct. ha-1).
Estimated income was almost US$ 2,400 ha-1 for both
areas with high and low intensity regime.
Our results suggest that traditional forest practices could
increase fruit production. Biological legacy and access
control in areas managed by local communities offer
high potential for conservation, and could be the source
to E. edulis restoration. E. edulis fruit production could
also lead to socio-economic improvement, especially if
adaptive co-management is attempted or communal
resource management rescued and respected.
References
Cunningham, A.B. (2001) Etnobotánica aplicada:
pueblos, uso de plantas silvestres y conservación.
Série Pueblo y plantas, n. 4.
Stockdale, M. (2005) Steps to sustainable and
community-based NTFP management. NTFP –
EP.
33
Pluralistic Approach to Governance of Protected
Areas: A Case Study Involving Indigenous Peoples
from Northern Colombia
Julia Premauer 1, Fikret Berkes 2
1,2
1
[email protected]
2
[email protected]
Keywords: indigenous peoples, participation, rights-based conservation, protected area governance, collaboration
The dominant conservation paradigm for biodiversity
has been the establishment of protected areas (PAs)
worldwide to limit or completely ban human use and
presence. PAs cover 12.7% of the Earth’s land area,
of which Latin America has the highest national
levels of protection: 20.4% (Bertzky et al. 2012).
However, establishing PAs comes with a social cost.
PAs approach to conservation has often had adverse
effects on livelihoods of local people (Adams & Hutton
2007). Social conflicts in and around PAs, and the
various claims for an ethical and political approach
to conservation have triggered a search for alternative
approaches since the 1980s (Brechin et al. 2002;
Berkes 2004). The international interest in experiments
include:
Integrated
Conservation-Development
Projects (ICDPs), community-based conservation
(Berkes 2007), Indigenous and Community Conserved
Areas (ICCAs), and Payment for Ecosystem Services
schemes (Lele et al. 2010).
A number of countries, including Colombia, are
exploring diversification of governance types of PAs
(Kothari 2008). This includes the co-management of
PAs with indigenous peoples, as well as many other
governance experiments. Collaboration outcomes
in PAs are dynamic and context-specific (relative to
geographical location, history, conflicts, and extent of
recognition of indigenous rights) (Brockington et al.
2008). It is impossible to predict outcomes, but specific
configurations of conditions can provide valuable
34
insight as to when they are likely to succeed.
In this paper, we discuss the governance approach at
Makuira National Park (Guajira province, northern
Colombia), as an experiment of collaboration in
protected area management, in a part of the world
in which indigenous peoples rights and authority are
recognised – but in a context of low Parks governance
capacity and increasing external threats (including land
grab). Colombia has also social and political conflicts
(illicit crop production, war over strategic land between
guerrilla and paramilitary counter-insurgence groups).
The approach followed in Makuira National Park for
collaborative governance with indigenous peoples:
1) acknowledges indigenous rights, authority, and
customary institutions, 2) seeks for common interests
between indigenous groups and government, and 3)
works under certain limitations.
Colombia: Indigenous Peoples Rights and PA
Governance
Over the last century, Colombia has given legal
recognition to a great number of collectively owned
indigenous lands, and has developed a national system
of PAs for biodiversity conservation. Many indigenous
territories have legal status of resguardo (an institution
which dates from colonial times) which grants collective
land tenure for the claiming indigenous group. The
Colombian Constitution of 1991 granted partial
self-governing status in such resguardos that cover
1/3 of Colombia’s national territory and more than
80% of the forested areas that hold high biodiversity
values (Hammen 2003). It also granted recognition of
autonomy and self-determination rights of indigenous
peoples (political, cultural, territorial, and economic
rights). The scale of the overlap between national
parks and indigenous resguardos – 29 National Parks
with 59 resguardos– (Riascos et al. 2008) and other
officially recognized collective lands, made it necessary
for the two interests (i.e. conservationists and ethnic
rights) to find ways to work together and transform
entrenched conflicts. Constitutional mandates for
rights, participation, and environmental protection,
plus ongoing conflicts in and around PAs has resulted
in a policy for participation in PAs, termed “Parks
with People” policy. Such collaborative governance of
PAs is different with each social actor ranging from
consultation and co-management to co-administration
and co-government (UAESPNN 2001).
Collaborative governance of PAs with indigenous
peoples is known in Colombia as co-government
(cogobierno). Co-government is the equivalent of
collaborative governance and is broader than comanagement. It is a governance arrangement that
is based on the acknowledgment of indigenous
governing authority over territory, rights, and commons
institutions. Co-government can be understood as a
pluralistic governance arrangement, between national
parks authority (hereafter Parques Nacionales) and
indigenous peoples, that incorporates accommodation
of multiple objectives (indigenous rights and
biodiversity conservation), and state and customary
governance to negotiate planning of territorial use.
Such approach is meant to bring together different and
complementary interests for territory protection. Thus,
different governance experiments in PAs are ongoing
conflict transformation scenarios where conservation
and rights are negotiated.
This case study shows how an approach for respecting
indigenous rights in the context of conservation looks
like, with all its nuances and limitations. It also shows
that conservation in complex social, political and
ecological contexts requires establishing agreements and
alliances between Parques Nacionales and indigenous
rights holders in this case. Both Parques Nacionales and
indigenous peoples are engaging in a political process of
governance with a common aim of conservation, which
in broader terms concerns the protection of a territory.
Study Site and Methods
Makuira National Park was established in 1977, to
protect Serranía of Makuira, a small mountain range
in the northernmost part of La Guajira peninsula
(north-eastern Colombia). The park is entirely within
an indigenous resguardo. The Wayúu hold legal title
to 2/3 of the peninsula, as a collective indigenous
property named Great Resguardo Wayúu of Middle
and Upper Guajira (1,067,505 ha) (INCORA 1984).
Makuira holds significant plant and bird diversity
(Rey-Cáceres 2007, Marinkelle 1970). Its maximum
elevations are three massifs ( Jiwonnee 735m, Walechi
853m and Palua/Paaluwo’u 865m) connected by low
altitude topography. Makuira has permanent humid
forests on its peaks and upper northeast slopes due to
its position in relation to the northeast trade winds.
In contrast to the green looking Makuira, scrubland
vegetation dominates the western dry lowlands. Parques
Nacionales’ institutional presence in the area began
in 1996, almost 20 years after its legal constitution.
Despite the national park status, Makuira has long been
managed under indigenous values.
The field research followed a qualitative case study of
Makuira National Park governance. An ethnographic
approach was used during fieldwork (2009 and 2010)
which took place at different sites: Makuira National
Park (6 months) and the cities of Bogotá, Riohacha,
and Santa Marta. The data collection used multiple
sources of evidence: semi-structured (22) and informal
interviews (18), participant observation (Parks
meetings, funerals, day-to-day life), document review
and analysis, and the use of existing qualitative data
(25 interview transcripts). Data analysed encompasses
a period from 2006 to 2010. More details of study
methods may be found in Premauer (2013).
35
Results
Wayúu Self-Governance and Park Governance
In Makuira National Park governance up to 2012 has
been mostly indigenous and increasingly a collaborative
governance with Parques Nacionales. Makuira holds
numerous places (i.e. cloud forests, water springs, and
burial places) that require strict codes of conduct to
show respect and avoid harm from supernatural beings.
Access to sacred sites is regulated by directions in dreams
and taboos, and show a similar function to conservation
(Premauer & Berkes 2012). Following customary
practices, land is organised in autonomous extendedfamily territories with sacred places, houses, cultivation,
grazing and low-use areas. Makuira holds 54 such
Wayúu territories; each of them has a chief, normally
the oldest maternal uncle. He is the knowledge-holder
of the territory, keeper of its oral history, in charge of
the integrity of the land, and of controlling access of
strangers in consensus with the family.
In terms of management, Parques Nacionales has
a mandate to develop formal case-by-case Special
Management Regimes, or co-government agreements
for those areas where national parks and resguardos
overlap. Since 2006, Makuira team has been working
on the pre-implementation phase of collaborative
governance. The team has implemented a participation
strategy involving all 54 chiefs, to discuss and negotiate
joint agreements with the family groups for the
management plan. The resulting management plan is
based on the establishment of zones for different uses
inside the Park area, which should accommodate both
parks and Wayúu concerns.
Co-Government: Common and Conflicting Interests
Over the years, participation policy has allowed an
informal reciprocal relationship and a collaborative
problem-solving practice, based on the interests and
needs of local Park management and the Wayúu.
As summarized in Table 1, the first main interest in
common is the protection of territory against external
threats. The Park is interested in an increased governance
capacity to control the Park area from outsiders for
conservation reasons. This requires collaboration with
36
Wayúu authorities in order to monitor activities of
outsiders, and legitimisation of Wayúu authority and
customary territorial arrangements. The Wayúu are
interested in controlling outsiders with the help of the
Park, and be respected as owners of their homelands.
The Wayúu fear that they could lose their lands to
development projects not under their control. In this
sense, to have Park people in line with their territorial
interests provides them with an important ally within
the State, which is otherwise intermittent or absent. In
external challenges and non-compliance cases, the Park
has supported Wayúu authorities. It has also facilitated
the creation of vertical linkages between local and
national government institutions.
The second shared interest is the recognition and respect
of Wayúu ownership of territory and strengthening of
their indigenous authority. Park collaboration with the
Wayúu chiefs has allowed the Wayúu to strengthen their
commons institutions by promoting and legitimising
their chiefs, self-governance, and protecting territorial
rights. In cases of dealing with non-compliance with
regards to environmental issues, the Wayúu let the Park
staff know if they need backup. On the other hand, if the
Park manager learns that outsiders are cutting trees, for
instance, she would take a joint decision with the chief
of that Wayúu territory on how to proceed. In sum, the
Wayúu benefit from collaboration with the Park as it
helps them to reinforce their customary arrangements,
habitat taboos, and authorities.
The third common interest is to restrict access to
mountain tops with cloud forests. Inhabited and sacred
places of Makuira have been incorporated in the Park
planning process building upon Wayúu appropriation
of the landscape, conceptions and worldview. The Park
and Wayúu chiefs have agreed, for entirely different
reasons, that the mountain peaks are “no go” areas
for tourists, and are only customarily used on special
occasions when so directed by dreams. Park’s interest is
to conserve the unique cloud forest that is also key for
conserving environmental services such as fresh water
in northern Guajira. In contrast, the Wayúu interest is
to avoid people from getting harmed, as those forests
are dangerous taboo places known to have supernatural
beings.
The fourth common interest is the avoidance (as much
as possible) of external threats imposed by illegal
armed actors which remain beyond collaboration in
Makuira. Illegal armed actors controlling drug trade
corridors negatively affect Wayúu autonomy. Parques
Nacionales has taken measures to ensure that cogovernment meetings are not attended by illegal armed
actors. Makuira National Park has a partial capacity
to govern the protected area and both agreements
and collaboration are contingent on the dynamics of
territorial control of paramilitary groups making it
difficult to carry out long term projects.
Conflicting interests between Park and the Wayúu are
evident with ecotourism, self-determination rights and
livestock (Table 1). First, while ecotourism is a given for
the Park, considered beneficial and non-negotiable, the
Wayúu have mixed feelings about it, since ecotourism
only benefits a few. The Wayúu owners of the most
visited sites are getting no benefits but much trouble
with tourists polluting their drinking water and
other disrespectful behaviours. Thus, ecotourism puts
constraints on Wayúu governance autonomy. Second,
indigenous rights to self-determination, including
economic rights, are constrained by the presence of the
Park in their land, as these particular rights are second
to Park priorities such as ecotourism and conservation.
The Wayúu compromise the exercise of their full rights.
Third, livestock is a central pillar of Wayúu cultural
continuity and livelihoods. While for the Park livestock
grazing is not compatible with conservation and should
be carefully controlled or even banned, they have to
compromise and accept it in the park area, as well as
horticultural plots.
Table 1. Common and conflicting interests between Makuira National Park and indigenous peoples
Interests
Common
Conflicting
Makuira National Park
Wayúu people
Protection of territory
(mining, outsiders)
Biodiversity and
ecosystem services
Protection of land- ownership
rights; cultural continuity
Strengthen indigenous authority,
customary governance
State rules not enforceable
in isolated area
Customary rules for access
and use of land
No access to cloud forests
Unique ecosystem,
provides fresh water
Taboo areas
Prevent damage from illegal armed
groups
Affect Park’s governance
Affect indigenous autonomy
Ecotourism
Is a given for the Park;
non-negotiable;
considered beneficial
Constraints on autonomy,
as well as benefits
Indigenous rights
Only acknowledges cultural rights;
economic rights are dependent
upon conservation objectives
Right for self- determination
Livestock grazing
Not compatible with conservation;
should be carefully controlled
Central for cultural continuity
and livelihoods
Discussion and conclusions
Borrini-Feyerabend et al. (2004) highlighted the
contribution of Alto Fragua-Indiwasi Colombian
National Park as a model for a PA established at the
request of indigenous peoples. Other PAs in Colombia
are unique scenarios of complex and worthwhile
experiments of collaborative governance (Ungar &
Strand 2012). Makuira National Park collaborative
management is particularly distinct because it is
entirely within a resguardo and its historical, ethnic, and
regional context. Nevertheless, conclusions and lessons
are relevant to broader discussions on conservation and
engagements between PAs and indigenous peoples.
The findings show how most rights are being respected
through active engagement in a political process of
governance with a common aim of protection of a
territory. To expand pluralistic conservation approaches
(Berkes 2007), results show the importance of three
interconnected aspects: 1) using multiple objectives
37
(cultural continuity, rights, and biodiversity), 2)
combining both state and customary governance of the
land, and 3) respecting cross-cultural differences. Most
critically, results show that a pluralistic conservation
approach must also acknowledge that agreements are
political in nature, whereby not only shared objectives
need to be identified and pursued, but tradeoffs for
both parties become a given part of this process.
The current arrangements may be considered a strategic
alliance where both parties see such collaboration
as useful for furthering their respective interests.
Common interests and common threats motivate
collaboration. This dynamic relationship represents
a balance between maintaining strategic interests,
trade-offs, and understanding how these may change
over time. Collaboration in Makuira has proven to be
effective in protecting the land against external threats
from large scale development projects and mining, but
powerless in protecting it against illegal armed actors.
While the Wayúu receive some State presence (which
would otherwise be absent) to support their rights, the
Park acquires enhanced governability for conservation
at a local level. Yet both Wayúu and Park must deal
with trade-offs as part of this collaboration: the Wayúu
have their right to self-determination and economic
development partially restricted, whereas the Park
need to be tolerant of, for example, the raising livestock
practices of Wayúu way of life.
This study shows that PA-indigenous partnerships can
work. Far from being conflict-free, it provides lessons
to conservation governance experiments. In conclusion,
it indicates that in particular contexts, to design a more
inclusive and broader practice of conservation requires
an approach of political agreements (benefits and tradeoffs for both parties) on environmental management
that has been historically informed by national and
local contexts and conflicts, as well as supporting rights
to territory and self-government, and local institutions
for territorial governance and conservation (commons
and existing habitat taboos).
38
References
Adams, W.M., Hutton, J. 2007. People, Parks and
Poverty: Political Ecology and Biodiversity
Conservation. Conservation and Society 5:147-83
Asociación Wayuu Araurayu. 2004. Territorio, Tradición
Biodiversidad en la Alta Guajira. Riohacha, La
Guajira. Unpublished research report. Bogotá:
Ministerio de Cultura.
Bertzky, B., Corrigan, C., Kemsey, J., Kenney, S.,
Ravilious, C., Besançon, C. and N. Burgess. 2012.
Protected Planet Report 2012: Tracking progress
towards global targets for PAs. IUCN, Gland,
Switzerland and UNEP-WCMC, Cambridge, UK.
Berkes, F. 2004. Rethinking community-based
conservation. Conservation Biology 18: 621-630.
Berkes, F. 2007. Community-based conservation in
a globalized world. Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences 104: 15188-15193.
Borrini-Feyerabend, G., Pimbert, M., Farvar, T.M.,
Kothari, A., Renard, Y. 2004. Sharing Power:
Learning-by-Doing in Co-management of Natural
Resources Throughout the World. Tehran: IIED
and IUCN/ CEESP/ CMWG, Cenesta.
Brechin, S. R., Wilshusen, P.R., Fortwangler, C. L.,
West, P.C. 2002. Beyond the square wheel: Toward a
more comprehensive understanding of biodiversity
conservation as social and political process. Society
and Natural Resources 15: 41-64.
Brockington, D., Duffy, R. and J. Igoe. Eds. 2008.
Nature Unbound: Conservation, Capitalism and
the Future of PAs. London: Earthscan.
Hammen, M. C. van der. 2003. The indigenous
Resguardos of Colombia: their contribution to
conservation and sustainable forest use. Amsterdam:
Guiana Shield Initiative of the Netherlands
Committee for IUCN.
Instituto Colombiano de Reforma Agraria. 1984.
Resolución No. 0015 del 28 de Febrero de 1984,
por la cual se constituye como Resguardo Indígena
a favor de la comunidad Wayuú de la Alta y Media
Guajira, un globo de terreno baldío, ubicado
en jurisdicción de los Municipios de Riohacha,
Maicao, Uribia y Manaure, Departamento de la
Guajira. INCORA, Bogotá.
Kothari, A. 2008. Community Conserved Areas and the
International Conservation System - A discussion
note relating to the mandate of the WCPA/CEESP
Theme Group on Indigenous/Local Communities,
Equity, and PAs (TILCEPA). Retreived May 20
2008, from http://www.iucn.org/themes/ceesp/
CCA/Index.html.
2008. Caracterización de las áreas indígenas y
comunitarias para la conservación In Bolivia,
Ecuador y Colombia. Report presented to
CENESTA. Retrieved September 5, 2012, from
www.iccaforum.org
UAESPNN. 2001. Política de participación social In la
conservación. Bogotá: UAESPNN
Ungar, P.and Strand, R. 2012. Inclusive Protected Area
Management in the Amazon: The Importance
of Social Networks over Ecological Knowledge.
Sustainability. 4(12):3260-3278.
Lele, S., Wilshusen, P., Brockington, D., Seidler, R.,
Bawa, K. 2010. Beyond exclusion: alternative
approaches to biodiversity conservation in
the developing tropics. Current Opinion in
Environmental Sustainability 2: 94-100.
Marinkelle, C. J. 1970. Birds of Serrania de Macuira,
Guajira Peninsula, Colombia: Mitt. Inst. Colombo
– Aleman Invest. Cient. 4: 15-34.
Premauer, J. and Berkes, F. 2012. Colombia: Makuira,
the cosmological centre of origin for the Wayúu
people. In: N. Dudley and S. Stolton Eds., Protected
Landscapes and Wild Biodiversity, (pp. 53-60).
Gland: IUCN-GTZ
Premauer, J. 2013. Rights, Conservation and
Governance: Indigenous Peoples – National Parks
Collaboration in Makuira, Colombia. University of
Manitoba. Unpublished PhD Thesis.
Rey-Cáceres, B. H. 2007. Caracterización zonificación
ecológica, Parque Nacional Natural Macuira. Report
presented to UAESPNN by the Corporación para la
Protección Ambiental, Cultural del Ordenamiento
Territorial-CORPACOT.
Riascos, J.C., Ormaza, P., Zambrana, G., Silva, C.
39
Issues of Sustainability of Protected Areas:
Traditional Practices as a Symbol of Sustenance
of Local Communities and Conservation
C. Emdad Haque 1, Shah Raees Khan 2
1,2
Natural Resources Institute, University of Manitoba,
70 Dysart Road, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
1
[email protected]
Keywords: conservation, sustainability; protected areas; local institution; traditional practice
The conversion of the commons to Protected Areas (PA)
and the loss of commons rights have been examined
by numerous scholars in various parts of the world
(Hoole, 2008; Khan et al., 2011), and the processes and
key factors contributing to such loss were encapsulated
by Nayak and Berkes (2011) within the framework of
“decommonisation”. In this context, our investigation
aimed at assessing the impact of institutional
interventions into traditional resource management
strategies in the rural mountain areas and to explore
the issue of how can the PAs be sustained in terms of
conservation and local livelihood sustainability. In the
context of newly established PAs in Northern Pakistan,
we asked three specific questions: 1) whether the
establishment of Protected Areas without considering
local practices would remain sustainable in mountain
areas; 2) whether the traditional practices that may have
significance for the existence of PAs being neglected
by policy makers; and 3) how would local communities
retain customary rights within state controlled protected
areas? During the field investigation in 2006-8, a
four-tier method was adopted: workshops, household
surveys, focus group discussions, and data validation.
The findings revealed that the conversion of the
commons to PAs has led to complex conflicts over rights,
and it also caused significant change in the dynamics of
community power structure. The goal of conservation,
through establishing Protected Areas (PA), that seeks
to preserve landscapes in their “natural state” for the
protection of wildlife has had noticeable implications
in mountain areas. First, such legislative and regulatory
40
measures alienated the local communities from their
right to access to the traditional commons for fuel
wood collection and grazing their livestock. Second,
these interventions removed the traditional control and
management of the resources that the rural mountain
communities enjoyed for centuries. Third, the approach
disconnected the local community members from
their affection with the environment (Butz, 1996;
Hoole, 2008) and, thus, ignored the traditional laws
established by the local communities and their capacity
to retain control and effective management of the
resources. The imposition of strict rules by the State
has neglected the traditional practices of Yak herding
- symbolic to Shimshali culture. In order to respond
to these changes, some of the traditional institutions
transformed themselves into formalized institutions
with the capability to establish cross-scale linkages.
We concluded that there is a potential to manage
Protected Areas through revitalization of local level
institutions that would uphold the ownership of the
local resources and would promote “self-governance” in
management the commons. Transferring “ownership”
of resources to the revitalized local institutions would
establish a new regime which, in effect, would likely be
a shared multi-level partnership that is needed for the
sustainability of Protected Areas. Our findings suggest
that emic perspective of local livelihood is critical to
pursue effective conservation of natural resources and
sustainability of PAs.
References
Butz, D. 1996. Sustaining indigenous communities:
Symbolic
and
instrumental
dimensions
of pastoral resource use in Shimshal,
Pakistan. The Canadian Geographer, 40(1),
pp. 36-53.
Hoole, A. 2008. Community-based conservation and
Protected Areas in Namibia: Social- ecological,
linkages for biodiversity. Unpublished PhD Thesis.
University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada.
Khan, S., Rehman, S., & Sunderland, T. 2011.
Commons becoming non-commons in the efforts
for reconciliation between conservation and
livelihoods: A case study of northern Pakistan.
Journal of Horticulture and Forestry, 3(3), pp. 6371.
Nayak, P. K., & Berkes, F. 2011. Commonisation and
decommonisation: Understanding the processes of
change in Chilika Lagoon, India, Conservation and
Society, 9(2), pp. 132-145.
41
42
Concurrent Session A2
Conservation and Sustainable Rural
Development in Contested Landscapes:
International Perspectives
Session organizer:
Fikret Berkes, Institute University of Manitoba, Canada
43
Biocultural design: Weaving cultural landscapes
into community-based enterprises in and around
protected areas
Iain Davidson-Hunt 1, C. Julián Idrobo 2, Michael Campbell 3
1,2,3
1
[email protected]
Keywords: Biocultural Design, Biocultural Products, Protected Areas, Visitor Experiences, NTFPs
There is increased interest in considering the benefits
that protected areas offer to Indigenous and Local
Communities (I&LC). These benefits can include
increased involvement in protected area management
and associated jobs; the opportunity to harvest foods
and medicines along with the ability to carry out cultural
practices; and, the ability to undertake commercial
enterprises that are consistent with permitted land
uses of protected areas. In this paper, our focus is on
a process to support community-based enterprises in
appropriating commercial opportunities associated with
protected areas. This is not to discount other benefits but
simply recognizes the necessity of different approaches.
We present biocultural design as an approach that
allows communities to develop enterprises rooted in
the materials and values of their cultural landscapes,
sometimes referred to as biocultural heritage. Our
work is focused on the intersection between protected
areas and I&LC who harvest, what some might call,
“wild” resources and have detailed knowledge of their
territories. In particular, we are interested in the linkage
between landscapes and how individuals, households
and communities appropriate, process and transform
biological organisms for direct consumption or exchange.
The potential for community-based enterprises to
develop different products, such as authentic visitor
experiences, is rooted in cultural landscapes that result
from the weaving together of custom, knowledge,
practice, technology, values, identity and territory.
Biocultural design is an approach to understand such
weaving and to facilitate the development of products
by design teams in the context of community-based
enterprises.
44
Biocultural design begins with a process of reflecting
upon identity, territory and history through cultural
landscape mapping. Cultural landscape mapping
documents knowledge of the land and its inhabitants
along with stories of land use that honour the past and
celebrate the present. This process is also important
to understand the institutional environment of land
use and create new institutional conditions necessary
for enterprise development (e.g. community-based
land use plans, biocultural protocols, co-management,
tribal management corporations etc.). A comfort level
with the institutional environment is necessary for
communities to begin the phase of biocutural asset
mapping in which systematic mapping of resources, sites,
infrastructure, regulations, organizations, enterprises
and events related to land use can be documented. This
phase is critical as it shifts the conversation from what
communities lack to the competitive advantage they
bring to enterprise development. The final phase of
biocultural design moves to envisioning the future and
utilizes the information and relationships built through
the proceeding phase to consider product prototypes
(e.g. visitor experiences) through the lens of desirability,
viability, feasibility and implementation.
We then turn from the framing of the process of
biocultural design to present illustrations of the
phases discussed from projects in Canada, Brazil and
Uganda. Our work provides a systematic approach
for community-based enterprise formation that is
rooted in their assets and creativity to design visitor
experiences and benefit from commercial opportunities
of protected areas.
Gourmets of the Juatinga Ecological Reserve,
Brazilian Atlantic Forest: Culinary Creativity through
the Lens of Biocultural Design
C. Julián Idrobo1, Iain Davidson-Hunt2
1,2
1
[email protected]
Keywords: Protected areas, Atlantic forest, traditional ecological knowledge
The Atlantic Forest Coast of Brazil and its inhabitants
have experienced multiple economic cycles that have
changed their ecosystems and the ways people interact
with them. Throughout the history of this region,
coastal peoples have adapted to the booms and busts
in commodity markets, such as coffee, sugar cane and
more recently fishing resources. The 1980’s saw an
emergence of an interest in biodiversity hotspots with
the Atlantic Forest identified as one such ecosystem
at risk of disappearing. At the same time, a boom in
tourism and increased real estate speculation in the
region led the government to establish the Juatinga
Ecological Reserve ( JER; Paraty, Rio de Janeiro State).
In this paper, we focus on one way that inhabitants of
the Atlantic Forest Coast have adapted to the changing
regional economy and regulatory environment, in
particular the establishment of a protected area
overlying their community. We do this by presenting
the life story of Teteco and his restaurant on the
beach of Ponta Negra, a community located within
the JER, as it provides a successful testimony of such
adaptations. Undertaken in the community of Ponta
Negra from May 2010 to April 2011, our research is
based on life history and livelihood interviews as well
complementary ethnographic data.
This story allows us to consider the role of culinary
creativity through the lens of Biocultural Design to
create new opportunities within a changing landscape.
In particular, we focus on how infrastructure, networks
and discourse weave together in a livelihood transition
from fisher to tourist entrepreneur. We follow Teteco
through the key stages of his life in which he acquired
the skills that he needed to provide specialised
services for national and international tourists. In
his restaurant, Teteco has created a cuisine rooted in
the biocultural heritage of Ponta Negra. This cuisine
draws upon the rich biological diversity that brings
together species harvested from sea, coast and forest.
In this paper, we present the species that form the
basis of the cuisine and the ecosystem from which they
are harvested. The knowledge and skill of harvesting
these species is brought together with the recipes he
learned from his older relatives to prepare a variety of
dishes that highlight single species along with various
combinations. This knowledge was complemented
by his experience working in prestigious restaurants
from which he also learned about presentation of such
dishes for tourists. Teteco’s restaurant has provided
a new biocultural cuisine offered to tourists and
allowed him to employ three people throughout the
year along with twenty others hired for peak periods.
Teteco’s culinary creativity is an example of the type of
innovation needed to provide economic opportunities
for inhabitants of the JER and an illustration of the
type of product that can emerge out of biocultural
design.
45
Implementation of a National Park over the traditional
land of the Trindade community in Paraty, Brazil
Natália C. Fidelis Bahia1, Cristiana S. Seixas2, Luciana G. Araujo3,
Juliana S. Farinaci4, Paula Chamy5
1,2,3,4,5
GGCommons, Environmental Studies and Research Center (NEPAM),
University of Campinas (UNICAMP)
Statement of the problem
In many parts of the world, protected areas (PAs)
are designed in governmental offices, not taking into
account local inhabitants. Moreover, when governments
acknowledge local inhabitants and their development
needs, often they deal with this fact after PAs are issued.
In Brazil, this is the rule rather than the exception,
particularly for PAs created before the 1990s. This is
the case of the Serra da Bocaina National Park (Parque
Nacional da Serra da Bocaina - PNSB), established
in 1971 in parts of the states of Rio de Janeiro and
São Paulo, which encompasses relevant touristic
municipalities such as Paraty, Angra dos Reis, Ubatuba
and Cunha (Brasil, 2002).
The Park, which has not been yet fully implemented,
is part of the World Cup Parks Project - a partnership
between the Federal Protected Areas Agency
(ICMBio/Ministry of Environment) and the Brazilian
Tourism Agency (Embratur/Ministry of Tourism) to
assert adequate infrastructure for visitors during the
2014 Soccer World Cup. In this sense, strong effort is
being made by the Park’s managers to implement the
management plan issued in 2002 as soon as possible, in
order for the Park to be eligible to access resources for
tourism infrastructure based on international standards.
However, the management plan does not allow people
living within or extracting resources from the Park’s area
– despite they have lived and exploited this area many
generations before the Park was designed. This is the
case of many people from Trindade community, in the
municipality of Paraty, southern state of Rio de Janeiro.
The PNSB – a no-take protected area - encompasses
approximately 40% of the area of Trindade (Brasil,
2002; Conti and Antunes, 2012).
46
This paper aims to identify opportunities, challenges and
barriers to foster community stewardship over Trindade
communal land and seascape in face of several situations
that emerged due to the creation and implementation of
the PNSB, particularly looking at resources that affects
or are affected by tourism activities.
From mid 2011 to the end of 2012, our team carried
out a university outreach project in Trindade that
allowed us to follow actions by the Park’s managers
over the traditional land of Trindade, as well as the
elaboration of a local development plan by community
leaders. We attended meetings of community-based
organizations, as well as meetings among the PNSB
managers and community representatives to discuss
the management plan for the Park. Data analysis was
based on information from interview with the PNSB
manager, participant observation, joint actions with the
community, and secondary data. We identified four key
situations that emerged from conflicts regarding the
implementation of the PNSB over the Trindade land,
which are presented below, preceded by the historical
context.
Historical context
A series of events related to the struggle for land use and
tenure marked the history of Trindade since the 1950s,
initially with attempted occupation by squatters (Lhotte,
1982). During this time, families were widely dispersed
throughout the territory, practicing artisanal fisheries,
and small-scale agriculture and husbandry (Plante and
Breton, 2005). The region was geographically isolated,
as there was no road linking Trindade to Paraty until
1969-1970 (Lhotte, 1982).
This scenario begins to change after the construction
of Highway Rio-Santos (BR 101), which allowed
men to seek work outside of Trindade, particularly
in mid- to large-size fishing boats from other coastal
cities. The highway also drove the development of the
tourism sector in Trindade (Lhotte, 1982; Plante and
Breton, 2005). In the mid 1960s, the Brazilian Tourism
Institute (Embratur) produced a vast tourism project
with the aim of analyzing the tourism potential of the
coast between Rio de Janeiro and Santos. The region of
Paraty was considered of high priority, attracting rich
entrepreneurs.
Starting in 1973, the company Paraty Desenvolvimento
Territorial S/A (Brascan-Adela) - a multinational
- tried to expropriate the lands of Trindade people,
leading to a conflict. Some caiçaras families resisted
and, with the aid of the Society for the Defense of the
Brazilian Coastline, managed to bring the case to the
court, which ensured part of the land to the community
through an agreement signed in 1982 (Lhotte, 1982;
Plante and Breton, 2005). Community members were
relocated into lots that compose what is we know
now as the community. Part of the area close to Praia
do Meio was assigned to the residents association for
communal use. However, the largest portion of Trindade
land was kept under the multinational ownership
(Conti and Antunes, 2012). In mid 1970s, the Paraty
Desenvolvimento Territorial passed the land ownership
to Trindade Desenvolvimento Territorial (TDT).
Since mid-1970, tourism has increased in Trinidad,
becoming an important activity in local economy
(Plante and Breton, 2005). Although fishing is the basis
of caiçara culture and some families still practice it, the
main livelihoods in Trindade nowadays are related to
tourism and small-business (Conti and Antunes, 2012;
Hanazaki et al., 2013).
From 2008 on, a team from the Chico Mendes Institute
for Biodiversity Conservation (ICMBio) has been
conducting actions in Trindade with the intention
to effectively implement the PNSB. The first attempt
to controlling/managing the Trindade area occurred
during Carnival 2009, when a camping located near
Praia do Meio was embargoed (Conti and Antunes,
2012). Since then other measures has been taking by
the PNSB managers, including (i) the embargo of sewer
treatment system in Trindade; (ii) the establishment
of natural resources using rules within the PA; (iii)
surveillance operations carried out during high season
and holidays; (iv) fixing signs advertising the PNSB
borders; and (iv) the creation of the PNSB Consultative
Management Council in 2010. One of the priorities of
the current PNSB officers is planning tourism within
the protected area. They adopt the following values
in order of importance: environmental conservation,
the quality of visitation and local development. The
implementation process, however, has accelerated since
the PNSB integrates design “Parks Cup” which aims to
offer tourists the proper structure by 2014.
Given the conflicts between the local population and
the park´s managers triggered by the actions already
taken (Conti and Antunes, 2012), the priorities of
PNSB and the right to maintain the livelihoods of
the community, tourism has become an important
arena for negotiations between the PNSB staff and the
community of Trindade.
Opportunities for community stewardship
Situation I: Occupation of Praia do Meio and conflicts
among community groups
Praia do Meio is a beach within the PNSB area and
an important tourism site in Trindade, where several
kiosks (bars and restaurants) were located. The Park´s
managers expressed their intention to move out the
Praia do Meio kiosks since the beginning of their
contact with the community in 2008 (ICMBio, 2012).
In 2010, the Park´s managers proposed an agreement
with the bars and restaurants owners, by which they
would be allowed to maintain their kiosks until the end
of 2013 high tourist season (i.e., March 2013). Only one
of the kiosk owners formally accepted the deal, while
others preferred to legally dispute the case. The first
court decision was issued in February 2012 favoring the
park which resulted in two kiosks being demolished in
47
Praia do Meio.
Some Trindade villagers (Trindadeiros) protested
against the demolition of kiosks by disseminating
a manifesto during the People’s Summit at Rio+20,
telling their history of struggle for land and current
conflicts with the PNSB. In July 2012, community
members barricaded the access road to Trindade
to prevent the eviction of other kiosks in Praia do
Meio, and also protested against the actions of PNSB
during the International Literary Fair of Paraty (Feira
Internacional Literária de Paraty - FLIP) in the same
month. Moreover, representatives of kiosks´ owners
and parking lots located in Praia do Meio, along with
representatives of the municipal government, met with
the President of ICMBio in Brasilia to discuss the
adjustments for the permanence of kiosks and parking
lots near the beach.
However, several members of the community, including
the Association of local inhabitants of Trindade
(Associação dos Moradores de Trindade - AMOT), did
not support these actions since bars, restaurants, and
the parking lots in the Praia do Meio area were built in
an area originally allocated for community use during
the agreement with the Trindade Desenvolvimento
Territorial S/A back in the 1980s. Divergence between
private and collective interests incited internal conflicts
in the community, which were greater than the ability
of both parties to come together to fight for access and
maintenance to their territory.
The demolition of all but three kiosks in Praia do
Meio, determined by a court order, was completed in
December 2012. Among the kiosks that remain are the
one whose owner has agreed to shut down after the
2013 high season, and two other bars whose owners
claim that their families owned the area since before the
creation of the PNSB.
Opportunities for community stewardship: To pursue
the development of community-based tourism
integrated to environmental conservation as a means of
achieving local development.
Challenges: (i) To find a theme which is more powerful
48
than individual interests, capable of gathering the
community around a common interest (or vision), and/
or the emergence of community leaders who are able to
mediate this conflict. (ii) To raise awareness concerning
the relationship between environmental conservation
and quality of life / local development.
Barriers: (i) A legacy of conflict among families, which is
reflected in the alleged misappropriation by one family
of an area that should be communitarian. (ii) People
,5 \,'5 1#."5 1),-]5 !#(-.5 "5 ).",65 "#(,#(!5
dialogue.
Situation II: Management issues in Praia do Meio
After the demolition of the first kiosks, ICMBio
reduced their enforcement activities during holidays in
Trindade. Until 2012, kiosk owners used to organize
themselves for cleaning the beach in front their kiosks
to attract tourists (although the garbage in the back of
their kiosks could be better managed). Some tourists
and community members reported that, since the
demolition of the kiosks, they noticed an increased
accumulation of garbage on the beach, the presence
of tourists barbecuing and irregularly camping on the
beach, and outsiders charging to watch the cars parked
near Praia do Meio.
This situation resulted from an eviction of kiosks
without a plan for subsequent managing of the beach by
ICMBio itself or in collaboration with the community.
The area was evacuated and not even a top-down
enforcement measure was created. Only the members
of the Association of Small Fishermen and Boatmen
of Trindade (Associação de Barqueiros e Pequenos
Pescadores de Trindade - ABAT) frequently take time
for collectively cleaning the beach and inform tourists
about the park and its rules. Faced with this situation
of management void in Praia do Meio, Trindade people
are, in general, taking a critical stance towards ICMBio.
Opportunities for community stewardship: Instead of
just criticizing ICMBio, the local people could take
care of the beach, and show their capacity to organize,
conserve and manage their territory. It could be a means
to legitimize them as the “traditional” owners of this area,
and to reaffirm community-based tourism integrated
to environment conservation as a viable option for
local development. It would also be an opportunity to
exchange experience and to form collaborative networks
with nearby communities, such as the Praia da Almada,
located a few dozen kilometers from Trindade, whose
successful experience in collectively managing their
territory (Futemma and Seixas, 2008) is little known
among Trindadeiros.
Challenges: (i) To create a common vision of the
community in relation to tourism management in
Praia do Meio in order to foster collective action. (ii)
To encourage proactive behavior by locals, so that they
abandon their stance of reaction and criticism against
the PNSB management and seek agreements.
Barriers: (i) Power asymmetry in the relationship
between ICMBio and the community. (ii) Lack of trust
among community members.
Situation III: Delimitation of the PNSB area
The demarcation of the PNSB over Trindade area was
a central issue of concern for the technical staff of this
protected area (Conti and Antunes, 2012). The detailed
mapping of the descriptive memorial in the decree that
created the PNSB (Brasil, 1972) was conducted in
2011, in response to a lawsuit by Trindade people with
the Public Prosecutor. This study fostered a Technical
Assessment of the Board of Conservation Units of
ICMBio, currently adopted by the PNSB staff.
In practical terms, the mapping provided a new
interpretation of the PNSB borders, different from
what the community understood from the decree, and
now advances over some areas of the Trindade village
such as the cemetery, the area to implement a sewer
treatment plant and parking lots. Although this is
should be public information, locals do not know for
sure what are the limits of the Park, i.e., what effectively
is inside or outside its borders. In contrast, the PNSB
manager considers that the Park limits did not change,
but now there is a more accurate interpretation of what
was established in the decree.
This lack of clarity exacerbates conflicts within the
community and contributes to the feeling of insecurity
and mistrust among community members, and between
the latter and the Park managers. They feel that again,
as happened in the 1970s and 1980s, the community is
going through a loss of territory and access to resources.
Opportunities for community stewardship: Instead
of waiting for someone to tell where the limit of the
Park is, locals could realize they have the right to access
this information, and get to know the legislation that
affects them. It they accept the PNSB as a fact; they
could concretely deal with it instead of nurturing an
imaginary that the Park could move away, or could cease
to exist, and try to make their best to take benefits from
this reality.
Challenges: (i) To seek information at its source,
without relying on the interpretation of others. (ii) To
use information that already exists.
Barriers: (i) To overcome insecurity, ignorance,
inferiority, and distrust that local people feel. (ii)
Technical language / jargon of laws and technical
documents.
Situation IV: Assessment and adjustment of the
PNSB management plan
The PNSB Management Plan was approved in 2002,
and its Consultative Council was established in October
2010. More recently, the PNSB staff realized that the
Management Plan needed to be revised, and made some
modifications to it. Currently, this document is going
through the analysis of the Consultative Council of the
PNSB and will later be forwarded to higher spheres of
ICMBio for approval. According to the PNSB manager,
the Management Plan should be a guiding document;
its revision is necessary to protect the PNSB staff in
implementing actions, mainly those related to tourism
within the Park area.
Since August 2012 there have been meetings between
the PNSB management and the representatives of
Trindade on the Consultative Council, as well as among
49
these counselors and other community members.
They formed a working group and, aided by outsiders,
the community prepared a draft of the Cultural and
Environmental Management Plan for Trindade. This
draft was presented to the PNSB managers, who
pledged to support some items.
Some locals have been meeting regularly to discuss
the revision of the PNSB Management Plan. During
these meetings, we observed that discussions are
permeated by doubts about the functioning and the
consequences of the Management Plan’s revision,
by lack of trust in outsiders, and by internal conflicts
regarding the commercial exploitation of tourism in the
community areas. By considering that the revision of
the Management Plan is not occurring in a genuinely
participatory way, some local people declared their
intention to no longer participate in this process.
Besides feeling powerless to influence decisions, they
fear that their attendance at meetings to discuss the
Management Plan may be used by the PNSB managers
to legitimize this plan as participatory, what could
generate problems to counselors within the community
they represent.
We note that, although PNSB managers declare that
the monitoring process of the Management Plan
should include community participation, some attitudes
of these agents have hindered the construction of a
truly participatory process. Among these attitudes,
we highlight the pressure to complete the process in
a period that is not consistent with the possibility of
effective community participation. Moreover, it is often
mentioned by managers that the residents of Trindade
have no right to stay in the Park, i.e., it depends on
managers’ goodwill to permit the community access
to the Park. These situations, among others, exemplify
the asymmetry in power relations between the
managers and Trindadeiros, which is characteristic of a
preservationist view in which resource users are seen as
a threat to conservation rather than as potential partners
and stewards of the resources they depend on.
Opportunities for community stewardship: Both
community and Park administration should consider
50
the revision of the Management Plan as an opportunity
for dialogue between them. Community representatives
could bring information about the Park, gathered in
the meetings, to the community. This process may
lead to building community capacity for negotiating.
Rules of use of resources within the PNSB area are
being reformulated; provided there is organization, the
community may influence such reformulation.
Challenges: (i) “Disarming” everyone involved to
see it as an arena for dialogue and negotiation. (ii)
Community members should accept restriction of access
to resources and try to negotiate, rather than struggle
to restore a situation that will not be reversed (the
PNSB will not cease to exist). (iii) Strengthening local
organizations and training individuals for participating
in the process of negotiation of rules. (iv) Overcoming
the overall difficulty in performing procedures such as
recording of meetings in minutes. (v) Overcoming the
lack of security of community representatives in the
Consultative Council over the support they have in the
community.
Barriers: (i) The Consultative Council has no deliberative
power. (ii) Power asymmetry in the relationship between
ICMBio and the community. (iii) Technical jargon used
in the Management Plan.
References
Brasil. 1972. Decreto de Criação do Parque Nacional da
Serra da Bocaina. Decreto n. 70.694 de 8 de junho
de 1972
Brasil. 1983. Decreto de Criação da Área de proteção
Ambiental Cairuçu. Decreto No 89.242, de 27 de
Dezembro de 1983.
Brasil. 2002. Ministério do Meio Ambiente/IBAMA/
DIREC. Plano de manejo do Parque Nacional
da Serra da Bocaina: encarte n. 5. Brasília: FEC/
UNICAMP.
Conti, B. R. and Antunes, D. de C. 2012. Conflitos na
gestão do Parque Nacional da Serra da Bocaina:
entraves ao desenvolvimento local na vila de
Trindade (Paraty, RJ). Interações, vol. 13, n. 2,
pp. 213-223. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S151870122012000200008
Futemma, C.R.T. and Seixas, C.S. 2008. Há
territorialidade na Pesca da Comunidade de
Almada (Ubatuba, SP)? Questões intra, inter e
extra-comunitárias. Biotemas 21 (1): 125-138
Hanazaki, N.; Berkes, F.; Seixas, C. S.; Peroni, N. 2013.
Livelihood Diversity, Food Security and Resilience
among the Caiçara of Coastal Brazil. Human
Eology, vol. 41, p. 153-164. DOI 10.1007/s10745012-9553-9.
ICMBio 2012. Boletim Informativo do Parque
Nacional da Serra da Bocaina, junho 2012 Ano
Iv – Edição EspecialLhotte, C. 1982. Trindade
para os trindadeiros. Dissertação (Mestrado):
Departamento de Antropologia, Instituto de
Filosofia e Ciências Humanas, Universidade de
Campinas.
Plante, S. And Breton, Y. 2005. Espaço, pesca e turismo
em Trindade. In: Diegues, A. C. (Org.). Enciclopédia
Caiçara. Vol. III. O Olhar Estrangeiro. Ed. Hucitec.
PP. 21-74.
51
Practicalities of building co-management in complex
landscapes: North East Australia’s tropical rainforest and reef
Helen Ross 1
1
School of Agriculture and Food Sciences, The University of Queensland,
Gatton, Queensland 4343, Australia
1
[email protected]
Keywords: nested levels, Indigenous initiative, agency, complex landscapes
Co-management between Indigenous peoples and
governments is portrayed in many ways, with focus on
the governance arrangements and agreements; in terms
of the practical, on-ground arrangements; and as a
form of problem-solving. These categorizations do not
necessarily capture the realities. In parts of Australia
where Aboriginal people were not granted (or removed
to) large tracts of land in the past, which could later
become co-managed or Indigenous Protected Areas,
partners have nevertheless been building new forms and
combinations of co-management incrementally, to suit
their social and practical needs.
The iconic World Heritage rainforest areas of north
east Australia are an instance of protected areas being
declared over Aboriginal traditionally owned land,
but the process of land alienation and management
reconciliation has been two-staged. As in most parts of
Australia, Aboriginal people were first dispossessed of
these lands – drawn to live elsewhere and not granted
any form of recognition or tenure. The forests were
removed for farming or exploited for timber. Aboriginal
people continued to live nearby, and in pockets within
the forests, maintaining their cultural associations and
some were employed in timber cutting. In 1986 the Wet
Tropics World Heritage Area was declared over much
of the remaining forest, causing significant social impact
on non-Indigenous communities dependent on forest
industries. Opportunities opened for Aboriginal people.
This paper explores the extent to which forms of comanagement and related opportunities have developed
over the past 25 years in the Wet Tropics region, from
the rainforests to the adjacent Great Barrier Reef. I
examine the evolution and interplay at nested levels,
from region-wide agreements, to sub-regional and local
52
development initiatives.
While some underpinnings were created by a broad
\,!#)(&5 !,'(.]5 ),5 ."5 ),-.-5 (5 (5 ..'*.5
one for the marine area, what has emerged is a multilevel patchwork of co-management and related
initiatives, evolving over time. Many of these have been
led by the Aboriginal people, spotting openings that
could meet their aspirations, rather than relying on or
benefitting from comprehensive agreements. Indeed,
region-wide partnerships have proved hard to hold
together, for a variety of reasons including the mismatch
between government and Aboriginal preferred scales of
governance (18 distinct language groups needing to hold
a coalition together to work with a single government
department). Support levels have also played roles. At
sub-regional level, nine coastal and rainforest Traditional
Owner groups are building up co-management initiative
by initiative, starting from a very practical arrangement,
a co-managed ranger unit to provide genuine on-ground
management capacity for all future arrangements.
This group, Girringun Aboriginal Corporation, is
now working with its partners to join up its separate
arrangements into a combined, multi-party, Indigenous
Protected Area extending from rainforest to reef
according to Aboriginal rather than non-Indigenous
landscape units. Meanwhile at local levels throughout
the rainforest, Traditional Owner groups are developing
social and business enterprises related to their cultural
and landscape management aspirations.
The paper illustrates some challenges and opportunities
in building and deriving opportunities from comanagement, where the initiative is occurring at nested
levels, on different timescales, in complex landscapes.
.5"#!"&#!".-5."5,)&5) 5\!(3]5 ')(!5."5),#!#(&5
partners, as a critical feature.
Sustainable Territorial Development in a Brazilian
Marine Reserve: Is it feasible?
Rodrigo Rodrigues de Freitas1, Cristiana Simão Seixas2
1,2
Environmental Studies and Research Center (NEPAM), University of Campinas (UNICAMP)
1
[email protected]
Keywords: Marine Protected Areas, Adaptive Co-Management, Artisanal Fishery.
Territorial Sustainable Development and Protected
Areas
The territorial development theory emerged in the
beginning of 1980s as a rural development approach
seeking to overcome technocratic analysis centered
in biophysical environment aptitudes (Tonneau
e Vieira, 2006). This approach is also an answer
to the Fordist economic model, which is based in
industrialized centralization independent of the
spatial context (Vieira, 2010). This approach supports
the emergency, in territorial level, of new strategies
to the development of productive systems based
in the valorization of environmental and cultural
singularities in the face of homogenization present
in the globalized world (Pecqueur, 2009). Territorial
Development has been criticized by its strong focus in
the socioeconomic dimension of development, failing
to properly explore the ecological dimension (Andion,
2007). The Sustainable Territorial Development
(STD) is an approach under construction that brings
ecodevelopment paradigm (Sachs, 1983; Vieira, 2005)
into territorial development. In this sense, adaptive
co-management could contribute to the advancement
of research in STD studies based in institutional
theory and collective action (Carrière e Cazella, 2006;
Abramovay, 2010).
The proposal of collaborative (co-)management has
been recently integrated with the adaptive management
approach into the concept of adaptive co-management
(Olsson et al. 2004). Adaptive management of natural
resources (Holling, 1973; Walters, 1986) treats
management systems as experiments and policies as
hypothesis in face of uncertainty present in socio-
ecological systems. Natural resource co-management
conceptualization (Pinkerton, 1989; Berkes, 2009), in
turn, has as basic characteristic the sharing of power
and responsibility between the resources users and
State or other interest groups (Armitage et al. 2007).
This research explores the relationship between
the adaptive co-management perspective and STD
(Vieira, 2005 e 2010; Seixas et al., 2010) in the context
of Protected Areas. In Brazil, the National Program
of Protected Areas (PNAP, 2006) is oriented by the
creation of integrated strategies for conservation and
development. Nevertheless, many Protected Areas
were designated as environmental compensation to the
potential impacts of large enterprises that generates
conflicts with local populations (e.g. Diegues, 1998;
Almudi and Kalikoski, 2009).
The objective of this study was to investigate the
challenges and opportunities for STD deriving from
\!'5) 5.),-]5 B-.%")&,-C5(&3-#-5#(5."5,.#)(5
of a Commitment Term between Chico Mendes
Institute of Biodiversity Conservation (ICMBio)
and two communities of coastal artisanal fisheries
(Tarituba and Mambucaba at Paraty and Angra dos
Reis municipalities, respectively, Rio de Janeiro State,
Brazil). Game of actor analysis in the promotion of
institutional change have been undertaken in the
context of wine territories (Flores, 2007) and in the
action of Non Government Organizations (NGOs)
promoters of agroecology (Andion, 2007).
Game of actors analysis seeks to explain the genesis of
conflicts, representations and cooperations between the
social actors to promote changes in status quo which
53
are attuned with STD theory (Vieira and Cazella,
2006). The Territorial Prospective is product of game of
actor’s analysis and will be used to better comprehend
the challenges and opportunities to STD arisen
from this process. Fieldwork was carried out along
eighty days from February 2011 to January 2013 and
consisted of open interviews with artisanal fisheries,
participation in trawling and gill net fisheries and in
seven meetings regarding the Commitment Term.
In March 2012, fourteen semi structured interviews
were performed with artisanal fishery experts at the
communities surveyed.
The case study: Game of actors and institutional
change
The Ecological Station (ESEC) of Tamoios is a Marine
Reserve under ICMBio management and designated
by Decree no 98.864/90. “Ecological Stations”
enables scientific research and does not need public
consultation to be designated (Law nº 6.902/81 and
SNUC, 2000). Attending to co-localization of Nuclear
Plant and Ecological Stations policy (Federal Decree
84.973/80), these Marine Reserves were designated
to monitor biophysical environmental quality of Ilha
Grande Bay, due the existence of Angra I and II
Nuclear Plant. The ESEC Tamoios is located in Angra
dos Reis and Paraty municipalities, South of Rio de
Janeiro State (Brazil) and is composed by 29 islands,
slabs, rocks and it´s 1 Km surrounding (IBAMA,
2000).
Tarituba is located in the north of Paraty city and
Mambucaba Microregion, here called Mambucaba, in
south of Angra dos Reis Municipality. The economic
activities of the investigated communities include
artisanal fishery, tourism, work as staff in Nuclear
Plants and rental of households for tourists. In Brazil,
artisanal and industrial fisheries are considered
professional fisheries, and the first uses small sized
fishing boats (up to 9 m), aluminum and fiber boats or
wooden canoes.
Amateur fisheries are mostly spearfishing practitioners
54
and occasional fishers that use line and rods and/
or “tarrafa” (castnets) and “pulsar” in rivers and
coasts. The 430 dwellers of Tarituba (around 1,5% of
Paraty population; IBGE, 2012) are organized in the
“Associação de Moradores de Tarituba” (AMOT). Their
20 artisanal fisher use trawling and gill net as the main
gears and are affiliated in the Fisheries Association
of Paraty (Colônia). Mambucaba has around 31%
of Angra dos Reis population (IBGE, 2012) and
#-5 #0#5 -5 \#&5 #-.ĉ,#5 5 '/]5 Boff5
1&&,-C65\,+/5'/]5 Bil8fff51&&,-C5(5
\,#5 ,'&"]5 Bikf5 1&&,-C85 ,+/5 '/5
was formed by workers that built Angra I and II
Nuclear Plants during the decade of 1970 and 1980
and are mostly amateur fisheries. There are 36 artisanal
fishers in Mambucaba that use mainly gill nets. Since
the creation of ESEC Tamoios, fisheries are allowed
only 1 Km after the Sandri island (around 2 Km from
Praia Vermelha), Algodão island (less than 1 Km from
Vila Histórica de Mambucaba) and Comprida island
(less than 1 Km from Tarituba), where the main fishing
grounds are located (Begossi et al., 2009). Fishers with
rowing and motor boats, even in days of calm sea, are
unable to reach offshore away from this island.
Since 2008, ESEC Tamoios has started its
implementation and with support from IBAMA
(Brazilian Institute of Environment and Renewable
Natural Resources) started to enforce the rules.
Artisanal and amateur fishers argue that they are
more inspected because they stay long time in the sea
than industrial boats that acts more frequently during
night-time when surveillance operations rarely occurs.
A conflict between local fishers and government
agencies has been raised due to: (i) disrespectful
approach by IBAMA, (ii) high penalties for fishers
and (iii) less enforcement for touristic vessels. On the
other side, owners of over middle-scale fishery related
the IBAMA action with the increase of sardine and
shrimp catch occurred since 2010. As a reaction,
the Professional and Amateur Fishers Associations
of the Angra dos Reis Forth District (APEPAD)
was created in 2008. Motivated by complains from
fishers, the Municipality Council of Paraty with
the support of Fishers Association of Paraty and
APEPAD, formally demanded to ICMBio (Process
number 02070-003813/2009-08) to allow artisanal
and amateur fishing within ESEC Tamoios. In 2009,
fishers´ organizations of Paraty and Angra dos Reis
engaged in the Project Development of Management
Systems for Aquaculture and Fishery in Ilha Grande
Bay (GPESCA). Leading this project was the Rio de
Janeiro Federal University (UFRJ), the Foundation
Institute of Fishery of Rio de Janeiro State (FIPERJ)
and the Superintendence of Rio de Janeiro State of the
Ministry of Aquaculture and Fisheries (SPRJ/MPA).
The GPESCA was fundamental to the fishery sector
of Ilha Grande in order to mature discussions about
the social impacts generated by ESEC Tamoios.
In March 2012, IBAMA started to decrease the
frequency of surveillance operations and in April,
ICMBio announced to the ESEC Tamoios Advisory
Council the Commitment Term as an alternative to
resume the conflict in the most affected communities:
Tarituba and Mambucaba. The Commitment Term
is a legal instrument created by ICMBIO that
establish some rules, usually based on local rules to
allow traditional populations affected by restrictive
Protected Areas to access and use resource within such
areas. The Commitment Terms must be periodically
reviewed, after evaluation of its performance, based on
the results of environmental monitoring. Advised by
the Coordination of Territorial Conflict Management
of ICMBio, the ESEC Tamoios Officers carried out
five meetings in the communities. These meetings
aimed to explain the steps for building a Commitment
Term. Recent research (Lopes et al, 2013) proposes
the exclusion of only the Sandri and Comprida Islands
from the ESEC Tamoios. Figure 01 synthesizes
cooperation and conflicts between actors to promote
institutional change at ESEC Tamoios throughout the
evolution of the Commitment Term.
The social actors engaged in negotiating institutional
change understands that the Commitment Term
represents a legal path to transform ESEC Tamoios
into an instrument for fisheries management. The Navy
and the SPRJ/MPA strengthened its operations in
regularizing vessels and artisanal fisheries documents
of Tarituba and Mambucaba fishermen. The FIPERJ
supported the Tarituba fishery registration, being
part of the Work Group jointly with the Fishery
Association, the Municipality Council of Paraty,
AMOT and APEPAD. Artisanal fishers and AMOT
LEGEND
MMA
Federal
Navy
MPA
IBAMA
Universities
ICMBio
State
03 Deputies
Community-based
Organizations
Conflict
State
UFRJ
FIPERJ
Cooperation
SPRJ
Competition
GPESCA
Mambucaba
Tarituba
AMAM
AMOT
Local
Fishers Colony of
Paraty
Municipality
Council of
Paraty
Amateurs
Fishers
Artisanal
Fishers
APEPAD
Fishers Colony
of Angra dos
Reis
Figure 01 – Game of Actors to elaborate the Commitment Term between artisanal fisheries and Chico Mendes Institute of
Biodiversity Conservation, with featured (bold) to the members of Advisory Council of the Ecological Station of Tamoios.
55
understand that only artisanal fishers should be
included in the Commitment Term, because they are
traditional. Mambucaba organizations (APEPAD
and “Associação de Moradores da Vila Histórica de
Mambucaba – AMAM”) understands that amateur
fishers should be included in the Commitment Term.
This situation has stalled the process of building the
Commitment Term and Mambucaba now has their
insertion considered after the experience in Tarituba
has been implemented.
Territorial Prospective
The diversity of social actors present in Mambucaba
makes the linking to tradition as a criteria for
participation a challenge for the development of the
Commitment Term. Amateur fisheries and tourism
are developed by many professional fishermen that
abandoned fisheries after surveillance operations
started. Moreover, to avoid the bureaucracy in
acquiring professional fisheries licensing, many
artisanal fishermen opted for amateur fisheries licenses,
which are obtained through as simpler process. The
Ilha Grande Bay context makes the situation more
complex than first Commitment Terms designed in
the Amazonian context. Despites the inadequacy
of the traditional criteria to grant exclusive rights to
artisanal fisheries, it remains the negotiation of rights
and duties between State and Civil Society (Young,
2010). Artisanal fisheries management in the Ilha
Grande Bay requires a multilevel organization of actors
(Berkes, 2007) linked by a common project to build a
territory (Pecqueur, 2006a). Territorial development
dynamics presupposes cooperation between actors
with different interests, but convergent in some points
so as to formulate new projects (Carrière e Cazella,
2006). The geographic proximity between actors of this
project is capable to generate learning and innovation
(Pecqueur, 2006a). The common project to build a
territory in Ilha Grande Bay must act systemically
to improve artisanal fishery by dealing with its main
threat (GPESCA, 2011).
According to Seixas e Davy (2008), integrated
56
development and conservation projects may begin
after a crisis or may take advantage of a window of
opportunity. The crisis generated by the conflicts
described above created opportunities to build a
Fisheries Participatory Monitoring Research Program
in Ilha Grande Bay. This Program is expected have as
objective the certification of fish quality from artisanal
fisheries in a territory build through learning and
collaboration between their participants. Following
Armitage et al. (2009), adaptive co-management
places explicit attention in learning (experiential
and experimental) and collaboration (vertical and
horizontal). In experiential learning, the systems
should establish monitoring systems with indicators
provided by user’s experience. Experimental learning,
on the other side, are programmed experiments,
delineated, accompanied and statistically tested by
actors involved (Walters, 1986). To participate in the
Research Program, artisanal professional and amateurs
fishers should have permission to fish inside ESEC
Tamoios with small size vessels and using fishing gears
with little environmental impact. In turn, fishers could
help managers by: (i) Enforcing rules: to act as fishing
management instrument, ESEC Tamoios should
enforce the rule over middle-scale fishery and trawling
bans. The exclusive supervision by State of property
institutions demand high transactional costs to be
enforced (Bromley, 1989). Programs as the Voluntary
Environmental Agent of the Environment Minister,
for example, could allow fishers issue infraction notes.
(ii) Collecting and analyzing data: for carrying out
exams of fish quality (physiological and radiological,
for example), specimen would be collected and sent
periodically to laboratories credentialed in the Research
Program. As a participatory monitoring program,
joint procedures of collecting and interpreting data by
its participants are requested for learning.
Provide reliable information about the Nuclear Plant
impacts in the marine and coastal resources are an
assignment of ESEC Tamoios. The certification of
origin for fish caught by artisanal fisheries, when valued
by consumers with social and environmental awareness,
may contribute to develop local economy. This may be
a territorial strategy of development which confers
consumer an active role in the choice by local fish
instead of exotic shrimp and fishes (e.g. Litopenaeus
Vannamei, Pangasius hypophthalmus) commercialized
at prices up to three times lower. Paraty´s society
had an experience nationally recognized of territorial
development, obtaining the Cachaça Rum Certificates
of Designation of Origin. The association of different
specific products in a place enables to establish the
hypothesis of the basket of goods and services capable
of generating a territorial quality rent to the participants
of this initiative (Pecqueur, 2006b). In conclusion, at
least in theory, in the case of Ilha Grande Bay, it not
only feasible, but necessary, to implement integrated
strategies of conservation and development into the
ESEC Tamoios.
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Socioambiental das Comunidades de Pescadores
Artesanais da Baía da Ilha Grande (RJ). Inst.
BioAtlântica (IBio). Rio de Janeiro.
Berkes, F. 2007. Community-based conservation in
a globalized world. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. 104(39):
15188-15193.
Berkes, F. 2009. Evolution of co-management: Role
of knowledge generation, bridging organizations
and social learning. Journal of Environmental
Management 90: 1692–1702.
Bromley, D.W. 1989. Economic Interests and
Institutions: the conceptual foundations of public
policy. Basil Blackwell, New York, 263p.
Carrière, J-P e Cazella, A.A. 2006. Abordagem
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Brazilian rainforest. São Paulo, Brazil, Research
Center on Human Populations and Wetlands in
Brazil (NUPAUB), University of São Paulo.
Flores, M. X. 2007. Da solidariedade social ao
individualismo. Tese de Doutorado. Programa
de Pós-Graduação em Sociologia Política.
Florianópolis, UFSC: 266.
GPESCA, 2011. Desenvolvimento e Gerenciamento
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58
Sustainable rural community development in Western
Uganda: Tourism’s potential to alleviate poverty and
support community solidarity.
Michael Campbell 1
1
Ph.D. Professor and Director, Natural Resources Institute, University of Manitoba.
1
[email protected]
One half of the world’s critically endangered
mountain gorillas (Gorilla berengei berengei) remain
in Uganda. The most recent census (2010) suggests
that the gorilla population (786) has increased by 26%.
This is a remarkable increase given Uganda’s human
population is increasing at a rate of 3.6%/annum and
that 86% of the population engage in subsistence
agriculture. The Ugandan government has identified
the thoughtful development of tourism as crucial for
conserving Uganda’s wildlife while simultaneously
sustaining the integrity of Uganda’s diverse cultures
(GOU 2004, 2000). The key to realizing this capacity
lies in the development of local capacity to manage,
plan, interpret and profit from the resources that are
the foundation of sustainable tourism. To achieve this
symbiotic relationship between tourism and resource
conservation, it is essential that local communities
derive benefits from tourism visits. This in turn
requires that local communities are equipped with
the appropriate skills and abilities that will enable
them to plan for, attract and interact with tourists
in a meaningful way, and derive economic benefits
from the “wildlife capital” of the surrounding
National Parks. In 2006, a joint project between the
Universities of Manitoba, Makerere University and the
Uganda Wildlife Authority was initiated to support
tourism training and development in communities
bordering protected areas in Western Uganda. Three
communities, all with no previous tourism activities,
partnered with the project to identify and develop
local tourism related initiatives to enhance livelihoods
and conservation. The initiatives range from less than
one year to three years in development and include
a tourist accommodation, craft cooperative, guided
community, forest and swamp walks, 3 beekeeping
operations, tree nursery (IUCN red listed), and a hostel
for Ugandan schoolchildren. While in various stages
of development the initiatives provide insight into
critical elements for successful community tourism
initiatives. Critical elements in tourism innovations
for rural development identified in this project include:
development of collaborative innovation network to
act as social learning system; basis of trust and selforganization (learning from conflict); community
champions; transparency; empowerment and; adoption
of alternatives to act in: development of a collective
vision aimed at environmental sustainability and
community livelihood improvement and; development
of a new social system aimed at increasing the voice
of poor, community involvement and participation
in natural resources management and involving
rural people in decision-making to increase their
influence or power. A main lesson learnt from Ruhija
tented camp and the Kyanyawara project is that the
member’s own investments (developmental, monetary
and sweat equity) in the initiatives, supplemented
with additional funds contributed by CIDA, has
enhanced their commitment to the success of their
initiatives. This suggests that the more community
groups undertake tourism related investment risks, the
greater they are committed to cause of conservation.
The communities now see the natural capital of their
lands as an opportunity to generate income and other
rewards to enhance their livelihood and develop their
communities.
59
60
Concurrent Session B
Florestas Urbanas e Qualidade de Vida
language Portuguese
Session organizer:
Demóstenes Ferreira da Silva Filho,
ESALQ, University of São Paulo, Brazil.
61
Arboreal native vegetation at the Natural Municipal Park
“Corredores da Biodiversidade”, Sorocaba, SP, Brazil, and
its importance to conservation at the urban context
Samuel Coelho¹, Eliana Cardoso Leite², Ana Carolina D. Castello³
1,2,3
Federal University of São Carlos, Sorocaba-SP, Brazil
1
[email protected]
2
3
[email protected]
[email protected]
Keywords: seasonal semideciduous forest; conservation; phytosociology; municipal park
Introduction
The Brazilian Atlantic Rainforest is mainly represented
by the vegetation along the coastline, extended from the
state of Rio Grande do Norte to Rio Grande do Sul.
As a result of the intensive agropastoral, industrial and
urban activity the Atlantic Rainforest was almost totally
devastated during the centuries after the discovery of
Brazil. At the interior of São Paulo State, most of the
forest remnants are isolated, small in size and in the
early stages of succession (METZGER et al., 2009).
Furthermore, suffer more serious and constant threats
by being located close to urban centers or surrounded
by large monoculture plantations (TABARELLI et al.,
2005). However, the forest remnants close to urban areas
are very important to maintenance of environmental
balance, mainly regarding to the quality of the air, soil,
water resources and the local climate (HÜLLER et al.,
2011).
The majority of forest remnants in São Paulo State are
protected by specific laws in the protected areas (SÃO
PAULO, 2004). Inside all its territory, beyond the few
remaining of Seasonal Semideciduous Forest (SSF)
and “Cerrado” (Savanna), there are few protected areas
in this formations (METZGER and RODRIGUES,
2008), as well as in the region of Sorocaba. This region
62
has the second biggest area in fragments forest of the
State, losing only to coastline region (KRONKA,
2005) and is intensely urbanized. In Sorocaba, one
of these fragments belongs to Natural Municipal
Park “Corredores da Biodiversidade” (PNMCBio)
area, the first protected area actually implanted in the
municipality. Due to the actions of implementing this
protected area are recent, virtually nothing is known
about the floristic composition and vegetation structure
of this fragment, which hinders the establishment of
management actions; however, it’s known that it is a
changed forest fragment (SOROCABA, 2012).
Despite Sorocaba region hold several remainings
of Seasonal Semidecidual Forest (MELO, 2012),
struture and composition studies are rare in this
region (CARDOSO-LEITE and RODRIGUES,
2008). Disturbances occurred in the ecosystem make
them fragile, increasing environmental concern
and highlighting the need of studies that subsidize
actions that maintain the sustainability of the
fragments (GENELETTI, 2004). Accordingly, the
phytosociological study provides the ecological basis
to explain how occurs the interaction among species
in tropical forests and the floristic diversity of natural
environmental, being of paramount importance for
planning the rational use of this resource.
In urban ecosystems, where natural condition is strongly
altered, such fragments are very important to improve
quality of life, because vegetation eases the impacts
caused by human activity, ensuring the maintenance of
ecosystems services and maintenance the environmental
quality. This public space can be set for several action
for biodiversity conservation, awareness and pleasure, a
challenge that involves great reflections of human action
and the environmental changes related.
Thereby, we aimed analyse the arboreal structure of the
remaining fragment in PNMCBio, providing auxiliary
data management to assist conservation, restoration and
management of the area.
Methodology
Study area
The study area belongs to PNMCBio, located at north
of Sorocaba municipality and between the coordinates
23º23’38” S 47º29’04” W. The Park has a total area of
62,64 ha, of which approximately 20 ha belongs to the
studied fragment, classified as Seasonal Semideciduous
Forest (BRASIL, 1992). The southern portion of the
fragment appears as an permanent preservation area
(BRASIL, 2012) surrounded by Campininha stream,
a Sorocaba river tributary. The studied fragment is
surrounded by managed and abandoned Eucalyptus
sp., reflecting the high degree of habitat fragmentation
in the region, directly related to agricultural activities
and urbanization process (SÃO PAULO, 2012).
This implementation was made with the purpose of
providing compensation for the environmental impact
caused by the installation of a new unity of Toyota
(automobile industry), so the area is located in an urban
area in urban-industrial expansion, near the industry.
Data collection and analysis
To floristic and phytosociological analysis we allocated
64 plots (MUELLER-DOMBOIS and ELLENBERG,
1974) of 10x10m, grouped in 16 blocks with four plots
each one.We sampled all individuals with a circumference
at breast height (CBH) ≥ 15 cm, including dead trees
who were standing, having measured their height and
CBH. The phytosociological parameters (MUELLERDOMBOIS and ELLENBERG, 1974) were calculated
using the software FITOPAC 2.1 (SHEPHERD, 2009)
and the Cover Value Index (CV) (sum of the relative
density and relative dominance) and Importance Value
(IV) (sum of density, dominance and frequency) are
present, chosen because allows a more comprehensive
view of the species structure in the community.
The botanical material collected was pressed and
dried according to usual techniques for this type
of study (FIDALGO and BONONI, 1989). The
species identification was based on specific literature,
comparison with herbarium material and aid of experts.
The families names are according to the APG III
(2009), the spelling of species names and authors were
conferred through the database of tropical plants of the
Missouri Botanical Garden (W3TROPICOS, 2012).
The species successional characterization was made
using a data compilation from the “Secretaria de
Estado do Meio Ambiente” (SÃO PAULO, 2008).
The successional groups were divided into two broad
categories: “Pioneers” (P), which includes pioneer
and early secondary, and “Non Pioneers” (NP), which
includes late secondary and climax, categories also
adopted by Catharino et al. (2006) and Cardoso-Leite
and Rodrigues (2008). Species not identified until the
specific epithet and exotic were not characterized (SC).
The successional groups of species sampled and the
relative proportion between the number of individuals
of species in these groups were also considered to infer
the successional stage of the vegetation, in this analysis
were not included dead trees.
Results and Discussion
We sampled 1088 individuals in 64 plots, of which 116
were dead. The individuals were disitributed into 29
families, 54 genera and 80 species, and the dead trees
were treated as one family and specie for the calculation
of phytosociological parameters (Table 1).
63
Table 1. Sampled species at Parque Natural Municipal Corredores da Biodiversidade (PNMCBio). Nind: Number of specimens
collected
respectivesampled
species; IVat– Natural
ImportanceMunicipal
Value; CV Park
– Cover
Value; CS – Sucessional
Characterization; SC –
Tablefrom
1. the
Species
"Corredores
da Biodiversidade"
(PNMCBio).
Nind: Number
of specimens collected from the respective species; IV – Importance
Unclassified;
P – Pioneers;
NP – Non
Value; CV – Cover Value; CS – Sucessional Characterization; SC – Unclassified; P – Pioneers;
NP – Non Pioneers.
Família
Espécies
NInd
Dead
Dead
Lonchocarpus subglaucescens Mart. ex Benth.
116
27,02 17,52
Fabaceae
82
24,33 20,39 NP
Sapindaceae
Cupania vernalis Cambess.
115
23,02 16,92
P
Salicaceae
Casearia sylvestris Sw.
93
22,54 13,93
P
Fabaceae
Machaerium stipitatum (DC.) Vogel
82
16,86 12,92 NP
Fabaceae
Platypodium elegans Vogel
51
12,98
9,93
Euphorbiaceae
Pera glabrata (Schott) Poepp. ex Baill.
26
11,81
9,12
P
Salicaceae
Casearia obliqua Spreng.
33
10,89
7,84
NP
Myrtaceae
Campomanesia xanthocarpa Mart. ex O. Berg
44
10,51
7,64
NP
Fabaceae
Machaerium villosum Vogel
30
10,18
6,42
NP
VC
CS
-
P
Salicaceae
Casearia decandra Jacq.
40
10,17
6,76
P
Sapindaceae
Matayba elaeagnoides Radlk.
28
7,31
4,8
P
Lauraceae
Nectandra lanceolata Nees
14
7,01
5,76
NP
Fabaceae
Bauhinia longifolia D. Dietr.
21
5,95
3,62
P
Fabaceae
Machaerium vestitum Vogel
18
5,65
2,96
NP
Fabaceae
Leucochloron incuriale (Vell.) Barneby & J.W. Grimes
25
5,59
3,44
P
Myrtaceae
Myrcia sp 2.
18
5,02
2,51
SC
Meliaceae
Trichilia pallida Sw.
17
4,67
2,16
P
Boraginaceae
Cordia trichotoma (Vell.) Arráb. ex Steud.
11
4,18
2,92
NP
Rutaceae
Zanthoxylum rhoifolium Lam.
9
4,02
2,77
P
Ebenaceae
Diospyros inconstans Jacq.
11
3,84
2,05
NP
Rutaceae
Esenbeckia febrifuga (A. St.-Hil.) A. Juss. ex Mart.
17
3,25
2,17
NP
Cannabaceae
Celtis fluminensis Carauta
10
3,21
1,77
P
Celastraceae
8
2,89
1,64
P
5
2,84
1,95
P
Fabaceae
Maytenus gonoclada Mart.
Lonchocarpus cultratus (Vell.) A.M.G. Azevedo & H.C.
Lima
Copaifera langsdorffii Desf
7
2,65
1,39
NP
Fabaceae
Machaerium nyctitans (Vell.) Benth.
7
2,62
1,72
NP
Fabaceae
Piptadenia gonoacantha (Mart.) J.F. Macbr.
10
2,57
1,31
P
Myrtaceae
Campomanesia guazumifolia (Cambess.) O. Berg
9
2,31
1,24
NP
Bignoniaceae
Handroanthus umbellatus (Sond.) Mattos
13
2,25
1,54
P
Arecaceae
Syagrus romanzoffiana (Cham.) Glassman
5
2,18
1,29
P
Malvaceae
Luehea divaricata Mart.
7
2,05
0,97
NP
Euphorbiaceae
Croton floribundus Spreng.
4
1,97
1,25
P
Nyctaginaceae
Guapira opposita (Vell.) Reitz
5
1,79
0,89
NP
Fabaceae
Machaerium brasiliense Vogel
6
1,76
1,05
NP
Arecaceae
Arecaceae ssp.
Lithraea molleoides Engl.
4
1,62
0,91
SC
3
1,54
1,01
NP
2
1,51
1,15
NP
5
1,49
0,6
P
7
1,47
0,76
NP
Fabaceae
Anacardiaceae
Rutaceae
Sapindaceae
Cardiopteridaceae
64
VI
Zanthoxylum fagara (L.) Sarg.
Allophylus edulis (A. St.-Hil., A. Juss. & Cambess.)
Hieron. ex Niederl.
Citronella paniculata (Mart.) R.A. Howard
The richness families were Fabaceae (18), Myrtaceae
(13), Euphorbiaceae (5), Lauraceae, Rutaceae, Salicaceae
and Sapindaceae (4). Stand out particularly these
families for be in accordance with the great richness
of found species in other studies conducted in regions
near to Sorocaba to SSF formations (IVANAUSKAS,
1999; ALBUQUERQUE and RODRIGUES, 2000;
BERNACCI et al., 2006; GUARATINI et al., 2008).
It was expected that these families appeared among
the richest in number of species, once they are among
the most diverse in Brazil and are pointed by several
authors, especially with respect to large woody species.
Families represented with only one specie totaled 17,
corresponding to 60.7% of found. The genera with the
largest number of species were Machaerium (7), Myrcia
(7), Sebastiania (3), Campomanesia (3) and Casearia (3).
Casearia sylvestris, Casearia decandra, Campomanesia
xanthocarpa, Handroanthus umbellathus, Esenbeckia
febrifuga presented almost all of their individuals in the
plots allocated at the lower altitude portion and near to
Campininha stream, being selective hygrophytes species
(LORENZI, 2009). Cupania vernalis, Platypodium
elegans, Pera glabrata and Bauhinia longifolia, except
the first which presented low frequency in the plots
near the stream, showed all individuals in the plots
allocated at higher altitude portion and occurrence of
treefall gaps, all of which are pioneering and heliophytic
plants. Lonchocarpus subglaucescens, first in IV, despite
not being selective about the soil moisture (Lorenzzi,
2009), showed that almost all of its individuals are
in the plots allocated along the stream Campininha.
Piroli and Nascimento (2008) also observed a nonhomogeneous distribution of some species, citing the
different exposures to sunlight, different hydromorphy
and altitude degrees as factors that may influence the
spatial distribution of species. Casearia sylvestris and
Cupania vernalis were the only species that occurred in
more than half of the plots, with higher frequency.
Despite the matrix be Seasonal Semideciduous Forest,
the species found in the fragment are common to other
formations of the State (SÃO PAULO, 2008), none of
which has exclusivity occurrence in SSF. Pera glabrata,
Leucochloron incuriale, Machaerium villosum, Platypodium
elegans, Trichilia pallida, Esenbeckia febrifura, Casearia
decandra, Casearia sylvestris, Cupania vernalis and
Matayba elaeagnoides had at least 17 individuals in the
sample and also occur in dense rain forest and “Cerrado”
(Savanna). Except for species not identified to specific
epithet, 37 are identified as occurring in Cerrado
formations, and 53, in riparian forests. Many species are
common to other forest types, and even with low density,
are fundamental to community maintenance. Areas
in Sorocaba region received influences of “Cerradão”
(Savanna type) formations, being occupied by this type
of biome in past decades and currently constituting an
ecotone.
The 10 higher IV species were Lonchocarpus
subglaucescens, Cupania vernalis, Casearia sylvestris,
Machaerium stipitatum, Platypodium elegans, Pera
glabrata, Casearia obliqua, Campomanesia xanthocarpa,
Machaerium villosum and Casearia decandra, contributing
with 51.1% of the index. For CV, the position of the
top 10 species did not had much variation, except for
Casearia decandra that, due to its greater density than
Machaerium villosum, occupied its position. The dead
trees had the highest IV, corresponding to 10.75% (116)
of the individuals. Although Tabanez et al. (1997) and
Struffaldi-De-Vuono (1985) found similar values, with
11.3% and 11.5% of the individuals, the death of these
trees may be related to the isolation of the fragment,
where microclimate changes contribute to the increased
mortality not only in immediately of its isolation,
but persists along time. Natural accidents, diseases,
human disturbance and marked presence of lianas may
also contribute to increased mortality, this last factor
influence in establishing of treefall gaps by death of
their hosts, as observed in parts of the study area.
The percentage of sampled individuals and species into
each succession categorie were respectively 52.5% and
40.5% of P, 43.9% and 45.6% of NP and 3.6% and
13.9 % of SC. Although the fragment has a higher P
individuals proportion, we found elevated proportion of
NP, as well as higher proportion of species in this stage.
Thus, that indicates a transition, where the fragment
is changing from an early stage to the intermediate
one. Furthermore, we observed that the presence of
65
Lonchocarpus subglaucescens, Machaerium stipitatum,
Casearia obliqua, Campomanesia xanthocarpa and
Machaerium villosum, all of them NP and among the
10 species with higher IV, as well a gradual decrease
in importance of the species samplet (Table 1), may
indicate an advance to later succession stages, without
excessive dominance among species.
Despite the pressure suffered by being located
in urban area, the PNMCBio creation is one
alternative to reduce the fragmentation effects and
the remnants destruction, which act like stepping
stones or corridors, increasing connectivity among
forest fragments and ecological functionality of the
interconnected landscape mosaics (RIBEIRO et al.
2009). The landscape integration favors the pollination
process, the propagules dispersal and the animals
movement, decreasing endogamy and favoring the
biogeochemistry cycles. These areas, which can be
or not be protected areas, benefit gene flow of many
species, contributing to maintenance of animal and
plant communities (TROIAN et al. 2011). The studied
fragment is near others, so there is a connection
possibility between this remaining with the Sorocaba
river riparian forests, this benefits wildlife and human
quality of life, surrounded by urbanization.
We conclued that the studied forest fragment has
characteristics that indicate a transition from an early
stage to an intermediate, with considerable numbers
of non pioneers individuals and species, harboring
species with broad occurrence and also common in
other forest types, demonstrating the function of
maintaining the regional biodiversity . Theses results
provided basic information for further studies and
development of management actions in the area,
favoring regeneration forest process and maintenance
of genetic and biological diversity, fulfilling one of
the objectives of PNMCBio creation. Moreover, with
the effective deployment of the protected area and
its management, as well the development of activities
related to public use and environmental education
contribute to the formation of citizens better
contextualized and sensitized on the importance of
environmental preservation.
66
Acknowledgements
We thank Toyota of Brazil Ltda for the financial support
and Fiorella Fernanda Mazin Capelo (Myrtaceae –
UFSCar Sorocaba) and Marcelo A. Pinho Ferreira
(ESALQ-USP) for the help in identifying botanical
material.
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Acesso em: 01 nov. de 2012.
68
Urban tree cover and human comfort
in Campinas, Brazil
Lea Yamaguchi Dobbert1, Demóstenes Ferreira da Silva Filho2
Jefferson Lordello Polizel3
1,2,3
University of São Paulo/ ESALQ
1
[email protected]
2
[email protected]
3
[email protected]
Keywords: Trees, Microclimate, Urban Environment, Thermal Comfort.
Abstract
The comfort in the urban space relies on a number of
variables related to physical and subjective sensations
experienced by people in different environment types.
Due to several changes on thermal characteristics
of the surface through anthropic actions like the
waterproofing ground and vegetation removal, the
heating of the urban environment has increased the
effects on the heat islands and worsen it even more.
Into this framework, the urban tree cover presents itself
as a key tool by promoting the comfort and wellbeing of
its citzens. Besides benefiting the urban microclimate
and air quality, it reduces the solar radiation, increases
the air humidity and decreases the air temperature, as
being one of the main responsible factors for promoting
the thermal comfort sensation in open spaces.
The present study, part of a research sponsored by CNPq
(National Counsel of Technological and Scientific
Development), has analized two neighborhoods (one
wooded and the other not wooded) in Campinas city
, SP , Brazil in order to verify the interference of trees
in thermal comfort conditions and the comfort of the
users in the analized places.
Introduction
The urbanization effects cause environmental impacts
that affect human comfort. Nowadays in Brazil, more
than 80% of the population lives in cities, according
to IBGE (2010). The well planned soil use and
occupation minimizes the negative aspects caused by
compression of the cities. In this regard, Lynch (1960),
Spirn (1995), Hough (1989) consider the natural
resources looking for a healthier city. The design of
urban space should therefore respect the natural
environment providing welfare for its users. City, as a
part of nature, needs to be planned integrated to the
ecosystem. But modern society, looking for interess
of the population, changes the natural landscape
through artificial human actions (SANTOS, 2008),
damaging the comfort in urban space. Few studies
have been developed in order to observe the influence
of vegetation on microclimate, on the thermal
comfort and the quality of open spaces (SPIRN, 1995;
NIKOLOPULOU and LYKOUDIS, 2006). Thus, it
is highly recommended that the growing of trees and
shrub species, as far as it is known, providing shading
is the major factor really responsible for the thermal
comfort sensation in open spaces. In addition to
cutting down solar radiation, plants have the ability
to modify the microclimate, increasing air humidity
and decreasing the air temperature (OLIVEIRA and
MASCARÓ, 2007).
The comfort in urban area depends on a number
of variables related to physical sensations and
subjective experienced by people in different types
69
of environment. Due to a series of changes in the
thermal characteristics of the surface resulting from
human activities such as soil sealing and vegetation
removal, heating in urban areas has aggravated the
effects of heat islands. Therefore, urban tree cover
presents with a key tool by promoting the comfort
and welfare of its inhabitants. Besides benefiting
the urban microclimate and air quality, reduces solar
radiation, increases the air humidity and decreases the
air temperature, consisting of one of the main factors
responsible for the sensation of thermal comfort in
open spaces.
This study, part of a larger research sponsored by
CNPq, examined two neighborhoods of Campinas,
SP, Brazil (one with lower and another with higher
amount of trees) in order to verify the interference of
trees in the microclimate and thermal comfort.
Methodology
Two neighborhoods were selected: The first one,
Jardim das Paineiras neighborhood, predominantly
residential, with occurrence of shops concentrated
on the avenues, very well wooded. The second one,
Cambui neighborhood, an area with mixed occurrence
of homes and shops, has a large concentration of
residential buildings, most of them containing more
than 10 floors, not so well wooded like Jardim das
Paineiras.
The index PET (Physiologically Equivalent
Temperature) evaluated the thermal comfort in the
external environment. This index was obtained by
Ray Man Software developed by Matzarakis, Rutz
and Mayer (2007), using data from microclimatic
monitoring. The measured variables were: air
temperature (° C) and relative humidity (%), with the
aid of a thermo-hygrometer, wind speed (m / s) using
a thermo-anemometer and digital globe temperature
(° C) through a globe thermometer, which allows the
calculation of the mean radiant temperature used in
this software. The equipment set on a tripod 1.50 m
high consists of: a register of temperature and relative
humidity, model Testo 175, protected from radiation,
70
a temperature sensor, model Testo 175-T2, another
temperature sensor , Testo 0613 1711 model adapted
to the globe and an anemometer - thermometer
Testo 445 digital sensor 0635-1549, (protected by a
Styrofoam box). Data were recorded each 15 minutes,
between 9h and 17h for five consecutive days in
August 2012.
To quantify the tree cover we used techniques of remote
sensing and GIS enabled to view and assess the areas
under study. The supervised classification identifies
and quantifies the different types of land use through
thematic classes as building area, canopy area, turf, bare
soil, impervious areas - asphalt, sidewalks and others.
The Index of Urban Forest (IFU) proposed by Silva
Filho and other researchers (2005), allows classifying
the analysed areas according to the amount of trees
through the use of high resolution multispectral image
Word View-2, processed 50 cm spatial resolution,
RGB and IR image for the year 2011 in four bands (blue, green, red and near infrared) of selected areas in
Campinas city.
The classified images were cropped in Quantum GIS
from the boundary of the districts provided by the
Planning department of Campinas city. With the
supervised classification results was possible to check
the ratio of free space with trees (ELA) and proofed
free space (ELI) and the ratio of free space with trees
(ELA) for built space (EC), obtained by means of the
formulas described below :
The ELA (Woody Free Space) constitutes the sum
of all the tree crowns and shrubs included in the
analyzed area; ELI (Waterproof Free Space) is the
sum of not built spaces, however, waterproofed by
some impermeable material , which contributes to
increasing the runoff of rainwater in the city. To obtain
the EC (Construt Space) add up all the coverings
spaces found in the image (not free, not occupied
by vegetation). These formulas allow to obtain a
performance value of a certain neighborhood.
The IFU index (Urban Forest Index) is derived by the
following equation:
IFU= PAI + PAC
The IFU can be considered an indicator of recognition
and qualification of wooded spaces, related to other
building elements and urban equipments such as
streets, sidewalks, patios, houses, buildings, present in
urban environment and contributors for environmental
improvement (Silva Filho et al , 2005). This index with
values 0-2 constitutes an indicator for increasing the
value of wooded areas, and than closer to 2, more
valued is the analyzed area.
Results and discussion
Tree cover in the analysed areas
In Cambuí neighborhood the IFU = 0.80 is
unsatisfactory, requiring maintenance and replacement
of various trees. Some streets have no trees. The trade
overlaps to homes, making the neighborhood more
arid. The removal of trees is justified by the need to
highlight the façade of the stores and ensure parking.
Sometimes tree implantation is impossibel due to lack
of space on narrow sidewalks that makes it difficult
to maintain trees, causing problems like big roots
and inadequate pits. In this neighborhood only 6% of
the land cover is classified as turf , thus there are few
potential areas for trees. Tree plantation on sidewalks
is not feasible, mostly due to its unsuitability for
planting. Some alternatives such as green roofs and
vertical gardens are possible to help the improvement
of environmental quality.
The neighborhood Jardim das Paineiras presents IFU
satisfactory (IFU = 1.40) and contains considerable
diversity of species. This district showed the highest
percentage of canopy and turf, with a total of 46%
of the total area, with Free Wooded Space (ELA)
corresponding to 55% of the total area.
Climatic variables
The climatic variables in the two thermo stations
showed different values (Table1). The relative
humidity and air temperature were the variables that
best expressed the climatic influence of vegetation on
urban microclimate of the city.
There were significant differences between the two
stations for all climatic parameters (p value <0.0001),
according to Kruskal-Wallis statistical test. The relative
humidity showed up to 10% difference between the
Table 1: Climatic variables in the analysed areas
Neighborhoods
Jardim
das Paineiras
Cambuí
Climatic
variables
N
Mean
SD
Min.
Median
Max.
P value
Air humidity
165
55.45
11.71
36.30
56.30
77.10
<0.0001
Air temperature
165
22.10
2.76
15.40
22.50
26.20
<0.0001
Wind speed
165
0.75
0.54
0.00
0.51
3.10
<0.0001
Mean radiant
temperature
165
22.78
2.73
15.93
23.34
28.45
<0.0001
PET
165
20.51
3.10
12.20
20.80
27.00
<0.0001
Air humidity
165
47.92
12.26
30.40
46.30
71.20
<0.0001
Air temperature
165
24.16
3.53
16.40
24.50
30.40
<0.0001
Wind speed
165
0.76
0.41
0.02
0.70
2.00
<0.0001
Mean radiant
temperature
165
30.75
7.19
16.67
31.36
46.14
<0.0001
PET
165
25.19
5.34
13.20
25.70
34.40
<0.0001
(Mann-Whitney)
71
thermo stations, while the air temperature difference
showed values differing by up to 2 ˚ C between the
two analyzed areas. The neighborhood jardim das
Paineiras, better wooded (IFU = 1.40) obtained higher
relative humidity (56.30%) and milder temperature
(22.50 ˚ C).
The wind had no significant correlation. The air
temperature and Mean radiant temperature was
directly proportional to PET, while the relative
humidity appeared inversely proportional to the PET.
The air temperature showed a decrease by up to
2 ˚ C and relative humidity up to 10% increase in
the more wooded neighborhood. Thermal comfort
was evaluated by means of calculating PET
(Physiologically Equivalent Temperature) obtained
with the use of software Rayman (MATZARAKIS et
al, 2007), showed the highest comfort index in more
wooded neighborhood, difference of PET from 4,9 ˚
C between the two analysed areas.
Conclusion
The thermal comfort,evaluated by PET (Physiologically
Equivalent Temperature) showed highest comfort
level in the more wooded neighborhood ( Jardim das
Paineiras) The climatic variables that best represented
the thermal difference between the analysed areas was
the air temperature and air humidity
What can be concluded is that urban tree cover
influences directly in environmental quality, increasing
the welfair of their users. Therefore, managers and
urban planners should give more attention to urban
tree cover in order to improve the urban environment
providing more comfort to its users.
72
Refereces
Hough, M. City form and natural process, New York,
Routledge, 1989, 280p.
Lynch, K, A imagem da cidade. São Paulo: Ed. Martins
Fontes, 1997, 227p.
Spirn, A. W. O jardim de granito: A natureza no
desenho da cidade. São Paulo: EDUSP, 345p,
1995.
Matzarakis,A.; Rutz,F.; Mayer,H.; Modelling
radiation fluxes in simple and complex
environments- application the RayMan model,
International Journal of Biometeorology, 51, 323334, 2007.
Nikopoulou, M.; Lykoudis, Thermal comfort and
psychological adaptation as a guide for designing
urban spaces. Building and environment, v. 41,
p.1455-1470, 2006.
Santos, M. Metamorfose do Espaço Habitado, Edusp,
são Paulo, 2008, 132p.
Silva-filho, D.F; Piveta, K.F.L.; Couto, H.T.Z.; Polizel,
J.L. Indicadores de floresta urbana a partir de
imagens aéreas multiespectrais de alta resolução,
Scientia Forestalis n. 67, p.88-100, 2005.
Oliveira, L. A.; Mascaró, J. J. Análise da qualidade de
vida urbana sob a ótica dos espaços públicos de
lazer. Ambiente construído, v. 7, n. 2, 2007, p. 59
– 69.
Challenges in implementing a Municipal Natural Park
in a Petrochemical Pole: the case of the Natural Park
Municipal Cotia-Pará, Cubatão (SP), Brazil.
Juliana Ferreira de Castro¹; Sidnei Raimundo²
Department of State for the Environment of São Paulo, São Paulo
Graduate Student in Social Change and Political Participation, EACH/USP, University of São Paulo.
1
1
2
[email protected]
Professor, EACH/USP. University of São Paulo.
2
[email protected]
Keywords: Natural Municipal Park Cotia-Pará; public use; social and environmental interaction.
This work is part of the results of the master plan for
the Protected Area, developed by the authors and
by the company CPEA (Consulting, Planning and
Environmental Studies), with funds from Usiminas
steel company.
The State of São Paulo, Brazil, there are two
principal biomes of global significance, the Atlantic
Forest and the Cerrado. These biomes are heavily
fragmented, because they suffered and suffer intense
mischaracterization process due they are inserted into
the most industrialized and urbanized country, and
it also provides a highly capitalized and mechanized
agriculture. All these activities promote and promoted
large conversions of land use cover, reducing the
original areas covered by those biomes. The Atlantic
Forest is ranked among 25 “hotspots” of biodiversity
on the planet, in other words, areas of great ecological
diversity and who lost at least 70% of its original forest
cover, and is considered worldwide a top priority
for biodiversity conservation (LEAL-GALINDO;
CHAMBER, 2005). In the Atlantic “Serra do Mar”
slopes and in some sectors of the coastal plain, and
the Ribeira Valley, are the largest area with vegetation
cover in the state that still has much of the Atlantic
Forest remnants (PRIMACK, 2001).
The Santos Region in São Paulo State has high rates
of industrial growth and economic development, there
are inserted the Polo Steel and Petrochemical Cubatão
beyond the largest port in Latin America, the Port of
Santos. In the region, the presence of base-industries
and other polluting activities with low suitability for
some uses in the midst of an extensive network of
canals and extensive estuarine mangroves constitute a
situation of high ecological vulnerability, and constitute
the most important example of environmental
degradation caused by water pollution, soil and air in
coastal environments in Brazil (MESTIERI, SOUZA
apud CPEA, 2012). Added to this context a good
network of roads between the capital (the city of São
Paulo) and Santos Region, which allow a heavy flow of
people, goods and information in the region, making
this a very complex scenario, which ultimately exert
great pressure on the remaining forests of the region.
The Municipal Natural Park Cotia Pará (MNPCP)
is located in Cubatão, in Santos Region, and was
created in 2012 with a purpose to preservation of
important remnants of the Atlantic Forest biome and
associated ecosystems such as mangroves and dunes,
and mangroves in particular, makes up about 50% of
the Park area. In MNPCP there are two shell middens
(Sambaqui in Guarani Indian language) of great
73
relevance because of human skeletons of more than
5,000 years ago. One of them, called Sambaqui Cotia
Para-2, has about twenty meters tall and is considered
the world’s third largest sambaqui (GONZALEZ apud
CPEA, 2012). The MNPCP has on its surroundings
(in a radius of approximately 10 km) five Protected
Areas, two State Parks, two Environmental Protection
Areas and a Private Reserve of Natural Heritage,
Protected Areas play an important ecological role
by contributing to the environmental connectivity ,
indicated by the presence of migratory fauna in the
area MNPCP (CPEA, 2012). Besides these features,
the MNPCP is a recreational area for the community
of Cubatão, lacking, among other things, opportunities
for leisure and recreation amid an environment closer
to the natural and least urbanized.
Thus, protection of MNPCP has relevance for the
protection of fragile ecosystems like mangroves and
dunes, the composition and maintenance of corridors
and increase connectivity with other Protected Areas
of the environment, the protection of archaeological
sites, as well as being a leisure option, recreation
and environmental education in contact with nature
for the community. The implementation of this
Protected Area, as Park, is so complex due to the
urban reality of Cubatão and others uses in the area
before MNPCP studies for development of its Master
Plan in 2012. Some of these uses were deployed in
the past and now are incompatible with a category
Park, as recommended by the National System of
Conservation Units (SNUC – Federal Law nº. 9985
de 18 de julho, 2000). These activities are conflicting:
an exotic ornamental plant nursery, a zoo, a mini farm
and hippotherapy (horse stables for shelter, with its
activities in the Park, linked to the use of horses for
the recovery of children and adolescents with motor
difficulties).
The objectives of the category Park, defined by SNUC,
consist in preserving natural ecosystems of ecological
significance and scenic beauty, allowing scientific
research activities and environmental education and
interpretation, and outdoors recreation on nature and
ecotourism. Given this scenario, when preparing the
74
Master Plan for the Protected Area, thought about
how to reconcile environmental conservation function
of a Park associated with the desires and needs of a
community in need of leisure facilities, which lies in
the midst of a major Petrochemical and Metallurgical
country and whose basic needs are often not met. In
the same vein, it was thought in addressing those for
activities incompatible with the Park category, but
which are regarded by the community as important to
stay in the area.
F
or the preparation of the Master Plan for the Protected
Area, and therefore the legal work, it has been done
field surveys to collect data and information on
the environment and socio-cultural area and its
surroundings. After the data collection phase, meetings
were held for technical and participatory planning
workshops, which were attended by representatives
stakeholders of institutions and governance bodies that
act directly and indirectly in the Park. Strategies were
developed to framework the incompatible uses with a
conservation of Protected Areas, as was manifest desire
of the community in participatory planning workshops
to keep the zoo, the exotic plant nursery and mini
farm. The area where these conflicting activities where
held was managed initially as Conflicting Use Zone,
to then be broken by the Municipality of Cubatão in
the current area NMPCP and be transformed into
an Urban Park Hall. In return, to compensate for the
resulting decrease in the area for conservation, it was
suggested that a neighboring area to NMPCP that
is Navy’s public domain managed as Inclusion Area,
thus ensures greater protection in environmental laws
in the Country and increases the significance of the
Park from the viewpoint of conservation.
We developed a zoning for NMPCP (figure below),
indicating the locations where activities can be
performed and all the constraints and implications
that fit them. Then Masters Programs have been
developed that indicate the main thematic actions and
strategies for the implementation and management of
the Park, namely: Program Management, Protection
Program, Research Program and Program for Public
Use and Environmental Interaction.
Figure 1: Zoneamento do Parque Natural Municipal Cotia-Pará. Source: CPEA, 2012.
All the strategies outlined, consensual and consolidated
in the workshops and other participatory planning
stages of spatial NMPCP deal with an intermediate
phase for effective Protected Area. From this set of
consolidated shares will be possible to establish new
management zones that will be more permanent,
tending to stabilize and the adequacy of the Park
in accordance with SNUC and also meeting the
expectations of society.
Cubatão lacks protected natural areas to maintain
essential ecosystem services and community Cubatão
lacks spaces where you can enjoy leisure time. The
Parks have a key role in the midst of a society that
suffers the consequences of urban development, with
watercourses polluted, lack of sanitation, among
other problems. Besides having the objective of
nature conservation and achievement of scientific
research, the Park also have targeted public visitation,
to be offered environmental education, leisure and
recreation for the community in general.
The community suffers the consequences of urban
growth and already has some understanding of their
meanings and senses on the existence of this area.
Create opportunities for this community to interact
with the remaining green areas in the city is a
possibility that there may be changes in attitudes and
behaviors of individuals against their relationship with
nature. Highlighting, then, the key actions included in
the Program Management Plan of the Park in order to
reconcile the conservation objectives with the interests
and needs of the surrounding community.
Through the activities of environmental education
and awareness, leisure and recreation Public Use and
Environmental Interaction Program it is search up
the closer relationship between the Protected Area
and the wider community, it aims to demonstrate
to visitors and neighbors the relevance of NMPCP
seeking their meanings and senses to society. One has
to look beyond that irregular activities mentioned in
the past of the Park, there is pressure for various uses,
75
some of which are not consistent with the goals of the
Park and others who are against the illegal Brazilian
legislation. We identified sites within the Park used
by religious, it is known that there are communities
around doing irregular water uptake, users of illicit
substances are recurrent in the Park, as well as hunting,
collecting crabs and planting illegal substances that
were also portrayed.
From the diagnosis and surveys performed, it provided
subsidies for the implementation of the NMPCP
Public Use and Environmental Interaction Program,
in order to establish opportunities for leisure and
recreation to society as a whole, providing quality
of life, interaction between people and the natural
environment and conservation in a sustainable
manner. In this sense, the main strategies / activities
of this Program are:
R5-.,/./,5."5-*-5(5+/#*'(.50#&&:
R5 -.&#-"65 #(0)&0#(!5 ."5 &)&5 )''/(#.365 5 0#-/&5
identity for the Park;
R5 ),#(!5 .)5 ."5 *,)*)-5 4)(#(!65 '%5 ."5
implementation and monitoring of three trails: the
trail at the base of the slope of the Cotia – Pará Hill,
the path along the transmission line that crosses part
of the mangrove vegetation, and the trail that leads to
statue of Christ;
R5 (-.&&5 -#!(!5 .",)/!")/.5 ."5 #( ,-.,/./,5 ,5
of the Park, including the zoo’s enclosures and tracks
visitation;
R5-.&#-"55/*,)!,'5(.,(-"#*5#(565-)5
that it contributes to the professional development of
the student, to the knowledge of the visitors and to
establish improvements in the Park;
R5 ,)').5 #( ),'.#)(5 (5 ,")&)!#&5 /(5 ) 5
the Park as a strategy for promoting the Unit;
R5 &,# 35 ."5 -/,,)/(#(!5 )''/(#.#-5 )/.5 ."5
goals of the Park, in order that the community
take ownership of the Park and develop a sense of
belonging;
R5 /**),.5 (5 ()/,!5 #(#.#.#0-5 (5 -/-.#(&5
development alternatives for the communities located
in the Buffer Zone of PNMCP;
R5 0&)*65 1#."5 ."5 -/**),.5 ) 5 ."5 )''/(#.365 (5
76
ecological event calendar;
For the feasibility of the proposals in the Program, it is
recommended that the NMPCP perform partnerships
with public and private institutions in order to increase
the potential success of each proposed activity and
this Program. It is also necessary to train the staff of
the Park for monitoring the work proposed in this
program.
In the other hand, Management Program is designed
to assist the manager in decision-making and priority
actions for which the Park is consolidated as a Protected
Area. The management process is dynamic and
NMPCP presents atypical features because of the types
of uses already established in their space that conflict
with the goals of this category of Protected Area and
will continue to exist adequately to the legislation. Thus
the strategies defined for this Program were:
R5 0&)*'(.5 ) 5 *,)$.-5 ),5 #'*&'(..#)(5 ) 5
the Protected Area focusing emergency, in order: the
land regularization; regulation from legal documents,
carrying out projects to reform and readjust the
infrastructure of Conflicting Use Zone.
R5 )(-)&#.#)(5 ) 5 '(!'(.5 *)&#35 5
through: manager with a background in environmental,
strengthening partnerships between the Municipal;
fostering a database and projects; joint partnerships
with industry, other businesses, Non Government
Organizations and Civil Society Organization of
Public Interest to effect regional proposals, creation of a
department in the Municipal Environment of Cubatão
dealing with Protected Areas, creation of the Advisory
Council.
R5 ŀ(#(!5 ."5 --(.#&5 /(.#)(-5 5 #(5
order: management and administration activities as
fundamental protection, research and management;
determination of the activities that can be outsourced
and standardizes them for concessions and contracts
for services, planning and monitoring of outsourced
activities; design and development of the Risk
Management Plan to the Public Visitation with
Contingency Plan in accordance with ABNT NBR
15331 2004.
Until the conflicting use zone is regularized as
Urban Park this area is treated as conservation
area and will also be awarded funds for projects
submitted to the Clearing House, Commitment
Terms of Environmental Compensation and Terms of
Adjustment of Conduct. The retrofitting of visitation
structures, trails and attractions is crucial to minimize
potential impacts on the native fauna existing in the
Park. Moreover, one must adapt to structures with
special needs, in accordance with Federal Law No.
10.098/2000 and its regulation from the Federal
Decree No. 5.296/2004 establishing the promotion
of accessibility for people with disabilities or reduced
mobility.
The Protection Program comes against the
Management Program since it promotes the full
protection of the natural heritage of a Protected Area
and both must act together to identify problems and
solutions in the equation.
With respect to protection of the Protected Area, the
strategies were:
R5 -.&#-"5 !,'(.-65 ,.(,-"#*-5 (5 -%5
partners for Institutional Relations, seeking: conduct
regular monitoring of colonization of native forests
by exotic species, promote erosion control and
restoration of natural processes and / or resulting from
human action; develop, deploy and maintain Plan
Surveillance; provide through Municipal government
a bond with the environmental Police, Civil Police,
Federal Police, IBAMA (Brazilian Institute of
Environmental and Renewable Natural Resources),
State and Federal Public Ministry, and other active
institutions in environmental protection scenario
for the fast and efficient service demands, especially
those related to criminal activity in the immediate
surroundings of the Park; elaborate plans to celebrate
the agreement between Municipality and Department
of Public Safety for a more effective action as the
Environmental Police watchdog through Delegate
Activity, as already happens in other counties; develop
research surrounding the NMPCP to identify
potential leaders active in protecting the environment.
R5 *.5 ."5 #( ,-.,/./,65 +/#*'(.5 (5 "/'(5
resources, from: setting priorities in the acquisition
of equipment; continuous training of staff involved in
the protection, adequacy of physical infrastructure to
support the monitoring, expanding the effective and
vigilant posts surveillance.
R5 )(/.5 -.,.!#5 *&((#(!65 .)95 -#!(5 *,).))&5
procedures; raise funds for the production of
information material; joint partnerships to accomplish
the Program; structuring of the Technical Chamber of
Protection within the Consultative Council; disclosure
of actions of the Board.
One of the major tasks of running the Protection
Program is the mapping of risks and violations in
and around the NMPCP, the control of surrounding
areas by organized crime prevented an initial mapping
for the preparation of the Master Plan, requiring
intensified policing of these areas of risk. Only with
the systematic collection of data over the next few
years it will be possible for the management structure
of the Park to accurately identify the places and events
of highest risk and coordinate partnerships to draw
concrete objectives in the medium and long term.
Already the Research Program and Management
aims to generate knowledge necessary to undertake
management practices in NMPCP plus: guiding
research in development in the Park; establish
and stimulate the composition of the scientifictechnical collection unit; monitor the phenomena
and environmental change occurring; expand and
systematize the knowledge acquired by ecosystems and
disseminate the results to society. For the development
of this program there is the following strategies:
R5 (!5 (5 ')(#.),5 ."5 .#0#.35 ) 5 -#(.#ŀ5
research;
R5(!5."5 /(:
R5(!50!..#)(:
R5(!#(!5."5/&./,&5,#.!:
R5(!5.,5-)/,-8
Based on these actions, it is expected that the
Municipal Natural Park Cotia-Pará, begins a new
phase of development in which it will turn efetive
management objectives and establish a relationship
77
which encourages in the community a sense of
pride of having a Protected Area as neighbor with
the recognition of the environmental services that
must fulfill its primary objectives and be recognized
throughout local society.
References
BRASIL. Lei Federal nº 9985, de 18 de julho de
2000. Institui o Sistema Nacional de Unidades de
Conservação da Natureza.
CPEA – Consultoria, Planejamento e Estudos
Ambientais. 2012. Plano de Manejo do Parque
Natural Municipal Cotia Pará. Usiminas. Cubatão,
SP.
GALINDO-LEAL; CÂMARA. 2005. Status do
Hotspot Mata Atlântica: uma síntese. Belo
Horizonte. Fundação SOS Mata Atlântica /
Conservação Internacional do Brasil.
PRIMACK, R. B. 2001. Biologia da conservação.
Londrina: Editora Rodrigues.
78
Analysis of public spaces titled as “Park” in Sorocaba,
SP, Brazil, as a subsidy for its management.
Mauricio Tavares da Mota¹, Eliana Cardoso Leite²
1
Graduate Student in Sustainable Environmental Management,
Federal University of São Carlos (UFSCAR), Sorocaba-SP
1
2
[email protected]
Professor, Department of Environmental Sciences,
Federal University of São Carlos (UFSCAR)
2
[email protected]
Keywords: Urban parks; free spaces; protected areas.
The present study evaluated the public spaces titled
as “Park” in the city of Sorocaba, and provide for
effective management of these spaces and the
consequent promotion of the quality of life of its
users. The research methodology was divided in
two stages, the first consisted in bibliographical
and cartographical survey of established parks in
Sorocaba with aid of 66 aerial photos scanned in
scale 1: 20,000 (year 2006), throughout the territory,
these were geo-referenced and exported, vectorized
for ArcGis ® 9.0 software; the second, consisted
of field analysis and proposition of the method, to
distinguish between those with urban vocation, of
those with potential for conservation units based
on the following criteria: size, percentage of native
forest cover and function. We identified 33 parks,
totaling an area of 1,593 .87 ha, the smallest 0.28 ha
and has greater has 1,074 ha, 14 (42%) are smaller
than 5 ha, 5 (12%) range between 5.1 and 10 ha, 11
(33%) are between 10.1 and 50 ha, 2 (6%) between
50.1 and 100 ha and 1 (3%) has size greater than
100 ha. Of these, 14 (42.5%) have potential to meet
urbanistic functions, another 14 (42.5%). Do not
have the the minimum percentage of vegetation, and
five met requirements for establishment of protected
areas (reater than 5 ha, between 5.1 and 10 ha at
least 70% of vegetation; 0.1 and 50 ha with at least
60% of vegetation; 50.1 and 100 ha, with at least
50% of vegetation; greater than at least 40 100.1%
vegetation). Were these municipal park Mario
Covas, municipal park “Biodiversity Corridor”,
municipal park Bráulio Guedes da Silva, municipal
park Chico Mendes and municipal park Pedro Paes
de Almeida. We conclude that there are no standards
or criteria for the institution of public spaces titled as
“Park” in the city, whether they are designed to meet
urbanistic functions to promote leisure and recreation
of those aiming to establish protected areas. This fact
undermines their management and the quality of life
in the city. In this way, urge the implementation of
clear standards for creation and implementation of
protected areas, with clear distinction of spaces with
vocation to fulfill function urbanistic than those with
potential for conservation.
79
Impact of plat size in stock biomass of urban trees Sibipiruna
(Poincianella pluviosa var. peltophoroides) in Maringá – PR
Flávia Gizele König Brun1, Demóstenes Ferreira da Silva Filho2,
Eleandro José Brun3, Hilton Thadeu Zarate do Couto4
1
Universidade Tecnológica Federal do Paraná – Campus Dois Vizinhos
1
2,4
[email protected]
Escola Superior de Agricultura Luiz de Queiróz – ESALQ/USP
2
3
[email protected]
Universidade Tecnológica Federal do Paraná – Campus Dois Vizinhos
3
[email protected]
Introduction
The pollution harmful to the quality of life, growing
every passing day the interest in studies of biomass
and carbon content in forests. These stocking carbon in
biomass both above and below ground, and represent
more carbon than currently exists in relation to the
stock in the atmosphere (SILVEIRA et al., 2008).
In particular urban forestry, for this also has potential
to store carbon in their biomass above and below
ground, and provide other environmental benefits to
urban centers, for example, reducing air pollution and
improving air quality, lessen warming buildings and
other urban infrastructures, among others, has shown
a growing interest and demand for scientific studies,
worldwide, about their real potential in sequester and
store carbon. Give up highlighting the pioneering
studies conducted in the United States, which have
become important sources for understanding the role
of trees in sequestering and storing carbon in urban
(LIU and LI, 2011).
80
As Biondi (1995), abiotic factors in the environment
(temperature, humidity, wind, precipitation, etc.)
Are often interrelated with the biotic (insects, fungi,
parasites, etc.). Generating, depending on the degree
of severity , injuries and even diseases and decline
of the individual, which makes the analysis of the
influence of these factors on urban trees quite
complex.
In this sense Brazolin (2009) states that the spacing
adequate for development of the root system of
trees or urban space fully paved, greatly increases
the susceptibility to pests and diseases and therefore
falling trees in urban areas because these conditions
do not allow adequate percolation occurring water,
aerated nutrient absorption and, consequently, the
development of root system.
Based on these aspects, the present study aimed to
evaluate the impact of the plat size in the biomass
stock of urban trees sibipiruna (Poincianella pluviosa)
in Maringá - PR.
Materials and Methods
Description of the specie and study area
The sibipiruna (Poincianella pluviosa) is a species of
medium-sized native Atlantic Forest biome, belonging
to the family Fabaceae, has bipinnate compound
leaves. The flowers have yellowish, arranged in terminal
racemes that stand out in the crown, giving it great
ornamental effect, and the timing of flowering in forest
occurs in the months from August to November. The
fruits are vegetables, whose maturation occurs between
the months from July to September (MARCHIORI,
1997).
The species grows well in average soil chemical fertility,
since the water table is not very close to the surface.
Besides this aspect, stands out as the main pest beetles
of the family Scolytidae (CARVALHO, 2008).
Regarding the phenological behavior in urban,
depending on management practices, such as pruning,
it is observed that the species has become extremely
sensitive to this, especially during flowering, the
formation of flower buds. Brun et al. (2007) report that,
when performed pruning, the species tends to favor
the premature abscission of flowering and reduced
flowering period, recommending only light pruning
performing at the end of the phenological cycle, in the
fall of ripe fruit.
Lorenzi (1998) cites that the species is highly
ornamental, especially when in bloom. It is widely used
in landscaping in general, with rapid growth, with high
rusticity and is recommended for use on public roads
(SANTOS and TEIXEIRA, 2001).
Besides these aspects, Silva et al. (2009) report that
the species is also great environmental benefit in the
urban water cycle, since there is a potential interception
average of 60.6% of the rainfall, with rainfall ranging
from 0.2 to 30.8 mm, representing an important form
of containment flooding in urban areas.
Regarding the improvement of thermal comfort climate
and population, Mascaró and Mascaró. (2005) report
that the species is a potential for temperature reduction
in parkways, during the summer, up to 9.0 º C and an
increase in relative humidity of 15% primarily due to
the density and area occupied by its canopy. The use of
sibipiruna in afforestation of streets and public spaces
of Maringá - PR has a stake of 43.6%, representing a
total of 12,267 individuals (SAMPAIO, 2006).
This study was conducted in the urban area of the
municipality of Maringá, which is located at 23 º 25
\if]]5 )/."5.#./5(5kg5̍5kl]5 hf]]5 -.5)(!#./65
with its urban area equivalent to 128.26 km2 , with
a population of 357,077 inhabitants (IBGE, 2010).
Preserving nature in the city is required by its abundant
trees, with 40.0 m2 of green area per inhabitant (27.0
m2 corresponding urban trees of streets and squares
and 13.0 m2 to reserves and parks within the city
limits) (SECRETARIA DE SERVIÇOS PÚBLICOS
E MEIO AMBIENTE, 2003).
To collect the material, aiming at the quantification
of biomass and carbon in the tissues of the species
studied, as suppression Sector Plan Forestation Bureau
of Public Service Maringá was selected District City
High, which is located in East Zone of the urban
perimeter of Maringa, at coordinates 23 º 27’45, 5’’
South Latitude and 51 º 55’9, 2’’ West Longitude,
characterized as a strictly residential area. The planting
of the subjects is dated from 1979 and 1980, with the
trees being 32 years old, according to information from
old residents of the place and the technicians of the
Department of Urban Forestry Department of Public
Utilities, and took along with allotment site.
The climate of the city, according to the Köppen
classification is Cfa type, subtropical humid with
abundant rainfall in summer and infrequent frosts in
winter and an average annual temperature of 21.9 º C
(MAACK, 1968).
The soils of the urban area are classified as red Alfisols,
Oxisols Purple, Dark Red Oxisols and also observed
the occurrence of patches of Entisols (EMBRAPA,
2006).
For the realization of this study, conducted in three
81
steps: a) selecting and logging samples, totaling 24 trees
in a diametric range of 45.1 cm to 70.0 cm, to quantify
the stock biomass (leaves, bark, wood of th trunk
and total biomass) with subsequent construction of
mathematical models of linear regression to determine
the biomass of the species in different neighborhoods
of the urban area, b) conducting inventory the species
of trees road, where they inventoried 10 % in urban
areas (23 neighborhoods). c) To analyze the impact of
patch size on biomass accumulated in the trees, which
was determined by linear regression mathematical
models built through the trees and their variables
dendrometric samples, after the stock biomass be
attributed to the urban perimeter, proceeded a multiple
linear regression analysis to establish the impact of the
size of the bed of biomass stock of trees road.
Results and Discussion
In the present study during the inventory 1040 trees
were evaluated, totaling 1696.4 Mg of total biomass
distributed in 234 Mg of leaves, branches 1287.3 Mg,
9.5 Mg of bark of the trunk and 166.5 Mg of wood of
the trunk.
The distribution of trees inventoried in different plat
sizes of denoted that 14.5% of the specimens were
measured nonexistent area for development of its root
system, so all space with its root system concreted,
and such situation is observed mainly in recently
refurbished sidewalks. In addition to these aspects, it
was found performing severe pruning of the roots in
these examples. All subjects were evaluated in these
conditions is leased out the downtown area, which
shows only plat sizes, with at least 1.0 m2 or above
this size.
In 2.1% of the specimens, the space available for the
development of the root system was less than 0.5 m2,
which was also the construction of sidewalks narrow
(1.75 m) and, consequently, the reform of the pavement
ride, a fact that was also observed for root pruning
shallowest of individuals.
82
The wide open spaces with dimensions ranging from 0.5
to 1.0 m2 were found in 17.6% of specimens measured
on public roads, and in this case, they were “built” in
the recent period, in areas that tree was implanted prior
to construction of the pavement of the sidewalk and
reported by residents mainly as a way to “caution the
cracks”. Volpe- Filik (2009), studying the occurrence
of damage to sidewalks (cracks) in Piracicaba - SP,
Brazil, wooded with Sibipiruna found that 99.3% of
the specimens evaluated in 15 neighborhoods caused
damage to sidewalks ranging from light to heavy, with
the destruction of the pavement.
According to the author, the main cause of this scenario
was the size of the area for development of free copies
of 0.9 m2 in extent, 30.0% of the plot area required
for a large tree (3.0 m2), as the species studied, thus
popularizing the “myth” among residents, the problems
that caused the pavement would be used depending on
the species and not the insufficient size of the open area
where the individual is deployed.
That author says in order to avoid such a situation,
it is essential to consider the trunk diameter (DBH)
of any kind, as an adult, to define the size of the plat
size ideal reconciling the full development of the
tree and maintaining the integrity of the pavement.
The percentage of individuals deployed in open areas
greater than or equal to 1.0 m2 was 65.8%, which is
essentially composed of individuals located in the
downtown area or front of inbuilt land in the process of
building or in areas where residents chose not pave the
ride. However, in the latter case, the exposed soil and
traffic of pedestrians and vehicles, which increase the
degree of compaction and loss of soil, some copies were
already outcrops with its root system, showing that the
mere absence of paving throughout the sidewalk, it
ensures good root system of the kind depending on the
compaction caused by use.
Regarding the size of the plat size, as can be seen in
Table 01, the leaf fraction was not affected (effect)
significantly, this could be related to large specimens
present (45.1 to 70.0 cm in diameter) and present in
mature physiological cycle in some cases, individuals
in stage senility, where the leaf biomass production
is stabilized, ie, it remains only to continue the
photosynthetic activities essential and need not be
large intakes leaf production, as in young individuals
where the size of the plat size is essential for the full
development of the root system, and also greater
oxygenation of the soil and nutrient intake, and
consequently the formation of leaf tissues.
As Larcher (2000), tree species under go a phase where
growth is small mass of stems and roots, which is
dependent on the treated sheets produced by, during
the young plant, which leads to a high production
primary and a surplus of organic substances. However,
with aging, goes to the mature phase, in which the
component “biomass” is maintained, first positive,
and later tends to null. Therefore, the larger the tree,
becomes more unfavorable relation between the green
tissues (leaves) and non-green (wood, bark and leaves),
resulting in a gain photosynthetic sufficient only to
replenish the foliage and maintain respiration of a huge
mass of stems, branches and roots growing.
To the fractions branches, the stem wood and total
biomass, the effect of the plat size was significantly
positively to the plat size of 1.0 m2, with a representation
of 96.2%, 96.4% and 96.2%, respectively, of the
variability these fractions and a correlation of 0.99.
On the effect of bark fraction plat size also showed
significant positive, but to plat sizes greater than 1.0
m2, with a representation of 95.8% of the variability of
this fraction and a correlation of 0.99.
Given these results confirmed the importance of
deploying large open areas for the full development
of urban trees, since this ensures a higher proportion
of soil suitable for root development, nutrient uptake
and cycling and consequently biomass accumulation
by individuals, in addition to reducing the intensity of
occurrence of cracks in sidewalks.
The above observation can be corroborated with the
study by Bortoleto, Silva Filho and Lima (2006), which
evaluated the priorities of the street tree program
management office of Águas de São Pedro - SP, Brazil,
found that there was a direct relationship between the
lack of plat sizes for the roots, and outcrop indication
of management action to expand the plot, because the
area was free of problems in determining outcrops roots
in street urban trees of that area, which leads to actions
remodeling construction site, using plat sizes of at least
1.0 m2 to 2.0 m2 per tree establishment or extension of
green bands on the sidewalk.
Table 01: Analysis of the influence of parameter deployment area size free on biomass accumulation and its fractions in individuals
sibipiruna (Poincianella pluviosa) with diameter distribution from 45.1 to 70.0 cm implanted in urban trees of Maringá – PR.
Plat size (m2)
F
Ryy
R2yy
Absent
Ang. C.
BL
0,9833
0,9669
0,2918
BB
0,9993
0,9996
1,7081
BTB
0,9992
0,9984
0,0137
BWT
0,9999
0,9998
0,1948
TB
0,9996
0,9992
2,2189
< 0,5
p
0,3820 ns
(0,2%)*
<0,0001
(3,2%)
0,0016
(3,4%)
<0,0001
(1,2%)
0,0003
(1,2%)
Ang. C.
-2,7354
-2,1419
-0,0126
-0,1307
-5,0441
0,5 – 1,0
p
0,2044 ns
(0,7%)
0,1474 ns
(0,4%)
0,5310 ns
(0,01%)
0,2875 ns
(0,0%)
0,0727ns
(1,2%)
Ang. C.
0,2048
1,6137
0,0111
0,1897
2,018
1,0
p
0,4637 ns
(0,02%)
<0,0001
(0,4%)
0,0019
(0,3%)
<0,0001
(0,4%)
0,0002
(0,3%)
Ang. C.
0,4395
1,1758
0,0077
0,1594
1,787
> 1,0
p
0,2850 ns
(1,3%)
0,0015
(96,2%)
0,0704 ns
(3,4%)
<0,0001
(96,4%)
0,0048
(96,2%)
Ang. C.
0,2156
1,1414
0,0085
0,151
1,5122
p
0,1918ns
(94,5%)
<0,0001
(0,3%)
0,0003
(95,8%)
<0,0001
(2,0%)
<0,0001
(2,2%)
F = Fraction; BL = Biomass of leaves BB = Biomass of branches; BTB = Biomass trunk bark; BWT = Biomass wood trunk; TB = Total biomass; Ryy = multiple
correlation coefficient; R2yy = coefficient of multiple determination; Ang. C. = Angular coefficient of linear regression; p = Value of error probability (p <0.05), ns
= not values Values in bold are significant at 5% probability of error; * = Percentage representation of the variable in coefficient of determination of the multiple
regression. For multiple linear regression models that assessed the effects of parameters was not considered the value of the intercept on the same, since this was not
a significant determinant of the value of the error probability.
83
Conclusions
Based on this study it can be concluded that:
This confirms the premise technique importance of
beds of large (at least 1.0 m2) for the full development
of urban trees, in particular road trees, because these
beds large guarantee a greater proportion of soil
suitable for root development, cycling and nutrient
uptake and consequently higher stock biomass and
area of shading by trees, besides the reduction of the
intensity of occurrence of cracks in sidewalks.
References
BIONDI, D. Caracterização do estado nutricional de
Acer negundo L. e Tabebuia chrysotricha (Mart.
ex Dc.) Standl. utilizadas na arborização urbana
de Curitiba - PR. 1995. 164 f. Tese (Doutorado
em Ciências Florestais) – Universidade Federal
do Paraná, Curitiba, 1995.
BORTOLETO, S.; SILVA FILHO, D. F.; LIMA,
A.M.L.P. Prioridades de manejo para a
arborização viária da Estância de Águas de São
Pedro, por setores. Revista da Sociedade Brasileira
de Arborização Urbana, Piracicaba, v. 1, n. 1, p.
62 – 73, 2006.
BRAZOLIN, S. Biodeterioração, anatomia do lenho
e análise de risco de queda de árvores de Tipuana
(Tipuana tipu (Benth) O. Kuntze) nos passeios
públicos da Cidade de São Paulo, SP. 2009. 265
f. Tese (Doutorado em Recursos Florestais) –
Escola Superior de Agricultura “Luiz de Queiroz”,
Universidade de São Paulo, Piracicaba, 2009.
BRUN, F. G. K.; LONGHI, S.J.; BRUN, E.J.
FREITAG, A.S.; SCHUMACHER, M.V.
Comportamento fenológico e efeito da poda
em algumas espécies empregadas na arborização
do Bairro Camobi, Santa Maria, RS. Revista da
Sociedade Brasileira de Arborização Urbana,
Piracicaba, v. 2, n. 1, p. 44 – 63, 2007.
84
CARVALHO, P.E.R. Espécies arbóreas brasileiras.
Colombo: EMBRAPA, 2008. v. 3, 593p.
EMBRAPA, Empresa Brasileira de Pesquisa
Agropecuária. Centro Nacional de Pesquisa de
Solos. Sistema brasileiro de classificação de solos.
2 ed. Rio de Janeiro: EMBRAPA, 2006, 306p.
LARCHER, W. Ecofisiologia vegetal. 2 ed, São
Carlos: Rima, 2000. 531p.
LIU, C.; LI, X. Carbon storage and sequestration by
urban forests in Shenyang, China. Urban forestry
& Urban greening, Illionis, v.11, n. 2, p. 121 – 128,
2012.
LORENZI, H. Árvores Brasileiras: manual de
identificação e cultivo de plantas arbóreas nativas
do Brasil. v. 1. Nova Odessa: Editora Plantarum,
1998. 352p.
MAACK, R. Geografia física do Estado do Paraná.
Curitiba: BADEP, 1968. 350p.
MARCHIORI, J.N.C. Dendrologia das angiospermas:
leguminosas. Santa Maria, RS: Editora da
Universidade Federal de Santa Maria, 1997. 200p.
MASCARÓ, L.E.; MASCARÓ, J. Vegetação urbana.
2 ed. Porto Alegre: Editora Mais Quatro, 2005.
204p.
SAMPAIO, A.C.F. Análise da arborização de vias
públicas das principais zonas do plano piloto
de Maringá – PR. 2006. 117 f. Dissertação
(Mestrado em Geografia) –Universidade Estadual
de Maringá, Maringá, 2006.
SANTOS, N.R.Z.; TEIXEIRA, I.F. Arborização de
vias públicas: ambiente x vegetação. Porto Alegre
RS: Editora Pallotti. 2001. 135p.
SECRETARIA DE SERVIÇOS PÚBLICOS E
MEIO AMBIENTE. Nossa Cidade – Maringá,
PR. Disponível em: <http://www.maringa.pr.gov.
br>. Acesso em: 01 Ago. 2009.
SILVA, L.F.; LIMA, A.M.L.P.; SILVA FILHO,
D.F.; COUTO, H.T.Z. Precipitação interna e
interceptação da chuva em duas espécies arbóreas
urbanas. Revista da Sociedade Brasileira de
Arborização Urbana, Piracicaba, v. 4, n. 4, p. 32
– 48, 2009.
SILVEIRA, P.; KOEHLER, H.S.; SANQUETTA,
C.R.; ARCE, J.C. O estado da arte na estimativa
de biomassa e carbono em formações florestais.
Floresta, Curitiba, v. 38, n. 1,
p. 185 – 206,
2008.
VOLPE-FILIK, A. Trincas nas calçadas e espécies
muito utilizadas na arborização: comparação
entre Sibipiruna (Caesalpinia pluviosa Dc.) e
Falsa-murta (Murraya paniculata (L.) Jacq.)
no município de Piracicaba/SP. 2009. 96f. Tese
(Doutorado em Agronomia) - Escola Superior de
Agricultura “Luiz de Queiroz”, Universidade de
São Paulo, Piracicaba, 2009.
85
Tree canopy cover assessment using the Urban Forest Index
in São Carlos, SP (Brazil)
Sabrina Mieko Viana1, Demóstenes Ferreira da Silva Filho2
1,2
Escola Superior de Agricultura Luiz de Queiróz – ESALQ/USP
1
[email protected]
2
[email protected]
Keywords: Urban Forestry, Indexes, São Carlos (SP), remote sensing
Trees provide numerous environmental services,
essential on environmental quality maintenance of
the cities. However, in order to provide these benefits
for all its inhabitants, it is necessary to know the
canopy cover distribution and their relationship with
the other infrastructures, in order to set priorities for
their improvement and maintenance. Furthermore,
the cities´ dynamics demands the application of
methods and indexes to evaluate their changes
comprehensively and quickly. Based on these reasons,
this research assessed the tree canopy cover (TCC) of
the urban area of São Carlos, SP (Brazil), as well as
the implementation of the Urban Forest Index (UFI).
The study area was divided into 44 sectors, in order
to facilitate the analysis of the distribution of trees.
The survey percentages of TCC and other elements
of the urban area (roofs, asphalt floor, tree canopy,
lawn and bare soil) was performed by supervised
classification of satellite images from Worldview-2
satellite, collected in June 2011. Based on these data,
we proceeded to calculate the UFI as proposed by
Silva Filho et al. (2005). This index consists of the
sum of the proportions of the TCC by impervious
(PAI) and built spaces (PAC). The maximum value
that the UFI can reach is 2, and the closest to this
value, the greater the valuation of the TCC over built
and impervious areas.
The UFI for the entire study area was 1.04 and TCC
86
was 21.48%. Although these values are regarded
as reasonable, the analysis indicates that the TCC
is poorly distributed within and among the sectors.
Approximately 57% of TCC is concentrated in four
sectors, which include industrial districts and two
university campi. The highest values of TCC and
UFIs were concentrated on north and northwest
regions, where there is a predominance of middle and
high-class neighborhoods and gated communities.
The lowest values occurred in the central region, with
TCC values below 10% and UFIs ranging to 0.33 to
0.41, and in low-income neighborhoods, in the south
region, with TCC of 4.88% and 0.33 UFI. The indexes
analysis indicates that in the central areas, where
there are few permeable areas, it is recommended to
create incentives for maintenance of the trees in the
backyards and new plantings on sidewalks.
We conclude that the TCC of the study area has
uneven distribution, with higher amounts in areas
of middle and upper class and lower in low-income
neighborhoods, mainly in the peripheral areas. This
pattern occurs in many Brazilian cities and affects
the environmental quality of the less favored areas.
Although the analysis of the components of the
IFU has given indications of possible strategies for
improving the TCC, this is not particularly sensitive
to its distribution. Therefore, further studies are
recommended to somehow include in the index a
correction factor for the distribution of TCC.
References
SILVA FILHO, D.F., PIVETTA, K.F.L., COUTO,
H.T.Z., POLIZEL, J. Indicadores de floresta
urbana a partir de imagens aéreas multiespectrais
de alta resolução. Scientia Forestalis, n.67, p. 88100, 2005.
87
88
Concurrent Session C
Urban Forestry,
Health and Well Being
Session organizer:
Frank S. Jensen,
Forest & Landscape Denmark,
University of Copenhagen, Denmark
89
Creating a Tree Culture
Mark Duntemann1, Nicole Stuart2
1,2
Natural Path Urban Forestry, PO Box 1753, Oak Park, Illinois USA
2
[email protected]
Keywords: heritage, culture, tree, stewards.
The importance of trees in terms of environmental
and aesthetic benefits is well known, yet decisions
about individual trees are vulnerable to competing
priorities. Some priorities include municipal or
private development and individual convenience and
preferences. These dilemmas are particularly common
in the United States. Alternately, the author notes a
shared respect for trees by professionals as well as
laypeople during his travels abroad.
Many international cities and public spaces are tied
to their communities through trees.
Individual
trees or groves serve as cultural reference points that
are commonly known. These trees are associated
with cultural events, historic landscapes, individuals,
or literature. One example was the 170-year-old
Horsechestnut (Aesculus hippocastanum) featured in
Anne Frank’s diary entries from the time that she hid
with her family in Amsterdam. Another is a centuriesold Cedar of Lebanon (Cedrus libani) that dominates
the historic Parco Massari in Ferrara, Italy. Trees mark
these events and landmarks and raise community
awareness through local contexts. Certainly, the
sentiments invoked mature over generations.
Examples of trees as cultural links in the United States
are limited. There are, or were, a few national examples:
the Wye Oak, the Treaty Oak, and Luna. Regardless of
their initial notoriety, few people understand these trees
in their cultural contexts today. Illinois provides a local
example of this situation. While Illinois communities
enjoy the presence of hundreds of oaks and associated
systems that predate European settlement, little effort
has been made to communicate these trees’ significance
90
to the public.
The responsibility for sowing the cultural value of trees
is, in many instances, that of the stewards. We have not
met our obligation to define the importance of individual
trees to our communities in regard to ecology, culture
and heritage. Informing the public of a particular tree’s
history can only increase community interest in urban
forestry programs as well as collective cultural heritage.
For example, Alexander Robinson was a member of
the Pottawatomie Indian Nation, who helped protect
survivors of the Fort Dearborn massacre in 1812. Do we
know the trees that surrounded Alexander Robinson’s
cabin along the Des Plaines River? Also, did Lincoln
and Douglas debate under a tree in Alton or Quincy,
Illinois in 1858? Did trees survive the Chicago Fire?
The answers to these questions have implications for
local communities and international visitors.
Mr. Duntemann’s presentation will provide local
examples from international sites and discuss how trees
can and should transcend the current and past cultures
and heritage of the area. This enhanced knowledge could
over time help to create more verdant communities and
heightened public involvement. Urban foresters and
arborists play an important role in sustaining healthy
tree populations and informing the community of the
importance of trees, rather than their disposability.
References
Duntemann, M. 2009 Creating a Tree Culture, Illinois
Trees (March). Illinois Arborist Association
Concurrent Session D
Nature-based Recreation
and Tourism
Session organizer:
Peter Fredman,
Mid Sweden University and the
European Tourism Research Institute, Sweden
91
The value of ecotourism to residents around a national
park: Does proximity and perceptions matter?
Eugene E. Ezebilo1
1
Southern Swedish Forest Research Centre, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences
1
[email protected]
Keywords: Contingent valuation, economic benefits, ecotourism, local people, nature conservation
Introduction
Deforestation threatens plant and animal species,
forest ecosystem services and people who depend
on forests for their livelihoods (Chapin et al., 2000).
Although protected areas such as national park has
been established in various parts of the world to help
reduce deforestation it has been fairly successful in
developed countries but less so in developing countries
(Ezebilo and Mattsson, 2010). This is because the main
goal for establishing national parks often conflicts with
local demands for forest products and land use for
agriculture, especially in developing countries where the
livelihoods of many people are strongly linked to natural
resources (Emerton, 2001). To engender local support
for conservation efforts various projects that link
conservation with development have been implemented
around national parks so that locals can get benefits
from nature conservation (Berkes, 2004). One of such
projects is ecotourism, i.e., travel to natural areas that
conserve the environment and improves the well-being
of local people (The International Ecotourism Society,
1990). When ecotourism is supported in a national park,
it is often argued that economic benefits will accrue
to local people (Weiler and Scidl, 2004). This study
explores the willingness to pay regarding ecotourism
using the contingent valuation method and whether
92
distance to ecotourism site and expected future benefits
from ecotourism matters when local people state their
willingness to pay. The study involves people who reside
around the Okwangwo Division of the Cross River
National Park in southeast Nigeria.
Methodology
The Cross River National Park in southeast Nigeria was
established to help protect some of the natural rainforests.
For administrative purposes the park is managed as two
Divisions, i.e. the Oban Division in the south and the
Okwangwo Division (OD) in the north. This study was
conducted in villages around the OD. The OD has an
area of 1 000 km² and it is one of the United Nation’s
world biodiversity hotspots in the world. Approximately
1 545 plant species have been documented in the park
and the park harbours the most endangered gorilla
subspecies, the Cross River gorilla (Gorilla gorilla
diehli). More than 1 000 species of butterfly and more
than 280 bird species have been recorded in the OD
(BirdLife International, 2012; Larson, 1997). Before the
established of the OD the people in the villages around
the OD had access to the land presently occupied by the
OD for their livelihood activities. The establishment of
the OD restricted the people access to the land. Eco-
Nature-based Recreation and Tourism
tourists from different parts of the world visits the OD
thus it is hoped that the local people will benefit from
businesses associated with ecotourism.
The data for this study originated from personal
interviews that involved 150 households in three villages
(i.e. 50 in each village) located around the OD. Of the
three villages Butatong is the closest village to the OD
administrative office, followed by Bukalom while Wula
is the farthest. The willingness to pay (WTP) question
was of the open-ended format. The respondents were
asked to state the maximum amount of money in
Nigerian Naira (NGN) that they would be willing to pay
for improving facilities to help attract more eco-tourists.
They were asked socioeconomic questions such as
income, age, household size, education, occupation and
the distance of their home to the OD. The respondents
were asked whether they belong to an environmental
group and whether the OD is important for generating
revenue from ecotourism in future.
Results and discussion
Ninety-six per cent of the respondents were willing
to pay for ecotourism and the average amount they
were willing to pay annually was approximately 1 033
NGN (US$ 7). Only five per cent of the respondents
get revenue from ecotourism and they were all from
the Butatong village, i.e. the village closest to the OD
administrative office. The respondents who were of the
opinion that the OD is important for ecotourism in
future have higher WTP than those who say the OD
is not important. The respondents whose homes were
7.1 to 10 km from the OD had the highest WTP and
those whose homes were 0.5 to 1 km had the lowest
(see Fig 1).
1600
1400
1200
1000
WTP (Nigerian
Naira)
800
600
400
200
0
0.5 - 1
1.1 - 2
2.1 - 4
4.1 - 7
7.1 - 10
>10
Distance (km)
Fig 1 Distance of respondent’s home to the OD in relation to WTP
To explore the factors that might have influenced the
WTP the ordinary least squares regression was applied.
The results showed that the respondents who have at
least high school education, engaged in agriculture
and gathering of forest products, belonged to an
environmental group and were of the opinion that the
OD is important for future benefits from ecotourism
were willing to pay more for ecotourism. The respondents
who live further from the OD, male and have many
persons in their household were willing to pay less.
An increase in distance of the respondent’s home from
the OD by one kilometre leads to a decrease in WTP
by approximately 233 NGN (US$ 1.5). The presence
of expectation of getting benefits from ecotourism in
future leads to an increase in WTP by approximately
323 NGN (US$ 2.1).
The findings from this study revealed that the local
people who reside around the OD have WTP for
ecotourism. However, their WTP varies with regard
to the distance of their homes from the OD and
expectation of future benefits. The findings show that on
average, people who reside closest to the OD have the
lowest WTP. This may be that the people are the most
affected by the restriction of access to land due to the
establishment of the OD. The findings highlights the
importance of involving people that are most affected by
the conservation policy in designing conservation with
development strategy. The findings further revealed that
only few of the local people get revenue from ecotourism.
This indicates the importance of considering how to
package ecotourism so that more local people could
benefit from it. The findings suggest that the distance of
the local people’s home from the ecotourism site plays
an important role with regards to the benefits they get
from ecotourism. It further suggests that when local
people state their WTP regarding ecotourism they
consider whether some benefits would accrue to them
in the future. The findings highlights the importance of
distance to ecotourism site in relation to the distribution
of benefits from ecotourism among local people and
the importance of expectation of future benefits when
people state their WTP. Thus in planning ecotourism
project it is important to consider the distance of the
people’s home to the ecotourism site. The findings
93
contribute to more understanding regarding the benefits
that local people who live near a national park get from
ecotourism.
References
Berkes F. 2004. Rethinking Community-Based
Conservation. Conservation Biology 18, 621-630.
BirdLife International. 2012. Important bird area fact
sheet. Cross River National Park, Okwangwo
Division, Nigeria. http://www.birdlife.org.
Accessed December 15, 2012.
Chapin, F.S., Zavaleta, E.S., Eviner, V.T., Naylor,
R.L., Vitousek, P.M., Reynolds, H.L. et al. 2000.
Consequences of changing biodiversity. Nature
405, 234-242.
Emerton, L. 2001. The nature of benefits of nature:
why wildlife conservation has not economically
benefited communities in Africa. In: Hulme, D.,
and Murphree M (eds.) African wildlife and
livelihoods: the promise and performance of
community conservation. James Currey, Oxford,
UK, p.2008-2226.
Ezebilo, E.E., and Mattsson, L. 2010. Socio-economic
benefits of protected areas as perceived by local
people around Cross River National Park,
Nigeria. Forest Policy and Economics 12, 189-193.
Larson, T.B. 1997. Butterflies of the Cross River
National Park diversity. Proceedings of the
workshop: Essential Partnership – the forest and
the people. Calabar, Nigeria. p. 229-235.
The International Ecotourism Society. 1990. What is
ecotourism? http://www.ecotourism.org/what-isecotourism Accessed March 13, 2013.
Weiler, S., and Seidl, A. 2004. What’s in a name?
Extracting econometric drivers to assess the impact
of national park designation. Journal of Regional
Science, 44, 245-262.
94
The biodynamic agent course in
prudentópolis - Brazil: strategy to preserve
the araucaria moist forests using ecotourism
as a tool for sustainable development
Jasmine Cardozo Moreira1, Vania Mara Moreira dos Santos 2
1,2
Ponta Grossa State University, Paraná, Brazil
1
[email protected]
Keywords: Education, Tourism, Araucaria Moist Forests, community, sustainable alternatives.
Prudentópolis, in Paraná State, South of Brazil, is a
municipality that houses one of the last significant
remnants of Araucaria Moist Forest concentrated in
the “Faxinais”, a historical form of social organization
of production that preserved more environmental
conditions, compared to other organizational
forms. They are collective production systems that
amalgamated “cabocla” culture and European cultures
in the late nineteenth century, combining agricultural
cultivation into individual lots with the creation of
animals in a community that kept the forest. Currently,
“Faxinais” are threatened because they maintained
the forest in an advanced stage of conservation and
now they are suffering intense pressure for conversion
to agriculture and silviculture. In the project entitled
“Ecotourism as a tool for sustainable development of
Faxinais in Prudentópolis”, approved and sponsored
by the Brazilian Ministry of Environment and run
by the NGO Institute Guardians of Nature the
objective was the selection of families that had the
capability and interest in receiving tourists. Since
2007 the NGO was offering training courses dealing
with issues such as sustainable tourism, hospitality,
biodynamic agriculture, business management,
among others. Other steps included market surveys,
identification of trails, environmental diagnosis and
georeferencing of faxinal and selected properties
for business plans, study of carrying capacity of the
attractions, the constitution of a system to monitoring
and controlling the impacts of visitation, and the
creation of a logo for the Route of the Faxinais. For the
Brazilian government, the Ecotourism is an activity
of extreme importance, since it is in agreement with
the national effort to promote economic and social
development. The Brazilian natural landscapes of
unique beauty and ecological value, make our country
one of the leading destinations for ecotourism
worldwide. The results showed that by empower
the community to work with ecotourism was taken
the first step to transform the Faxinais an economic
model of sustainable development by providing
better quality of life through economic performance,
demonstrating the importance of community for
conservation of Araucaria Forest. Assisting residents
to generate income, while promoting the conservation
of Faxinais, the Project has demonstrated that is
possible, with skills and expertise, offer sustainable
alternatives to these communities that otherwise
would not have conditions to continue living in these
regions.
95
Indicators for Sustainable Recreational Use of Forests
and Other Natural Resources – Experiences
from Northern Europe
Tuija Sievänen1, David Edwards2, Peter Fredman3,
Frank Søndergaard Jensen4, Odd Inge Vistad5
1
Finnish Forest Research Institute (METLA) Finland
1
2
[email protected]
Social and Economic Research Group, Centre for Ecosystems, Society and Biosecurity,
Forest Research, Northern Research Station, Scotland
2
3
[email protected]
Mid-Sweden University, Sweden
3
4
[email protected]
Dep. of Geosciences and Natural Resource Management, Faculty of Science,
University of Copenhagen, Denmark
4
5
[email protected]
Norwegian Institute for Nature Research (NINA), Human dimension department,
Fakkelgården, Norway
5
[email protected]
Keywords: recreation, nature tourism, social indicator, sustainable recreation, forest
Introduction
Sustainable development is a long-term goal for most
natural resource related policies. In Europe, at the first
Ministerial Conference on the Protection of Forests
#(5 /,)*5 B5 gooi65 ()15 \),-.5 /,)*]C65
sustainable forest management was defined as “the
stewardship and use of forests and forest lands in a
way, and at a rate, that maintains their biodiversity,
productivity, regeneration capacity, vitality and their
potential to fulfill, now and in the future, relevant
ecological, economic and social functions, at local,
national, and global levels, and that does not cause
damage to other ecosystems.” (Helsinki Resolution H1,
www.mcpfe.org). The Forest Europe process involves
45 European countries, and has a counterpart in the
Montreal Process (http://www.rinya.maff.go.jp/mpci/).
The need to establish a global policy for sustainable use
and management of forest resources is expressed also by
the United Nations Forum on Forests (UNFF, http://
www.un.org/esa/forests/index.html). The sustainability
concept itself is based upon the principle that current
96
resource uses need to be in balance so that future uses
are not threatened, and that future generations have
the same opportunities to use and benefit from natural
resources as the present generations have. The state of
balance should be known and possible to define, and
when agreed upon, development and changes over time
should be monitored. When monitoring is required,
there is a need for efficient measures (indicators) to
describe the state of sustainability, the phenomena in
question and associated changes.
Among nine North European countries, a project
\)#&5 #(#.),-5 #(5 ),-.,35 @ /,.",5 0&)*'(.5 #(5
the North European context’ (SOSIN) was initiated in
2012 in order to assess suitable indicators for sustainable
recreational use of forests and other natural resources.The
project gathered information about existing processes
and reporting of social indicators for recreation and
nature tourism in each participating country. The second
goal was to assess the status of recreation monitoring
in North Europe. The project produced a state of art
report of used and proposed recreation indicators, and
recreation monitoring (Sievänen et al. 2013).
Results of reviewing state of art of recreation
indicators and monitoring in North Europe
The first topic was to report how nature-based recreation
and tourism is represented in policy documents, and
whether any statements exist, which support use of
indicators and monitoring for the purpose of sustainable
use of natural resources or land use. The results show that
most countries have policies for (i) sustainable forestry,
(ii) preserving biodiversity, and/or (iii) sustainable
tourism. We have also included integration of land
uses, integration of recreation and tourism with timber
production, nature conservation or mining and other
extractive use of natural resources besides political goals
such as human health and wellbeing in respect of use of
land and natural resources. One important aspect is the
sustainability of recreational use itself. Most countries
were able to put forward policy documents, which are
related to natural resources, tourism, land use planning
or health sector, and in which nature-based recreation
and/or tourism are mentioned as having a role in the
sector.
The most typical type of document was a national forest
program or strategy. Only four countries (Denmark,
Finland, Norway and Sweden) have a specifically
focused strategy or program for outdoor recreation and/
or nature-based tourism.
The second topic was to collect lists of indicators
presented in official documents or in other literature
such as study or review reports of recreation indicators.
Most countries report some indicators related to
recreation. In Denmark, Scotland and Sweden, several
different indicators are found in different documents.
Norway has some official outdoor recreation indicators,
but not specified for forest recreation. There is a lot of
variation between the existing indicators, and there
doesn’t appear to be one that is common in terms of
scales of measurement or limits of applied type of nature
area to all countries. The list of indicators adopted in
’official documents’ is surprisingly short. Indicators such
-5\2.(.5) 5)*(5*/&#5--]65\*,)*),.#)(5) 5*)*/&.#)(5
*,.##*.#(!5#(5)/.)),5,,.#)(]65),5\(/',5) 50#-#.-5
to forests’ are most common. More indicators are related
to the demand for recreation than to supply of recreation
opportunities. A summary of the most often mentioned
indicators is found in table 1.
The third topic for reporting was the sources of data
and information that are used for monitoring recreation
indicators. The objective was to determine who is
responsible for the provision of monitoring data, what
the quality of data is and whether the data is updated
systematically. Another important aspect is to determine
the prospects of data collection continuing into the
future. Finally, one key task was to find out whether
there is any systematic monitoring or data available for
the indicators related to recreation and tourism, which
could serve as data sources for recreation indicators but
which are not in use at the moment.
Most countries report some kind of monitoring system
or database, which is or could be used for monitoring
recreation indicators. Many countries also report that
there is some systematic data collection both at national
and local level, and both from a demand and a supply
perspective. But in most countries the data collection is
not primarily for monitoring nature-based recreation.
Only Denmark, Finland, Norway and Scotland can
report having especially focused monitoring for outdoor
recreation nation wide. Estonia, Denmark, Finland
and Scotland have regularly conducted on-site visitor
surveys, but the local/on-site level monitoring is
mainly concentrated on state owned areas. Denmark
and Scotland have the best coverage of visitor surveys
and counting. Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Norway,
Northern Germany, Scotland and Sweden gather
outdoor recreation related statistics with surveys such as
Living conditions, Time Use, Environmental awareness,
Culture and Leisure, or with general National Statistics
such as in Germany.
Most countries do not, however, monitor sustainability
of nature-based recreation and tourism systematically
over time and were unable to provide information on
indicators or monitoring systems for evaluation and
assessment of recreation. Most of the countries studied
97
are also unable to report the Forest Europe indicators
relating to recreation and other social benefits of forests
as demanded. Some countries, do however, report good
progress in their efforts to monitor recreational use of
forests, particularly in protected areas.
Table 1. Summary of most often mentioned recreation
indicators among eight North European countries (Denmark-
DK, Estonia-EST, Finland-FIN, North Germany-GEM,
Norway-NO, North-Western Russia-RUS, Sweden-SWE,
Scotland-UK)
Recreation Indicator
Proportion of population which take part in
outdoor activities
Visits to woodlands/ national forests/
different types of nature areas/ national
parks and state owned hiking areas
Proportion of adults who visited woodland/
forest/nature area in previous 12 months
Number and length of core paths in
woodlands/ recreation trails (for walking,
hiking, cross-country skiing)
between countries. There are efforts to include recreation
measurements into forest inventory systems (Danish
National Forest Inventory), or there are national
outdoor recreation demand inventories (Denmark,
Finland, Scotland), and in some countries there are
databases of recreation supply (of recreation areas, trails,
other services).
Also, indicators presented are often not directly
measuring demand or supply of recreation, or other
aspects of recreation but rather values that are indirectly
Number of countries
Remarks
DK, FIN, NO, SWE, UK = 5
Number of activities measured varies
between countries
DK, EST, FIN, NO, UK = 5
Destination type and amount/size of
destination areas differ between countries
DK, FIN, NO, UK = 4
Destination type varies
FIN, UK = 2
Type of paths or trail vary
Proportion of population with short
distance to local green areas
NO, SWE, UK =3
Extent of open public access (Forest Europe
indicator); everyman’s rights
DK, EST, FIN, NO, SWE, UK= 6
Conclusions and Discussion
The project identified several problems with current
social indicators of nature-based recreation and tourism.
In most countries, the relevant indicators are not feasible
and effective to offer reliable information of on-going
changes. The major problem in most countries is that
there is a serious shortage of reliable data to provide
quantitative figures for social indicators. In addition,
there is still limited coherence and no agreement on
which could be the best recreation indicators to be
used on Europe wide, national or local level. According
to COST E33 reporting, most European countries
lack efficient monitoring systems to offer estimates
of indicators across time and regions (Sievänen et al.
2008). Recreation monitoring is taking place in most
North European countries to some extent, but less
so in other parts of Europe. But also in the North,
monitoring methods and outputs accordingly vary a lot
98
The definition of ‘short distance’ and ‘local
green areas’ vary:
300 m/ Sweden, 500 m/UK,
200/500 m/Norway
Everyman’s rights vary slightly between
countries
related. Those indicators are chosen because the data are
available, but there is a danger that the indicators are
not effective to capture the key issue. A big problem
is that there are no reliable measurements to offer for
reporting sustainability (or equity), and few countries
can provide time series for national or regional level
information, which is needed to describe the status of
the indicators. Finally, there are not always standards
for the information describing the indicators, and thus
information gathered may not be comparable between
countries.
There is an obvious need to enhance the monitoring
of social aspects of forests and forestry, and also other
sectors such as preserving biodiversity or health and
wellbeing in society related to nature-based recreation
and tourism. Globalisation continues to have a stronger
impact on human society across Europe, and European
countries will continue to share policies for use of
natural resources but also in terms of the status of
wellbeing of populations. Good measures and indicators
for our societies’ success in achieving the objectives of
sustainable development are essential and valuable
for the wellbeing of people. Our knowledge-base and
understanding of the full range of benefits, which
people gain from the natural environment when taking
part in outdoor recreation, supports the overall goal
of enhancing the provision of access to healthy green
environments for recreation.
monitoring systems to produce inventory data for
recreation statistics that provide a knowledge-base for
indicators that are comparable across Europe.
Our next challenge is to work towards relevant and
informative indicators that reveal the benefits to our
societies and whether societal goals are being achieved.
The task is to develop and improve the indicators which
are already in use, and also to create new indicators. The
indicators should be effective, focused, and be useful
for many purposes and also in other sectors of natural
resources in North European countries and beyond.
References
There is a need to assess the possibilities of creating and
recommending standardized and harmonized social
indicators, which could provide comparable figures
across countries and regions. Second, the core task
is to assess what kind of social, especially recreation,
indicators are needed and possible to implement, and
what kind of quantitative data is available for collection
on a continuous basis in different countries. There is also
a need to ensure feasible monitoring systems, which
are reasonable in terms of cost and methodology so
that many countries can apply them. In all countries
included in this study, there is a challenge to develop
In conclusion, the project identified a need for better
indicators and development of systematic and long
term monitoring of sustainability in recreational use of
forests and protected areas among Northern European
countries, and across Europe as a whole.
Sievänen, T.,Arnberger, A., Dehez, J., Grant, N.,
Jensen, F.S. &Skov-Petersen, H. (eds.) 2008.Forest
Recreation Monitoring – a European Perspective.
Working Papers of the Finnish Forest Research
Institute (Metla) 79, 245 p.
Sievänen,T., Edwards, D., Fredman,P., Jensen, F.S. &
Vistad, O-I.(eds.) 2013.Social Indicators in the
Forest Sector in Northern Europe – A Review
focusing on Nature-based Recreation and Tourism.
(Manuscript).
99
Use of indicators as a tool for park visitation management
Ginessa Corrêa Lemos1, Getulio Batista Teixeira2 ,
Maria de Jesus Robim3
1
ITPA/INEA, Rio de Janeiro-RJ
1
2
[email protected]
Universidade de Taubaté, Taubaté-SP
2
3
[email protected]
Instituto Florestal, São Paulo-SP,
3
[email protected]
Keywords: Visitation Management, Indicators, Parks
Recently, visitation in parks has increased continuously,
however the majority of these protected areas do not
have an administrative structure to control visitation,
especially when island ecosystems are considered.
The State Park of Ilhabela (PEIb) is a good example
where this situation prevails and for this reason it was
selected for this research, which purpose is identifying
indicators for a better management of the park. It
was possible to propose a system for participative
management after a study to understand the process of
visitation in this park that allowed us identify the use
and conflicts, including visitor’s profiles and periods
of increased visitation. Thus, it was used as reference
to select indicators of Bountîle – Base of observation
for nautical and terrestrial purposes within the islands,
developed by French researchers for the National Park
of Port Cros, which was complemented with guidelines
from the Ministry of Environment and other authors,
and concerned proposed and expected traits of park
visitation, guiding selection of the following indicators
taking into account: a) Opportunities of recreation for a
diverse public; b) Visitation safety; c) Satisfaction with
the experience; d) Minimum environmental impact;
e) Influence in socioeconomic development of the
surrounding community. 20 management indicators
were identified, based on the PEIb analyses and the
following criteria: Uses and users; Climatic conditions;
Well-being of the residents; Security; Profile of the
100
visitor; Well-being of the visitors; Behavior of the
visitors; Certification, Management, and institutional
integration. Criteria diversity was the main result,
because it is believed to be required in order to cover
varied aspects of a visitation management system in a
conservation unit. The indicators are flexible, and could
be changed anytime, thus, always allowing consonance
with the goals of the park management plan. They should
be feasible economically, technically, and operationally
to be efficient. It is primordial that those indicators
and protocols are discussed and tested between park
employees and local actors, ensuring active management
and monitoring continuity.
References
BRASIL. Ministério do Meio Ambiente. Secretaria
de Biodiversidade e Florestas. Diretoria de Áreas
Protegidas. Diretrizes para visitação em unidades
de conservação. Brasília: MMA, 2006a.
BRIGAND, L. LE BERRE, S. Joint construction and
appropriation of indicators by users, managers
and scientists:the case study of Port-Cros and
Porquerollestourist frequentation observatory’. In:
JournalofSustainableDevelopment. Vol. 10. França.
2007
TONGE, J.; MOORE, S.;HOCKINGS, M.;
WORBOYS, G.; BRIDLE, K. Developing
indicators for the sustainable management of
visitor use of protected areas in Australia. CRC for
Sustainable Tourism, Gold Coast, Qld. ISBN 1
101
Managing tourism in protected areas from a landscape
perspective: An exploratory study from Sweden
Peter Fredman1, Daniel Laven2, Sandra Wall Reinius3
1,3
Mid-Sweden University, Sweden
1
2
[email protected]
Mid-Sweden University, Sweden, and Dept. of Conservation,
University of Gothenburg
2
3
[email protected]
[email protected]
Keywords: Protected areas, Tourism, European Landscape Convention
Over the last decades, the notion of sustainable tourism
has emerged as a dominant paradigm for managing
visitor use in parks and protected areas worldwide.
One consequence of more traditional “managementby-objectives” frameworks to managing for sustainable
tourism (e.g. LAC, ROS) is that the focus of management
tends to be inside the boundaries of parks and protected
areas, but new challenges for managing sustainable
tourism require us to look beyond those boundaries.
The European Landscape Convention (ELC) is one
example of a growing trend towards landscape-oriented
approaches to environmental planning and management
which will have important implications for tourism
in and around protected areas. The ELC provides the
policy framework for organizing European cooperation
on landscape issues, and tourism is identified as one
development strategy in the convention. The convention
calls for close collaboration between national and local
authorities, private organizations and the public. Since
coming into force in 2004, more than 30 countries have
ratified the ELC, suggesting that landscape will likely be
an important consideration for much of European land
use and development in the future. The ELC applies
to all landscapes, not just selected ones, and underlines
the diversity of landscapes as a value. It emphasizes that
landscape is the concern of everybody, and advocates an
enhanced role for public participation. It also highlights
the principle of subsidiarity, requiring that landscape
102
matters should be dealt with as closely to the affected
population as possible.
Using Sweden as an example, this paper offers an
exploratory look at the intersection of a landscape
perspective – as articulated in the ELC – with the
contemporary notion of sustainable tourism management
in parks and protected areas. Nature protection in
Sweden began in 1909 when Europe’s first national parks
were established in the north and today 10.9 percent of
the land area is protected through 29 National Parks,
3800 Nature Reserves, 93 Nature Management Areas
and 6800 Habitat Protection Areas. Data were collected
using qualitative semi-structured interviews and snowball
sampling techniques. The sample included representatives
from government ministries, national governmental
agencies, regional authorities, protected area managers,
non-profit organizations and university professors. Four
articulated and interconnected themes emerged from
the study data: (a) institutional negation and conflict
among key implementation actors; (b) confusion and
uncertainty over the landscape concept; (c) opportunities
for enhancing sustainable tourism development; and (d)
future challenges for the landscape-sustainable tourism
nexus. Results from the study are discussed within the
context of Fulufjället National Park which represents
one of the more innovative approaches to tourism
development in protected areas in Sweden so far.
Dilemmas and challenges to implementation the use
public programme of protected areas in são paulo
metropolitan region, brazil.
Sidnei Raimundo 1, Reinaldo T. Boscolo Pacheco 2
1
Professor, PhD of EACH-USP. School of Arts, Sciences and Humanities, University of São Paulo.
1
2
[email protected]
University of São Paulo.
2
[email protected]
Introduction
The São Paulo Metropolitan Region - RMSP - in its
southern section, presents a rapid conversion of land use
cover, changing from areas with agricultural tasks or small
leisure farms to areas of intense urbanization. This change
is associated with poor villages, often slums characterized
as dormitories, and sometimes with planned villages –
the gated communities.
In this sector, the RMSP has created four Municipal
Natural Parks in order to protect Atlantic Forest remnants.
Due to the urban reality, the implementation of protected
areas and their Public Use Programs is complex, differing,
for example, from areas like the Amazon. In the Amazon,
large tracts of natural environments attract ecotourists
interested in visiting these environments. Protected areas
of the southern sector of the RMSP tend to attract visitors
from neighboring areas with different motivations, not
necessarily related to the knowledge of nature.
Given this reality, we address issues in developing a public
use program: how to provide nature-awareness activities
for underserved communities, whose basic needs are not
met? What are the interests and needs of the surrounding
community about objectives and services provided by
parks? Can protected areas existing in this reality meet
their conservation goals?
Thus, the general purpose of this paper is: to reconcile
communities’ leisure aspirations with the conservation
actions of the parks, and to propose actions to change
attitudes and behaviors of society in its relationship with
nature.
The survey was done considering the ideas of “thick
description” (Geertz, 1989) and “roles and representations
studies” (Claval, 2001) involved in the deployment and
use of future parks. We conducted a survey of leisure
practices, highlighting aspirations and needs and linking
them with the conservation objectives of the parks.
To add to the observations and field analyses, we
held semi-structured interviews with local leaders,
as suggested by Ferreira (1996) and Brandon (1995).
Finally, in relation to the park’s objectives considering the
assumptions that it is possible to respect the interests of
visitors and achieve educational goals, in this case, with
an emphasis on nature conservation. This information
established the guidelines for the public use of the parks.
1) The Leisure of Surrounding Communities of the
Parks and Challenges for the Public Use Program
On the southern sector of São Paulo city there are no
roads or highways. The avenues and streets represent the
main axes of communication networks and are the vectors
of urban expansion toward the parks. This situation
contributes to severe land use cover change.
The occupation of the region follows an urban matrix
pattern, with remaining rural or natural patches, as
analyzed by the parks. In adjacent areas of the parks,
agriculture still occurs, with the production of vegetables,
and also linked to the imaginary world of rural farms as
weekend leisure nautical activities.
The São Paulo Municipal Parks are new parks, designed
103
in areas historically used by local people for their leisure
practices: small weekend farms, interspersed with vacant
land on the shores of Billings and Guarapiranga Dam,
used for football, fishing, hunting and other activities
inside the forests. However, they were not activities
planned or structured to receive visitors, and informal
action often caused environmental problems.
There are few facilities for structured reception of
visitors, and these are located mainly on the Billings
Dam margins (near “Ilha do Bororé” and “Varginha”
parks), with a marina for boats and restaurant services, in
addition to a few other small farms that are rented to the
general public. Center Paulus, located in the environs of
“Itaim” Park, offers hosting services and nature experience
activities.
However, these equipments are incipient and do not
provide services or activities commonly encountered
in a park, as guide’s services, or on impact’s control and
environmental interpretation trails, among other activities
that commonly make part of a public use program. The
structure found today are private, which demonstrate the
lack of structured public spaces in the region to ensure
the constitutional right to leisure.
In these São Paulo’s parks, almost everything is still to
happen, nedding to combine the public use structured
(planned and responsible) and, at the same time, ensuring
the conservation of natural characteristics.
We surveyed the leisure practices of the surrounding
community, highlighting how such practices could
be developed in a protected area. We intended do not
cause a rupture between these practices and recreational
objectives of the park, but brief up the activities that could
be offered in a natural park, in pursuit of the involvement
and identification of the communities, avoiding activities
that were unrelated to the daily lives of the surrounding
communities.
The leisure’s small farms in the region, the remaining
agricultural practices and nautical activities in the dams
are the highlight of the landscapes images that locals
thinking about the area. Such features are associated
104
with the use and occupation process dating from the late
nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, such as colonial
settlements, mainly by Germans, marking the agricultural
character and linked to rural and natural in the region.
Noteworthy in this process the construction of BillingsGuarapiranga dam system, built during the first three
decades of the twentieth century. There was an electrical
need and for this a series of dams were built. In the 1930s,
finishing up the installation of the system, for integration
and administration areas, the Light Company established
a ferry-boat system. These would constitute the attraction
point to visitation in the region.
The margins of the two dams become a pleasant place for
leisure practices, with the establishment of leisure small
farms, yacht clubs, service companies and restaurants.
Agricultural production, mainly vegetables and fruit,
and dams landscapes, becomes in an imaginary world
that São Paulo’s inhabitants have by the region. It is a
natural world, idyllic, inaccessible until mid-1970, where
adventurers and nature lovers was looking for to link at
natural world.
The urban sprawl changes the activities in the region, but
these representations of a natural landscape still remain
in the minds of ancients’ occupants and are part of the
new residents looking for nature, particularly those of
private condominiums.
In Bororé Island and along the condominiums of
Guarapiranga´s dam (near to Jaceguava Park), the
weekend leisure and recreation activities are linked to
dams that mark the representations and imaginary of the
communities.
Currently, the region has not only the possibility of
environmental interest, improving the quality of life, and
leisure services to the local population. The areas have
also cultural heritage, with houses about one hundred
and fifty years, as the small church in Bororé and traces
of European colonization, which are still are presents,
especially in the Bororé Peninsula.
Combined to these cultural characteristics, there is the
preservation of technology memory, with of dam’s history
at region studied, as electrical power production in the
region between São Paulo and Santos.
However, although the natural representations of
the landscape are still very strong, the daily lives of
communities have other characteristics that sometimes
produce conflicts even in their leisure practices.
Bororé Island has a poor land connection to the Grajaú
(district more development). The Bororé villages are
distributed dispersed in the region, so that the contact
between them can hardly be done by walking, but by car
or bus, due and lack of sidewalks for pedestrians.
Reports of local’s people from the Bororé Island Residents
Association (AMIB) indicate that some leisure outdoors
practices held on the island are on the dam margins. But
the most frequent activities of island residents are in
indoors because of fear of suffering accident caused by
visitors who come from the “continent”.
The trekking practice and areas with this purpose has
been reported numerous times as aspiration of leisure
activities to be developed in the region, along with the
possibility of areas for biking. There is great difficulty in
developing these activities today because there are not
areas that offer security.
Furthermore, there are no plates about risk, as the dam
depth or the water quality. Use is done irregularly, with
risks to the leisure practice and even public health risks.
Nowadays, the ferry becomes on weekends a hot point
in the region. Along the car’s line waiting to go to the
island, there are bars, hawkers and cars double-parked.
The most critical point is the first ferry, where informal
trade blocking the vehicles circulation. There, visitors
have their leisure practice completely decontextualized
from the imaginary and bucolic countryside. Rather,
these practices are associated with drinking and other
drugs, dance and music played loud in bars and cars. As
an extension to these practices, there is the possibility of
swimming in the dam. However, drowning is frequent
and demands a detachment of the Fire Department
keeping a boat on weekends to curb abuses. A lot of
visitors, mainly from the São Paulo south zone, as Grajaú
district, produce hard conflicts.
The neighborhoods offer few elementary and high school
courses and none of Early Childhood Education. The
Unified Educational Centers (CEUS), large municipal
public facilities built to function also as space is sociability
and leisure community, are distant. The children end up
being enrolled in neighboring municipality, and they
using ferry and bus to the displacement. Programs like
“Family School”, which open the public schools on
weekends, were abandoned because the displacement of
the population from their houses to school was expensive.
The dam’s margins are largely privatized. There are second
home, clubs and associations on the Bororé Island and
condominiums and sports clubs, as well as Messianic
Temple called “Solo Sagrado” in Jaceguava. Smallholder
transforms their small farms in locals to leisure to attend
the growth number of visitors. The demand for this
equipments, whether private, which have a structure
pools and barbecues, is growing, according to residents
and owners, due to the lack of structured areas for this
practices. Some of these properties offer a small structure
trails, pool and use the edge of the dam.
There are possibilities of development of activities with
schools and church groups approaching subjects facing
the region’s ecosystem. However, it is still incipient in
these private areas and people have sought these spaces
just for fun and relaxation. The parks could offer additional
activities for these groups, with nature conservation
objectives.
Our field observations about the leisure practices
performed by residents of nearby neighborhoods to Itaim
Park, demonstrate that the streets are used by various
children groups to play, for example, cycling, soccer fields
improvised, among other activities on the streets. The
adults were also seen outside the house, talking or doing
small chores. In free time, residents reported that leaving
the area to go to some places like purchasing in Interlagos
shopping-center.
Unemployment is a worrying factor to consider in the parks
surroundings. There is a high rate of male unemployment
or informal employment in low-wage. In free time these
105
communities, the pubs constitute themselves as main
form of entertainment and as an “escape valve” for many
residents, being a form of distraction, given their personal
difficulties. The bars are sociability places, and the local
people use these equipments to chatting and drinking
alcoholic beverages as a routine practice.
There are a lack of facilities and leisure activities offered to
the people especially, children, women and elderly. When
analyzing gender issues, it is possible to note that women
do not exercise leisure activities because of deficiency of
options that include also their children. Worsens this,
the lack of women’s time, due to the double journey of
housework and paid activities.
Some young people remain for many hours in outlets
like Internet cafes and bars with board games, problem
derived from low employment opportunities for the
majority of the male population. The result is that most
men and consequently families suffer with alcoholism.
Considering these assertions, it may be done activities
of public use program in these parks for that can meet
the broad objectives of non-formal education, reconciling
goals of environmental conservation practices on access
to leisure and culture as a right of the people.
Thus, the public use program must consider these
local characteristics, tagged by a set of representations
of the dams and agricultural activities, but based in
the environmental conservation. The communities
surrounding of the parks were sensitive to development
oriented activities will raise awareness of nature. The
parks can fulfill an important role in complementing
these activities, helping to reduce the shortage of
leisure activities and also contribute to environmental
conservation of the parks.
eliminating) those activities that cause problem to
environment.
We are suggested a basic infrastructure to attend the
visitor, but sought to highlight the multiplicity of activities
that can be developed in that equipments, considering
a work of community engagement. This work must be
focused on “socio-cultural animation” and “environmental
interpretation” to enhance positive impacts and the use
of “minimal impact” techniques to reduce the negative
impacts of visitation to the Park.
The socio-cultural animation been developed to
accommodate a wide range of activities that are very
different of the elitist way and the formal academic
knowledge production (PUILG & Trilla, 2004), the
socio-cultural animation allows for leisure practitioner to
obtain an active attitude during on an activity. According
Dumazedier (2004, p. 260):
“The active attitude is the first moments to create a
total availability state to fully live the imaginary life
that is offered, so that they are entirely released the
projection and identification mechanisms, without
which there is no effective participation. This is the
time of ‘woken dream’. “
This characteristic is fundamental to the practice of sociocultural animation because it, according with the level of
involvement and intensity that it is fixed in this experience
is that one can establish individual development by means
of a leisure activity (ALVES; RAIMUNDO, 2009) in
the case, focused in nature.
2) Proposals for Public Use Program of the Parks
Thus, it is possible to do activities with visitors linked
environmental issues offered by the park upon a sociocultural animation, with the training of local monitors.
More than that, according to Alves, Raimundo (2009)
these actions can be developed with of environmental
interpretation principles.
As the parks of São Paulo are in the process of creation,
it is necessary to plan all activities related to public use.
Therefore, it is necessary to order the activities already
practiced by the community, expanding the possibilities
for those low-impact in nature, and reducing (or
Interviews with residents surrounding the park, especially
teachers and schools principals, point out that an
“environmental awareness” is already latent on the local
community. It is necessary that Public Use Program
stimulate the feelings on direct contact with natural world.
106
Practices environmental interpretation that enable this
contact constitute in activities of high relevance toward
a transformation of knowledge, values and attitudes to
form a pro-environmental behavior (Neiman, 2007).
The environmental interpretation basis should be
considered for development activities realized by sociocultural (or socio-environmental) animators and should
be developed by young people from the surrounding
communities.
Reports by teachers and students from schools around
the parks, show aspirations to formal studies as
environmental studies (study trips). These activities could
be widely explored as an environmental education with
schools and organized groups. The public use program of
the parks should prepare for these demands.
From the community’s expectations, there is an indication
the need for a multipurpose infrastructure that can be
useful in art activities, performances, festivals, workshops
for ancients, women, and meetings of the neighborhoods
surrounding the park. There are “wishes” by places for
sports and corporal, intellectual and manual activities,
recreational and artistic activities and various others
forms. There is the expectation that the space of the parks
means a new meeting place and sociability that should be
organized and safe. Thus, we suggest the infrastructure
deployment focused on the public serving, unlike the
traditional visitor-centers, setting up multi-purpose
places where the local community can develop their
talents and aspirations oriented by “socio-environmental”
animators. And in all of these activities the environmental
conservation should be encouraged. We are suggesting,
for example, dramatics plays developed by local groups
with natural themes. Workshops and other courses
related to environmental issues, among other activities.
Assuming the information reported herein, the activities
of Public Use Program of these parks should cater to
the communities needs and can meeting the broad
objectives of non-formal education, reconciling goals of
environmental conservation practices on access to culture
and leisure as a right of the people.
References
ALVES, C. J. S.; RAIMUNDO, S. Percepção ambiental
e as práticas do lazer em contato com a natureza
no Parque Estadual da Cantareira Núcleo Pedra
Grande, São Paulo (SP). Olam: Ciência &
Tecnologia (Rio Claro), v. 9, p. 335-360, 2009.
Brandon, K. Etapas básicas para incentivar a participação
local em projetos de turismo de natureza. In:
LINDBERG, Kreg; HAWKINS, Donald (org).
Ecoturismo, Um guia para planejamento e gestão.
São Paulo: Senac, 1995, p. 225-256
CLAVAL, P. A geografia cultural; tradução de Luiz
Fugazzola Pimenta e Margareth de Castro Pimenta,
2 ed. Florianópolis: E UFSC, 2001, 453 p.
DUMAZEDIER, J. Lazer e cultura popular. Tradução
de Maria de Lourdes Santos Machado. 3 ed. São
Paulo: Perspectiva. 2004.
FERREIRA, L. da C. A floresta intransitiva: conflitos e
negociações na mata atlântica, SP. Tese. (Doutorado
em Ciências Sociais). IFCH-Unicamp, Campinas,
1996, 196p.
GEERTZ, C. Uma descrição densa: por uma teoria
interpretativa da cultura. In: A Interpretação das
Culturas. Rio de Janeiro: LTC, 1989.
NEIMAN, Z. A educação ambiental através do contato
com a natureza. 2007. 239 f. Tese (Doutorado em
psicologia) – Instituto de Psicologia, Universidade
de São Paulo, São Paulo, 2007.
PUIG, J. M.; TRILLA, J. A pedagogia do ócio. Porto
Alegre: Artmed, 2004.
107
Indicators of landscape valuation - Serra do Mar State
Park, Santa Virginia Nucleus, São Paulo, Brazil
Juliana Marcondes Bussolotti 1, Solange T. de Lima Guimarães 2 ,
Maria de Jesus Robim 3
1
1
2
Professor, UNITAU
[email protected]
Professor, Geography Department , IGCE-UNESP, Rio Claro
2
3
[email protected]
Forest Institute, São Paulo-SP
3
[email protected]
Keywords: Protected areas, Tourism, European Landscape Convention
The Serra do Mar State Park (PESM) Santa Virginia
Nucleus (NSV), which covers the northern portion
of the Atlantic Forest of São Paulo State, Brazil and
is considered to have a valuable biological and cultural
wealth, has suffered anthropic threats and pressures that
cause degradation and loss for biodiversity as well as for
the traditions and cultural identities of its inhabitants. To
promote participatory management, an Advisory Council
was established for each administrative unit of the Park
as a space to host the dialogue between the community
and the Park.
A large number of studies on the effectiveness of these
participatory efforts in Brazil has been conducted in the
last two decades, but “most of the time the community is
considered a single and coherent element, with no internal
conflicts, but only with the external actors”, without
considering the heterogeneity of views, motivations and
sociocultural contexts in the construction of this approach
(FONSECA, 2011, p.164).
It is understood that there are different perceptions of
the protected areas held by the council members and the
supervisors, which gives room to reflect on the subjectivity
of these relations in the life space and the lifeworld of
108
these forums. The Advisory Board of the Santa Virginia
Nucleus of the Serra do Mar State Park (PESM), in São
Paulo, Brazil, was chosen as a case to deepen the study.
It is believed that the landscape identity of the protected
area is created in the experience of the Council, and hence
it is reflected in the conservation actions of the board
members and in the conservation of the area itself. It is the
shared horizon of the protected area’s management and
it happens in this cosmovision (Zeitgeist), understood
in the definition of Geography’s Phenomenologists,
like Buttimer (1982, p.172) for instance, as the context
where “consciousness is revealed (...) of values, assets, a
practical world (...) anchored in a past and directed to
a future,” creating “an order of spatial interactions and
opportunities” which emerges from the “shared human
experiences” (1982, p.190).
The main goal established for this study was to create
parameters for the indicators of environmental valuation
in protected areas, based on the analysis of the perception
and interpretation of the landscape of the members of
Santa Virginia’s Advisory Board.
By relying on the hermeneutic phenomenological
method and discussing the landscape with theorethical
references of humanistic geography and landscape
ecology, the research assumed that the objective and
subjective knowledge of the world, in forums such as the
Advisory Board of Santa Virginia, are joined together
and are part of the subjects who perceive, interpret and
value the landscape of the Protected Area.
the ecosystem), “socioecological-cultural” (related to
the quality of human life and of the environment) and
“socioeconomic” (related to the direct economic benefits
of the society) (Naveh, 2001, p. 278). Thus, if the Protected
Area does not have a value for the board members, there
will be no actions for its conservation.
The functions of the landscape reported by the
board members express their diverse interests and
understandings about Nature and their relationship with
it – the uses, sensitivities, ways of acting, experiences
and expectations they have as advisors and residents
of the region. These different dimensions – physical,
metaphysical and ontological – are the ones implied in
the construction of the cosmovision of the Protectec
Area. The worldview in this landscape takes place in the
presence of experience.
Regarding the bioecological domain, the board members
indicated as its main functions:
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Atlantic Forest, its protection and environmental
interconnectedness, forming a mosaic of conservation of
the Atlantic Forest with the other nuclei.
R5 Ļ5 /(.#)(-5 ) 5 #)#0,-#.35 '#(.((65 ."5
protection of water and the vocation for the
protection of the forests that remain in the region.
Naveh (2001, p.275) points out the ten major premises
for a holistic conception of multifunctional landscapes,
which should consider humans beings and their ecology,
as well as the socioeconomic, cultural and political aspects
as “an integral part of the highest geobioanthropological
coevolution” in all its dimensions, hierarchies and levels, as
a single ecosystem in the landscape. It would be “a holistic
metatheory selftranscendant of the limits of our own
existence” (NAVEH, 2001, p.275). The understanding of
the landscape dynamics happens through the integrity
of the experience of the lifeworld (BUTTIMER, 1982)
and the worldview (DILTHEY, 1992), “in the changing
values of the life space” (FRÉMONT, 1980, p.165) in
this globalized society of shared horizons, in which what
is shared is not a homogeneity, but the differences, the
multiple functions of this landscape.
The functions of the landscape brought out by the board
members were understood as “parameters for measuring
the biological diversity along with the cultural and
ecological diversity as a common index of the ecodiversity
of the total landscape” (Naveh, 2001, p.277). The
ecodiversity of the total or global landscape, composed
by the lifeworld and the life space, is a tangible expression
of the functions of this landscape for the board members.
The research takes into consideration the values implicit
in the “bioecological” domain (processes related to
The indicators that the members pointed out for these
functions are:
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agencies and the community.
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Regarding the socioeconomic domain, they considered as
key functions:
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conservation and for organizing the occupation in the
surroundings of the Nucleus.
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as a project of the municipalities as well as the Park,
beyond the conservation of traditional lifestyles and their
communities.
The indicators that board members pointed out for these
functions are:
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as well as of environmental education, for generating
income.
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communities around the Center.
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resources.
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local guides.
109
Regarding the sociocultural domain, they understand
that the Nucleus has the function of:
R5 #(!5 5 -)/,5 ) 5 (./,&5 /.35 (5 *5 B(I
Nirvana), being a source of pride, and being a privilege
that should be kept for the future generations.
R5#(.#(#(!5."-5 /(.#)(-5.",)/!"5/.#)(65/&./,&5
preservation and research.
The indicators that members pointed out for these
functions are:
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environmental issues.
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communities and surrounding municipalities.
The capacitation of schools.
Regarding the envisionement of a model that would
translate the interactions between the listed functions
and their indicators, the board members considered
important the participation of all actors in the
management of the Protected Area, through technical
panels and partnerships with municipalities and other
institutions, in order to have greater effectiveness on the
actions of the Council.
The landscape of the Santa Virginia Nucleus is
interpreted and experienced differently by each member
of the council of the Protected Area. Each one of the
representatives lives in this landscape according to the
tangible constructions and its functional structures, which
represent the way of interacting with this environmental
reality. But the intangible constructions are the ones
that deserve more attention, because they are not valued
and are very seldom used, to indicate the ability of the
members to align themselves in the same goal of action
on the Advisory Board.
Valuing this environment, where the Santa Virginia
Center is located, for the people who represent the
community inside and around the Conservation Unit,
will depend on building a consensus between the social
representations made by the advisors about this landscape
and its multiple functions for each one of them. Only
then will it be possible to build the indicators for joint
planning between community and State.
110
The subjective data of the intangible landscape and the
objective data of the tangible landscape, as well as the
dynamic between them both, will “allow to suppose the
indicators needed to know the status and the progress of a
given geosystem” (Bernaldez, 1981, p.35) in a conceptual
spiral establishing relations between the tangible and
intangible landscapes which form the global landscape.
The conclusion is that the landscape identity of the
protected area can hold itself when it takes into
account the landscape identities of the shared human
experiences and the dynamics of the life experience of
all actors, fostering the dialogue between people and the
environment.
This work believes that, although the Advisory Council
discusses the wisdom and the preferences existing in
the represented communities and seeks a consensus, it
cannot yet live the representation of their groups; it tends
to give more autonomy to members’ participation in the
management decisions with technical panels, for instance,
and it is starting the convergence of their programs and
policies with the municipalities involved in this Protected
Area.
The Advisory Council may make use of local practices
and of the members’ understanding of the landscape of
Núcleo Santa Virginia. The multiple functions of this
landscape, experienced and discussed by the Advisory
Board, are clear to all members. When considering
the subjective aspects of the experience and of the
construction of the sense of place, there is an appreciation
of the factors and circumstances related to the life space
and the lifeworld by the members, and consequently, an
appreciation of the landscapes, of a sense of belonging
and of the existing relationships of otherness.
The life space is related both to the idea of topophilia
as well as topophobia of these members, understanding
how “all the emotional bonds between human beings
and the environment (...) associate sensibility with place”
and should be taken into account in this group’s actions.
(Tuan, 1980, p.29-106).
For Frémont (1980, p.24-26), the stages of the formation
of the life space pass through the richness and complexity
of its representations, from early childhood inside the
family, gradually enlarging this space in a process of
descentralization and socialization, based on the structures
of perception and intelligence, in schemes of assimilation
and accommodation of these experiences; hence, the “life
space is a contiuous experience.” It includes both personal
and historical temporal dimensions as well as “movement,
which is the displacement in time and space.” “The life
space is a movement-space and an inhabited timespace,” it is egocentric and social at the same time. They
complement themselves in the relation of the lifeworld
of each board member in the dynamics of this experience
in the landscape.
the military dictatorship in Brazil (1964-1983); or in a
collective and procedural way, historically referring to the
rural areas. The organization of this landscape, although
discussed in the last 10 years in the Advisory Board with
community representatives, runs through what Frémont
BgonfC5('5-5\."5.",5)(.,#.#)(-5#(5."5*,)--5
of creation of life space and its organization’:
This phenomenological perspective on geography, a
fundamental approach to understanding the rhythms
of space-time (Buttimer, 1982), collaborates with
the awareness of social representations that form the
understanding of each member about the landscape
and allows him or her to understand the changes in the
during the establishment of this protected area, which
affected populations inside and around the Nucleus and
caused disruptions in the life space and the lifeworld. To
Frémont (1980, p.43): “Every bit of space, every road,
every field, every forest, appear to the inhabitant, worker
or traveler as a right to do or not to do. The appropriation,
under its different forms, reduces and strictly regulates
the use of space.”
2) The interaction of different layers of life spaces, which
."#-5 ."-#-5 , ,-5 .)5 -5 \&(-*-5 )0,5 &(-*-]85
Regional spatial policies (such as the creation of an Area
of Integral Protection); with municipal spatial policies
(through interaction and discussion of the laws of the
use of land and its zoning systems in urban and rural
areas in the Master Plan); and more local layers (as the
use the inhabitants make of the protected area and its
surroundings and their experience of it);
The negotiation between the uses of this landscape prior
to establishment of the Protected Area and the current
restricted uses of this landscape present conflicts. And the
Advisory Council proves to be a very important forum of
participatory management. For that, it needs to strengten
its cosmovision of the landscape. A cosmovision is the
perception practice of the group of reflecting on the
various skills and experiences of each member in a
conscious connection to all, to solve the problems faced
by the group. (Dilthey, 1992; Artigas, 2005).
Considering these perspectives, the reflections of Frémont
(1980) pose important questions to the considerations of
this investigation. The life space is a space of creation,
sometimes individual, as, for instance, in the policy
space that created the protected areas at the time of
1) Organize the territory not for, but with everyone
involved in this landscape, as it has been doing with
their Councils and actions involving participatory and
democratic processes, but taking into consideration the
view of each one of the actors involved for this action;
3) And finally, the contradiction that this arrangement
of space can only capture the more superficial realities
and relationships of the life space (relationships which
intend to be only technical and scientific), if the views
of the whole society involved in this landscape are not
considered: how they see their functions, how they think
of creating a healthy dynamic of living, how they perceive
and act emotionally in this space where the Protected
Area is located, proving the need for a greater integration
between the Nuclei for the management of PESM;
and exchanges of experiences between the surrounding
communities, their municipalities and supervisors. As
Fremont says, “there’s a need to relearn the space and to
relearn to learn it” (1980, p.257).
Negotiating different and sometimes conflicting interests,
and resolving differences in order to make decisions
by consensus, ensuring the protection of the natural
environment and considering the local sociocultural
needs, is not an easy task, as demonstrated in the analysis
of this work; but there is a need of providing basic training
111
for the council members and their organizations and to
the staff of PESM; a process that will emerge from the
views of each participant and will be jointly built in the
interaction of the different ways of living the space and
the world in this landscape; it is necessary to discuss the
functions of this landscape for each one of the actors and
to seek the success of joint actions, building a cosmovision
of this landscape.
References
This knowledge, born from the spontaneity of reasoning,
from the social representations, the observations, the
perceptions-interpretations and cultural values, which,
intuitively, will be able to introduce new (simple)
hypotheses that afterwards will have to be examined and
duly proved by the members of the Advisory Board of
Santa Virginia Nucleus, will provide the indicators of the
landscape valuation for them.
BUTTIMER, A.. 1982. Apreendendo o dinamismo
do mundo vivido. In - CHRISTOFOLETTI,
A.Perspectivas da Geografia. Rio Claro: Difelp. 165
− 193.
The final conceptual diagram of the work, complemented
by the conclusions of the research, corresponds to the
design of the dynamics of these discussions according to
the interpretation of the authors, justifying the possibility
of taking into account the Council view as a starting point
to create the framework of the joint planning, already
experienced and elaborated in the Workshop performed
at the Board meeting in May 2011. (Figure 1).
This research also amplified the researchers’ concepts of
“Self ”, linking the concepts about the landscape with the
practical ideal of seeking the legitimacy of the possibilities
of knowledge of Advisory Councils like the one of Santa
Virginia. The future and the past of this landscape in the here
and now.
ARTIGAS, M. . 2005. Filosofia da Natureza. Trad. José
Eduardo de Oliveira e Silva. São Paulo: Instituto
Brasileiro de Filosofia e Ciência Raimundo Lúlio.
BERNÁLDEZ, F. G.. 1981. Ecologia y paisaje. Madrid:
H. Blume Ediciones.
DILTHEY, W. . 1992. Teoria das concepções do mundo.
Lisboa: Edições 70.
FONSECA, I. F. de. 2011. Relações de poder e
especificidades do contexto em fóruns participativos.
In - PIRES, R. R. C. (org.) Efetividade das
instituições participativas no Brasil - estratégias de
avaliação. Brasília: Ipeap.159-169.
FRÉMONT, A. .1980. A região, espaço vivido. Coimbra,
Portugal: Almedina.
NAVEH, Z. 2001. Ten major premises for a holistic
conception
of
multifunctional
landscapes.
Landscape and Urban Planning 57, p. 269 − 284.
Disponível em: <http://tx.technion.ac.il/~znaveh/
files/Landscape%20Ecology%20Theor y%20
a n d % 2 0 G l o b a l % 2 0 A p p l i c a t i o n s / Te n % 2 0
major%20premises%20for%20a%20holistic%20
c on c e p t i on % 2 0 o f % 2 0 mu l t i f u n c t i on a l % 2 0
landscapes.pdf>. Acesso em: 30 de set de 2011.
TUAN, Yi-Fu.. 1980. Espaço e lugar - a perspectiva da
experiência. São Paulo: Difel.
112
Figure 1 - FINAL CONCEPTUAL DIAGRAM
OF THE RESEARCH ARTIGA
Org. por Juliana Marcondes Bussolotti (2011).
113
The Brazilian three-banded armadillo (Tatu-bola) and the
2014 World Cup: opportunities to protect the Caatinga
Rodrigo Castro1, Samuel Portela2, Daniele Ronqui3,
Flávia Miranda 4, Marcel Viergever5
Executive Director Associação Caatinga (AC)
2
Project coordinator AC
3
Coordinator of communication AC
4
Vice-president of ASASG/IUCN
Coordinator of Conservation Strategies of The Nature Conservancy do Brasil
1
5
In February 2012 Associação Caatinga released,
on the internet and social networks, a national
campaign called “Tatu-bola for mascot of the 2014
World Cup”. The goal of this campaign was to make
this species (Tolypeutes tricinctus, Dasypodidae)
and its endangered status better known, as well as
highlight the importance of its habitat protection,
the Caatinga, in the light of one of the biggest sports
events globally, the 2014 World Cup in Brazil. The
indication of this animal for mascot was done because
of the behavior of assuming the shape of a ball when
threatened and because it occurs in areas where the
organization develops its conservation initiatives.
The strategy to mobilize society for environmental
issues through the popularity of soccer was successful.
In September 2012 the species was confirmed by
FIFA as mascot of the event. During the same year,
Associação Caatinga intensified its conservation
activities related to tatu-bola, which culminated in
the development, in partnership with IUCN/ASASG
and The Nature Conservancy of Brazil, of the tatubola conservation project entitled “Tatu-bola and the
2014 FIFA World Cup Brazil – Together, scoring
a goal for sustainability”. The project is divided in
the following lines of action: research, conservation
strategies, in situ conservation, environmental
education and communication. The main objective of
the project is to reduce the species` risk of extinction
for the next 10 years, through a set of actions such
as identifying priority areas for conservation of the
114
tatu-bola, supporting the establishment of private
reserves (RPPNs) and public protected areas, besides
promoting the restoration of strategic ecological
corridors. The conservation initiative was inspired on
the experience of Associação Caatinga in the setting up
of Serra das Almas Nature Reserve in Crateús, Ceará.
At the Reserve will be implemented the first Tatubola Research and Conservation Centre in order to
promote the necessary studies to evaluate the current
status of the species threat and support the definition
of the following conservation strategies. The centre
will be opened to visitors, so the public will have the
opportunity to know better the species and its habitat
and also, in the context of the World Cup, attract a
greater number of visitors to tatu-bola`s home.
Concurrent Session E
Community Values
in Conservation
Session organizer:
Douglas de Souza Pimentel,
Fluminense Federal University and
State University of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
115
Visitor Management in Brazil Parks and Protected Areas:
Benchmarking for Best Practices in Resource Management
Robert C. Burns1
1
West Vitginia University, Division of Forestry and Natural Resources
1
[email protected]
Keywords: protected areas, outdoor recreation, visitor management
Recreational planning with a focus on nature-based
recreation activities, along with mitigating their potential
impacts on natural resources, is a challenge for recreation
planners and professionals in many parks and protected
areas around the world (Manning, 2011; Moore &
Driver, 2005; Eagles et al., 2002). The case of parks and
protected areas in Brazil is somewhat unique, in that
little outdoor recreation research has been undertaken
in Brazil, while parks and protected areas are of critical
value to the Brazilian people. The preservation of parks
and protected areas has occurred, but sometimes at the
expense of local populations. Over the past decade,
however, trends have been noted that indicate a greater
reliance on a “balance between top-down preservation
and bottom-up sustainable development, which is the
result of local social movements” (Bicalho, 2011). In
2000, Brazilian PPAs were strengthened by the Sistema
Nacional de Unidades de Conservacao da Natureza
(SNUC) (Silva, 2005). The SNUC created two broad
categories for Brazilian PPAs. The first of these requires:
strictly protected, with biodiversity conservation as the
principal objective. This includes National Parks, and
is roughly equivalent of the World Conservation Union
(IUCN) Category II. The second category is sustainable
use, which allows for varying forms of exploitation, with
biodiversity protection taking a lessor role. This includes
Brazilian national forests, various reserves, and areas of
particular ecological interest (Silva, 2005). Together,
these PPAs (Conservation Units) account for nearly 70
million hectares (nearly 8% of total land area). However,
a unique challenge within the Brazilian PPA system
is the relatively minor discussion of the role of visitors
in PPAs in enabling legislature. Of the 68 National
116
Parks in Brazil, only 20 are open for public visitation,
and management plans for those parks that do allow for
visitation is limited. In some cases no visitors may enter a
national park without the use of a guide. This presentation
will compare Brazil parks and protected areas with those
in the US and Central Europe. We will focus on key
underlying differences in the legislature that creates the
parks, and comparisons of how visitor management is
different and how that impacts management and visitor
perceptions (Table 1).
In eastern Europe (and in eastern Germany, which was
a part of the eastern bloc of nations from 1945 until
1990), we see a situation similar to that of Brazil, and
unlike that in the US. For many of these nations, the
development of parks and protected areas is a new
phenomenon. For example the earliest named national
park in Germany (Bayerischer Wald) was developed in
1970, and the two most recent (Eifel and KellerwaldEdersee) established in 2004. Germany’s parks were
developed under the Federal Republic of Germany’s
Federal Nature Conservation Act (BnatSchG), article
24, paragraph 1. Germany has 14 national parks,
covering just over 1 million ha, and covering about
0.54% of German territory. Similar to the situation in
Brazil, most of the German national parks are in a state
of development, and most do not meet the criteria set
forth by enabling legislation (BnatSchG). The German
parks were developed with a multi- purposive intent of
environmental science, education, and public experience
of nature. German national parks are designated by the
states within Germany, and are then agreed upon by the
enabling legislation. This creates an interesting situation
Community Values in Conservation
of a combined federal—state management process,
which includes both pros and cons. German parks have
no fees, although concessionaires do operate in and near
the parks. German parks fall under the IUCN Category
II, although the Federal Republic of Germany has not
confirmed their commitment to managing to IUCN
standards. Austria, a closely linked neighbor to Germany
has seven national parks, covering nearly three percent
of the total territory of Austria. Similar to Germany,
Austrian national parks are in the IUCN category II,
and are co-managed by both federal and state entities.
Nearly all Austrian parks are fee-free, with the exception
of boating in specific areas in the Gesaeuse National
Park. In the US, the first national parks were named
early in the nation’s history, with Yosemite, Yellowstone,
Sequoia, Ranier, Glacier, and Crater Lake National Parks
designated as parks in the latter part of the 19th century
or early in the 20th century. The enabling legislation for
US national parks were the Antiquities Act of 1906 and
the Organic Act of 1916, which created the National
Park Service and allowed for funding. These enabling
legislation acts mandated protective status for the parks
and allowed for the conservation of scenery, natural and
historic settings, wildlife, and outdoor recreation. A total
of about 28% of the land mass of the US is considered as
parks and protected areas.
Benchmaking Brazilian parks and protected areas
Why focus on comparing European, North American
and South American park and protected are settings?
First, we gain an intimate understanding of how parks
and protected areas are classified and managed in other
countries, the challenges they face, and how they deal
with and solve management and planning problems. This
allows for better reflection of how different managers
approach the planning process. Secondly, resource
managers (and researchers) gain an understanding of
how diverse cultures deal with similar issues. Alternative
strategies may be implemented to reach a similar end
result—better management of parks and protected
areas. Additionally, a shared understanding can be used
to enhance adaptive management and collaborative
planning processes by providing ”best practice” examples.
Communication can be enhanced between parks and
protected area managers worldwide, particularly on
visitor use dynamics and impacts. Managers can better
understand and share similar methodologies, which
can result in cross-boundary comparisons of not only
problems/issues, but also how various solutions have been
effective (or ineffective) in different places, and why.
As the potential for activity-induced conflict increases,
comparative studies on an international level can help
to advance both science and practice of recreation
management. However, comparisons are only useful when
the basic conditions, managers’ values, and frameworks
under which management makes decisions are known
von Ruschkowski et al, (in press). These are often derived
from legislation and policies, and they set the tone for
parks and protected area management. Local managers
must still interpret and implement management
processes, but by making use of best practices methods,
and understanding others’ reactions to similar problems,
they are effectively provided with additional tools with
which to make decisions.
European and US models
European social science research on visitor management
in nature-based recreational settings has traditionally
focused on understanding the impacts of use levels on
the natural resource. Therefore, the European approach
has relied heavily upon visitor monitoring, and several
countries have meanwhile established standardized
visitor monitoring programs (Arnberger 2006; Burns,
Arnberger & von Ruschkowski 2010). This approach
successfully provides indicators to natural resource
managers. Nevertheless, valid long-term data about overall
visitation are not available for many locations. While
additional variables, which are useful for developing
social carrying capacity models (e.g., trip characteristics,
sociodemographic variables, and recreation activities),
have been regularly collected, variables reflecting the
quality of the recreation experience, such as crowding
perceptions, have rarely been asked. Germany’s national
parks serve as a prime example here. Due to the fourteen
parks’ recent history—the first one was established in
1970—research and management activities focus mainly
on natural resources, whereas socio-economic issues
(tourism, recreation, and conflicts between different
user groups) are considered to a much lesser extent
(von Ruschkowski 2010). A similar situation is reported
117
for Austria (Arnberger and Muhar 2008). However,
during the past decade, interest in these variables has
increased and recent efforts to provide valid and longterm data on overall visitation, visitor preferences and
satisfaction, and even crowding perceptions are reported
for several German, Swiss, and Austrian protected areas
(Arnberger 2006). Several areas have applied integrated
visitor monitoring concepts combining monitoring data
with survey data. However, in many cases research on
crowding is driven by interested researchers and not by
park administrations as they have not yet identified it as a
prior management goal.
Most U.S. federal natural resource agencies tend to
manage parks and forests using one of the traditional
frameworks designed by U.S. researchers and proved in
U.S. parks and forests, which have also addressed the
quality of the recreation experience. These frameworks
typically include the Recreation Opportunity Spectrum
(ROS), Visitor Impact Management (VIM), Limits of
Acceptable Change (LAC), and the Visitor Experience
and Resource Protection (VERP) (Graefe, Kuss, and
Vaske 1990; National Park Service 1997; Stankey and
Lime 1973). Much of the North American research
conducted using the above-mentioned frameworks
focuses on user crowding, conflict, trip characteristics,
sociodemographics, and satisfaction. Only in recent years
have the variables associated with visitor-use monitoring
been included in understanding North American social
carrying capacity (Manning 2011). These frameworks
have been applied over several decades and are very
common to US national park managers.
Over thirty years of natural resource research in and
outside of the United States has revealed distinct
similarities in problems and distinctly different approaches
to addressing these problems. European research tends
to focus on land use in an eco-centric manner, while the
U.S. body of literature is often more anthropocentric in
scope. Nearly all European parks are recent additions to
the world’s loosely held collection of parks and protected
areas, and are often a means to minimize social use after
hundreds or thousands of years of use. Conversely, the
approach to managing most U.S. parks and protected
areas is to provide access for social use. Whereas social
118
carrying capacity seems to be treated as a separate
research topic in the United States, recent European
efforts focus on the combination of socioeconomic
data with ecological data, although only a few studies
(mostly from Alpine habitats) exist. Thus, more studies
and a better emphasis on the integration of both research
fields should be the focus of future research. Visitor
satisfaction data and conclusions are also needed as key
pillars of park management to convey the message about
overused areas where the intentions for displacement lead
to more potential conflicts, as the Austrian study shows.
Especially in densely populated areas, park managers
have the difficult task of finding compromises between
land user interests and natural resource protection on a
daily basis. In such cases, it is even more important to
have sound knowledge about visitors’ intentions, because
only this will provide for solid and transparent decision
making (Burns et al, 2010). It is assumed here that one
of the reasons why the topics of crowding and social
carrying capacity in general are pursued with a lesser
emphasis in Europe is that (besides the different legal
situation) the actual occurrence of crowding would actually lead to consequences through management actions.
These would include the limitation of visitor numbers
or restrictions on certain recreational activities—in other
words, measures that are not popular with visitors and
users. This is more complicated when—because of the
overall dense situation in Central Europe—protected
areas are urgently needed for daily recreation.
Visitor use restrictions, such as special-use permits for
certain recreational activities, are very much an exception
in most European protected areas. In the United States,
many efforts to cap visitor impacts are spurred by
lawsuits, followed by the need for litigation. In these
instances, it remains questionable whether management
frameworks provide an answer to these unsettled cases.
As such frameworks more or less do not exist in Europe,
protected and recreational areas can make their decisions
without any methodological restrictions, thus providing
a test bed for new, even unconventional, methods to
measure social carrying capacity or crowding.
Additionally, on a meta level, no quality standards
for collecting visitor-use data in Germany or Austria
currently exist, thus making it impossible to guarantee
standardized methods for visitor counts (Sievänen et
al. 2008), while standardized approaches are used, for
example, by the U.S. Forest Service. One additional crucial point is the long-term perspective. While in the
United States the management frameworks require longterm monitoring efforts regarding the social aspects, in
most of the Central European countries this long-term
perspective is not given; long-term monitoring is applied
only for ecological issues.
Although management frameworks to address the impact
of visitor use on natural resources (VIM, VERP, and
LAC, among others) exist, the topic of addressing social
carrying capacity has been rather neglected in Austrian
and German protected area management. As visitation
to the national parks is high, even under international
standards, social science research (visitor satisfaction,
crowding, etc.) needs to be included in the management
standards for Austrian and German national parks.
Thus, researchers are required to identify and define
valid methods, quality standards, and criteria in order to
ensure integrated approaches that are implemented on an
individual basis (Burns, Arnberger & von Ruschkowski
2010).
Conclusions.
Brazil’s supply of parks and protected areas is more than
impressive, both in scope, in sheer beauty and diversity
( Janer, 2010). With more than 300 conservation units,
including 68 national parks, one could argue that Brazil
has an adequate supply of natural resources available to
it’s recreating public and tourists. The supply has been
inventoried and most parks and protected areas either
have a management plan in existance, or a management
plan is within the scope of management for future
consideration. Invariably, new parks and protected areas
will be named, either as a result of a desire to protect
environmentally sensitive ecosystems, or as a result of
legislation or political will.
What is unknown, however, is the demand that will be
placed on Brazil parks and protected areas over the next 2030 years. With estimates suggesting tourism will increase
in double-fold over the next 20 years, it is imperative that
demand be understood in a way that managers can begin
to focus on Brazil parks and protected area management
in a way that will sustain the future of the settings and
also focus on visitor use (Hall et al., 2012). There are
many forces that have the potential to influence the scope
of tourism demand on these natural resources. Brazil, as
one of the BRIC nations, has become a global economic
power. It is expected that this economic power will move
Brazil forward in many different ways, most outside the
scope of this presentation. As mentioned previously,
Brazil will host the 2014 FIFA World Cup and the 2016
Summer Olympics. That Brazil is hosting two of the
world’s largest and most important international sporting
events is evidence of the emerging global importance of
the nation. Opportunities and challenges abound, and
with an immense financial investment into park and
protected area infrastructure, including R30 billion into
the parques copa (Palhares 2012). The hundreds of
thousands of visitors drawn to Brazil by these worldwide
events will have an impact on Brazil parks and protected
areas. However, it is the residual effect, the emerging of
Brazil as a nation that is more and more easily accessible
that has the potential to have a long lasting effect on
its parks and protected areas. If tourism does indeed
double in size over the next 10-20 years, Brazil parks
and protected areas must be prepared to provide quality
experiences to visitors.
Future Research
Transportation and access to parks and protected areas is
a challenge in the United States, and less so in Europe.
The challenges associated with access and transportation
in Brazil cannot be understated. Although a lack of access
does help, in some ways, to protect sensitive ecosystems,
this issue must be addressed. With a relatively low level
visitor use at Brazil parks and protected areas, it can be
surmised that crowding and conflict may not be a critical
issue in these settings. However, in order for Brazil
parks and protected areas to be relevant to its citizens,
an effort to provide for adequate access for all citizens
should be undertaken. When citizens have access and
feel the natural resources are indeed ”theirs” rather than
belonging to the government, a sense of place and
relevance can be developed. In conclusion, a systematic,
broad-based visitor management plan, one which can be
benchmarked against other visitor management systems,
119
is suggested. Resource managers and researchers may
want to focus on understanding visitor use monitoring,
working together to develop park management plans
that will be effective for managers and that allow access
for visitors. Additionally, the marketing of Brazil parks
and protected areas should be an important concept
of the management plans of parks and protected areas.
Marketing efforts should be matched to the existing
infrastructure so potential visitors to parks and protected
areas have realistic expectations.
Nation
Central Europe
Brazil
USA
Methods
Quantitative
Quantitative
Quantitative
Bias
Eco-centric
Eco-centric
Anthropocentric
Use of Frameworks
Very few applications
Very few applications
Heavily relied upon
What drives research
Ecological needs
Ecological needs
Litigation
Settings of parks and protected
areas
Mostly developed to highly
developed
Wilderness remote to highly
developed
Wilderness remote to highly
developed
Tools used
Cameras and visitor counters
Very few tools used
Visitor counters
Table. 1 Differences noted between three case study locations
regarding social carrying capacity assessment (modified from
Burns et al., 2010)
References:
Arnberger, A. (2006). “Recreation Use of Urban Forests:
An Inter-area Comparison.” Urban Forestry and
Urban Greening 4: 135–44.
Arnberger, A., Eder, R., Allex, B., Sterl, P., and Burns, R. C.
(2012). Relationships between national park affinity
and attitudes towards protected area management
of visitors to the Gesäuse National Park, Austria. In
Forest Policy and Economics, Volume 19, 48—55.
Arnberger, A., and A. Muhar. (2008). “Recreation and
Nature Tourism Demand, Supply and Actual Usage
in Austria: Cost Action e33 WG2 Country Report.”
In Forest Recreation Monitoring: A European
Perspective, ed. T. Sievänen, A. Arnberger, L. Dehez,
N. Grant, F.S. Jensen, and H. Skov-Petersen, 106–
14. Working Papers of the Finnish Forest Research
Institute, Helsinki 79.
120
Bicalho, A.M. (2011). Forestry Management in Inhabited
Conservation Units: The Tapajos National Forest
as a Model of Community Governance in Brazil.
Proceedings of the 19th Colloquium of the IGU
Commission on the Sustainability of Rural Systems;
National University of Ireland. (online only).
Burns, R.C., Arnberger, A., and von Ruschkowski,
E. (2010). Social carrying capacity challenges in
parks, forests, and protected areas: An examination
of Transatlantic methodologies and practices.
International Journal of Sociology, 40(3), 30—50.
Eagles, P.; McCool, S.; & Haynes, C. (2002): Sustainable
Tourism in Protected Areas: Guidelines for Planning
and Management. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and
Cambridge, UK. xv + 183pp.
Federal Republic of Germany’s Federal Nature
Conservation Act (BnatSchG), article 24, paragraph
1 http://www.gesetze-im-internet.de/bundesrecht/
bnatschg_2009/gesamt.pdf, accessed from WWW
on March 30, 2013.
Graefe, A.R.; F.R. Kuss; and J.J. Vaske. (1990). Visitor
Impact Management: The Planning Framework.
Washington DC: National Parks and Conservation
Association.
Hall, J., Matos, ,S., Sheehan, L., and Silvestre, B. (2012).
Entrepreneurship and Innovation at the Base of the
Pyramid: A Recipe for Inclusive Growth or Social
Exclusion? Journal of Management Studies 49:4.
Janer, A. (2010). The national parks of Brazil. An online
publication of the Instituto EcoBrasil http://www.
ecobrasil.org.br/ Accessed March 30, 2013.
Palhares, G. L. (2012). Tourism in Brazil: Environment,
Management and Segments in Contemporary
Geographies of Leisure,Tourism, and Mobility,
Lohman, G., and Dredge, D.
Conservation Biology, Pages 608–611, 19, 3.
Stankey G.H., and D.W. Lime. (1973). Visitor
Perceptions of Wilderness Recreation Carrying
Capacity. USDA Forest Service, Intermountain
Forest and Range experiment station, INT-142,
Ogden, UT.
von Ruschkowski, E.; R.C. Burns, A. Arnberger, D.
Smaldone, and J. Meybin. (in press). Recreation
management in protected parks and forests: A
comparative study of Austria, Germany, and the
United States of America. Journal of Park and
Recreation Administration.
von
Ruschkowski, E. (2010). Ursachen und
Lösungsansätze für Akzeptanzprobleme von
Großschutzgebieten am Beispiel von zwei
Fallstudien im Nationalpark Harz und im Yosemite
National Park [Causes and Potential Solutions
for Conflicts Between Protected Areas and Local
Communities]. Hannover/Stuttgart: ibidem-Verlag.
Manning, R. E. (2011). Studies in Outdoor Recreation:
Search and Research for Satisfaction. Third Edition.
Corvallis: Oregon State University Press.
Moore, R. L. & Driver, B. L. (2005). Introduction to
Outdoor Recreation. Providing and Managing
Natural Resource Based Opportunities. Venture
Publishing State College, PA, USA.
National Park Service. (1997). VERP: Visitor Experience
and Resource Protection Framework. Denver, CO:
U.S. National Park Service, Denver Service Center.
Sievänen, T., Arnberger, A., Dehez, L., Grant, N., Jensen,
A., and Skov-Petersen, H., eds. (2008). “Forest
Recreation Monitoring: A European Perspective.”
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Institute, no. 79, Helsinki.
Silva, M. (2005). The Brazilian Protected Areas Program.
121
Claiming space and identity in a contested landscape: Traditional
agriculture in and around the Estação Ecológica de Juréia-Itatins
Alaine Ball1
1
The Whitney and Betty MacMillan Center for International and Area Studies, Yale University
1
Escola Superior de Agricultura “Luiz de Queiroz”, Universidade de São Paulo
1
[email protected]
Keywords: protected areas, traditional identity, swidden agriculture, caiçaras, adaptive co-management
Introduction
As conservation practitioners increasingly acknowledge
the need to consider local peoples in strategies to preserve
biological diversity, the global conservation narrative has
shifted away from an emphasis on protected areas absent
of people to efforts to support the economic and cultural
well-being of populations residing within or adjacent to
protected areas (Schmink, Redford, and Padoch, 1992).
However, multiple factors, including different perceptions
of landscape and livelihood, result in conflicting landuse objectives among actors. This tension persists in
and around the Estação Ecológica de Juréia-Itatins
(Ecological Station of Juréia-Itatins, or EEJI), a “fully”
protected area of coastal São Paulo, Brazil, where local
caiçara residents continually contest their right to remain
living and practicing swidden agriculture on ancestral
lands now designated as an ecological station and as areas
of environmental protection (APAs).
In Brazil, many traditional peoples, including caiçaras,
live within and adjacent to protected areas, limiting
their ability to practice traditional resource management
such as swidden agriculture (characterized by cutting
and burning small patches of forest for short-term
cultivation and by long fallow periods) and to adaptively
respond to change (Creado et al., 2008). The continued
practice of swidden agriculture in contested landscapes is
uncertain, and unintended consequences of conservation
plans that have previously excluded people include loss
of cultural knowledge that contributes to the resilience
122
of communities (Begossi, 1998; Diegues, 1994). This
study considers how traditional agricultural practices,
cultural identity, and perceptions of conservation and
sustainability may be responsive and adaptive to sociopolitical change, and how local people and conservation
projects negotiate contested land use.
I consider how boundary creation constructs and produces
traditional identity, how identity and agricultural
practices in turn construct these boundaries, and how
“traditionality” is employed to include, exclude, and make
claims. Residents of the EEJI, government, and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) are engaged in a
complex system of ongoing negotiation and contestation
that results in changes in agricultural systems, altered
perceptions of cultural identity, and uncertain governance
that permits the continued practice of closely-monitored
swidden agriculture. Ultimately, both traditional identity
and identity-based boundaries are unstable concepts, and
protected area management policy based on restricting
traditionality to government-defined visions will
perpetuate conflict between administration and residents.
Although the “people in parks” debate has been welldescribed in the literature (West, Igoe, and Brockinton,
2006), few studies have provided ethnographic detail of
the process of daily negotiation of identity and of resourceuse, and what these negotiations mean for cultural
adaptation and resilience. This analysis seeks to fill this
gap by describing the experience of practicing swidden
agriculture and defining identity in protected areas,
providing insight into residents’ relationships with their
landscape. Further incorporation of local perspectives will
contribute to the construction of the “non-bureaucratic
bureaucracy” required of adaptive management (Pritchard
Jr. and Sanderson, 2002), providing increased opportunity
for residents and managers to respond to environmental
feedback (Olsson, Folke, and Berkes, 2004).
Background: Conflict over place
The EEJI, or simply “Juréia,” is a human-inhabited
“fully” protected area—a category of conservation unit
that prohibits human residence—and has been the
site of intense conflict between residents, government,
and environmental NGOs since its creation in 1987.
Located in the Ribeira Valley of coastal São Paulo, the
EEJI contains the largest remaining contiguous tract of
Atlantic Forest, encompassing 80,000 hectares of humid
tropical slope forest and flood plain forests (Carvalho
and Schmitt, 2010; Sanches, 2001). About twentytwo communities remain within the EEJI, resulting
in a paradoxical situation in which residents and their
resource management are illegal. Described by an
informant as a “symbol of the Brazilian environmental
movement” as a reflection of the success of securing this
territory as a protected area (regional director of a large
environmental NGO, personal communication), Juréia
and the ban on traditional resource management that
accompanied its creation nevertheless had disastrous
effects on local caiçara residents, many of whom moved
to surrounding cities to seek employment when no
longer able to support themselves through agriculture
and fishing. Research was conducted between June and
August 2011 in two communities within the EEJI,
Praia do Una (including Grajaúna and Rio Verde) and
Despraiado; with agriculturalists in several communities
outside of the EEJI (Figure 1); with park guards and park
administrators; and with representatives of environmental
NGOs. These categories of actors sometimes overlap.
I employed participant observation and semi- and
unstructured interviews to gather data on perceptions,
identity, and agricultural practices, operating from a
phenomenological theoretical basis (Laverty, 2003).
After years of pressure, residents succeeded in 2006 in
creating two Sustainable Development Reserves (RDS),
a category of sustainable use protected area, in the more
heavily populated areas of the EEJI, influencing the
redrawing of reserve boundaries into what became known
as the Juréia “mosaic.” However, in 2009, the Secretary
of the Environment of the State of São Paulo deemed
the RDS unconstitutional, and the land reverted to EEJI
territory. Since then, residents have engaged in continual
negotiation to reinstate the RDS and gain further control
over territory, achieving partial success just last month
when the Legislative Assembly of São Paulo agreed to
re-establish the mosaic.
Figure 1: Research locations inside and outside of the EEJI.
Sites indicated are current and former swiddens.
1600
1400
1200
1000
WTP (Nigerian
Naira)
800
600
400
200
0
0.5 - 1
1.1 - 2
2.1 - 4
4.1 - 7
7.1 - 10
>10
Distance (km)
Fig 1 Distance of respondent’s home to the OD in relation to WTP
Perceptions of landscape and imagining a protected
area
The mosaic metaphor provides a pleasing image of
heterogeneity and incorporation of different interests,
yet in reality reflects oppositional and superimposed
claims to land. This opposition is based in different
perceptions of human-nature relationships and the
consequently dissimilar ways of seeing the landscape,
resulting in “cultural parallax,” a “difference in views
between those who are actively participating in the
dynamics of the habitats within their home range and
those who view those habitats as ‘landscape’ from the
outside” (Gary Nabhan, in Parajuli, 2001). In imagining
the “environment,” Luke (1995) describes a process
of “environing,” an encircling act that demarcates
the protected area territory but that is also the first
disciplining act on the landscape. The protected area
is transformed into a Foucauldian milieu, in which the
“naturalness” of the human species becomes problematic
within the “political artifice of power relations” viewing
the landscape from outside (Foucault, 2007[1978]).
123
Residents hold what Ingold (1993) would describe as a
“dwelling perspective” of place, in which “the landscape
is constituted as an enduring record of—and testimony
to—the lives and works of past generations who
have dwelt within it, and in so doing, have left there
something of themselves.” In contrast to the globalized
imagining of landscape, in which biological hotspots
become the common property of all mankind, the local
one is experiential and historical, with agriculture an
integral component of the life-process that shapes and
is shaped by environment.
A frequent refrain is, “I was born here, brought up here…”,
and cultural histories are written on the landscape
in the form of former swiddens and old garden sites.
When describing the landscape, residents stress that “it
was all roça (swidden/garden plot),” that “it was already
conserved,” and that “in the past, we were healthy and
there was an abundance.” Though a distinction between
human areas and forest is made, at the landscape level
and across time, these boundaries are less apparent. In
addition to referring to the forest as “already preserved,”
residents also believe that some degree of protection is
necessary and describe their traditional practices as
“sustainable” and as a type of traditional “management.”
By borrowing conservationist language to articulate
their relationships with nature, residents attempt
to politically legitimatize practices through use of
contemporary terminology, demonstrating the process
through which actors come to incorporate each other’s
discourses.
Swidden agriculture and traditional identity
Swiddening in a protected area
In 1992, the EEJI administration began allowing
swidden cultivation by permit, though residents
complain that the process of obtaining the permit is
so time consuming that it precludes any functional
farming. Most restrictive, from their perspective, are
limitations concerning where and what they can cut
to establish a new roça based on the Brazilian Forest
Code and federal environmental laws specific to the
124
Atlantic Forest, which also apply to farmers outside of
the EEJI. In some areas, these restrictions have resulted
in shortened fallow periods (from 15 or more years to
1 or 2) and decreased production, as forest considered
optimal for swidden locations is now off-limits and
degraded sites are farmed repeatedly.
Caiçara swiddens were formerly characterized by a
high degree of crop diversity, with manioc (Manihot
esculenta) as the staple crop, though agrobiodiversity
is currently declining (Peroni and Hanazaki, 2002).
Farmers interviewed for this study currently cultivate
a total of about thirteen manioc varieties, both sweet
and bitter, which vary by community; however, all
cultivation ceased in Praia do Una during the ban on
swidden agriculture, and several manioc varieties were
lost. Today, what exactly is permitted under authorized
swiddening is unclear, and practices such as burning
must be argued for. To authorize a swidden, a forestry
technician accompanies a farmer to the site he wishes
to cultivate, marking the location with GPS and issuing
a permit showing clearly defined roça boundaries, but
ultimate decision-making authority is removed from
the farmer.
When speaking of agriculture, several residents
asserted that “the traditional person has to live from the
roça,” and that “we live more like Indians than Indians.”
This acknowledgement of the indigenous origins of
their agriculture was stated both humorously and in
resentful recognition of the more clearly defined rights
of indigenous peoples in Brazil. Caiçaras find it ironic
that they are the ones struggling for the right to practice
swidden agriculture, while their indigenous neighbors
have largely abandoned agricultural practices for the
more lucrative endeavor of palm heart extraction. By
law, indigenous peoples may extract a limited amount
of certain forest products, a privilege denied caiçaras.
These extractive privileges are illogical to caiçaras, as in
their eyes they are the true practitioners of “sustainable”
resource management. In this light, swidden agriculture
becomes a central element in defining a “correct” way of
living on the land, rather than profiting solely from wild
forest products. Residents assert that illegal extraction
and hunting worsened after the creation of the EEJI,
as the transfer of their lands to the public domain has
delegitimized their claims and former community
boundaries. Rather than keep out extractors, as
intended, the boundary of the EEJI made another
boundary—that of community territory—easier to
cross.
Problems of “traditional”
The designation “traditional” has been used as a tool
of marginalization (Schmink, Redford, and Padoch,
1992), to stake claims to land by traditional peoples,
and, more recently, as a category of rights holders
(Castro et al., 2006; SNUC, Federal Law no. 9.985/2000,
Articles 4.XIII and 5.X). Additionally, the discourse
of “traditional”—the assumption that traditional
populations are good stewards of their resources,
or that they exist in a static state—has important
political implications and can obfuscate heterogeneous
characteristics of communities (Dove, 2006); describing
a community as traditional or indigenous is a political
as much as cultural designation (Castro et al., 2006; Li,
2000). For example, the traditional practice of swidden
agriculture has been paradoxically associated with
both deep ecological knowledge of and adaptation to
the forest and with degradation of the forest and maladaption to modern land-use change (Diegues, 1994;
Castro et al., 2006).
Both “culture” and “identity” are uncertain concepts,
resisting definition. Culture has been conceptualized
as a context in which actions and symbols can be
interpreted (Geertz, 1973) and emergent or as a process
(Williams, 1973), while identity—fluid, negotiable,
and often wielded as a powerful political tool—is
questioned as a working analytical category due to its
ambiguity (Brubaker and Cooper, 2000). Claims to
cultural authenticity can be used both to marginalize
and to make claims about land and rights. They are
also ways that local people seek to define themselves
in a modern context, though the very existence of
something called “traditional identity” is predicated on
its contextualization within modernity (Hirtz, 2003).
Rather than a “fixed ground from which…actions
follow,” identity is the “product of articulation” in the
process of positioning (Stuart Hall, in Li, 2007).
Although Brazilian legal definitions of traditional
people address dependency on natural resources
(Decree 6.040/07, article 3, paragraph 1 in Creado et
al., 2008), residents may resent outside impositions of
identity as defined by bureaucrats or anthropologists.
Smith (1999) refers to such impositions as “legislated
identities,” which do not place decision-making about
identity and about change in the hands of those
being defined. Within the EEJI, where residents are
categorized as “traditional,” “old arrivals,” and “recent
arrivals,” legislated identities are operative on a daily
basis, influencing decisions about resource use.
Traditional people are caught in a delicate balance
of presenting themselves as civilized but not too
civilized, desiring development but only as long as it is
“sustainable,” noble in their traditionality but repressed
enough to warrant the compassionate attention of
potential allies. According to one resident, “We should
do away with this traditional, not traditional, and just
be considered a community. We all depend on each
other, this place depends a lot on what is not traditional.
The communities don’t make this distinction, the
government does (resident of Despraiado, personal
communication).
Furthermore, local residents hired as park guards
may re-imagine traditional practices, and thus their
association with traditional identity, as environmentally
incorrect through their experiences of supervising
residents’ resource management. Park guards are put
in the clearly difficult position of monitoring their
own communities but often will avoid inspecting
their immediate neighbors and own family if possible,
making seemingly contradictory personal and official
choices (Vasan, 2002). One informant described the
hiring of local residents as park guards as an intentional
strategy of the government to divide communities, and
resentment towards those able to procure employment
with the reserve is high.
Conclusion: Approaching adaptive co-management?
In and around the Estação Ecológica de Juréia-Itatins,
differing perceptions of landscape, employment of the
125
concept of “traditional,” the association of identity with
agricultural practices, and on-the-ground complexity
of monitoring result in daily negotiation over resource
use. The combination of legislation that acknowledges
rights of traditional people, flexibility and confusion
in local governance, and ongoing resistance by local
people has resulted in the continued inhabitation of
many protected areas created on traditional lands.
Insufficient enforcement of environmental laws due
to lack of resources is commonly cited as the main
obstacle to conservation efforts, but park guards and
the Environmental Police exert substantial energy
monitoring small agriculturalists, which forces
residents to continuously articulate their right to
manage resources.
Though human habitation within ecological stations is
technically illegal, the administration has established
locally “official” conditions under which people can
not only reside within the station, but also practice
swidden agriculture. Thus, in one sense, the imperfect
discipline within the EEJI may contribute to the
preservation of traditional practices by providing the
physical and quasi-legal space for the agriculture to
occur and by providing a forum in which day-to-day
practices are negotiable. However, the government
confines agriculture to authorized locations, limiting
its practice to a form not considered truly traditional
by residents. While protected area boundaries and
traditionality are usefully dichotomizing by preventing
large-scale commercialization and development, actor
positionality and day-to-day negotiations result in the
continual construction and reconstruction of these
concepts.
Restricting traditionality and traditional resource
management to government-defined visions will not be
conducive to the adaptive co-management of protected
areas to which actors should aspire. Berkes, Colding,
and Folke (2000) describe traditional knowledge
as a “knowledge-practice-belief complex,” utilizing
adaptive management systems which emphasize
feedback learning and acknowledge uncertainty
and unpredictability, and in which management for
processes enables communities to “monitor, interpret,
126
and respond to dynamic changes in ecosystems.”
Exemplified by the successional management of
swidden agriculture, adaptive management of resources
is part of the adaptive co-management of social and
ecological systems (SES).
Adaptive co-management systems are “flexible
community-based systems of resource management
tailored to specific places and situations and supported
by, and working with, various organizations at different
levels” (Olsson, Folke, and Berkes, 2004), with SES
conceived of as nested, moving through adaptive
cycles across space and time at various scales and
speeds, with disturbance regimes inherent (Holling
et al., 1998; Gunderson and Holling, 2002), or as
“multiple subsystems” (resource systems, resource
units, governance systems, and users) that “interact to
produce outcomes at the SES level” (Ostrom, 2009).
In the cases of Praia do Una and Despraiado, these
cycles have manifested, for example, as political change
(periods of prohibition of agriculture), which had
direct effects on agro-ecological systems, biocultural
knowledge, and claims to identity. Residents’ resilience
was tested, and crises drove adaptations—political and
social—that may increase resilience in the face of future
change (Begossi 1998; Holling et al., 1998).
Begossi (1999) describes the lesser degree of political
and thus larger-scale engagement of caicaras
when compared with caboclos. However, the selforganization into associations and political action of
the residents of Juréia seeking to increase horizontal
and vertical linkages demonstrates an exception to this
observation. Olsson, Folke, and Berkes (2004) identify
vision, leadership, and trust as essential elements in the
self-organizing process undertaken by communities in
adaptive co-management systems. Additionally, flexible
institutions and organizations are crucial to adaptive
approaches. Following this characterization, elements
for adaptive co-management are in place in and around
the EEJI: caiçaras are increasingly engaging in interregional collaboration (coordenação nacional caiçaras)
and political debate, and the reinstatement of the RDS
in Juréia creates the “social space” (Olsson, Folke,
and Berkes, 2004) for community-based ecosystem
management.
The current reality of traditional life in the coastal
Atlantic Forest is testing the connections between
practice and place and forcing re-articulations of identity.
While many ex-residents continue to struggle to regain
appropriated lands in the hopes of returning, over a
generation of living away from the forest has resulting
in an extraordinary loss of environmental knowledge.
Whether or not the connection to land remains in the
absence of practice, and if swidden agriculture will
continue to form an important component of caiçara or
traditional identity, remain to be seen.
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128
Environment History and Education:
Linking people and institutions to nature
Douglas de Souza Pimentel1,
Ana Angélica Monteiro de Barros2
1
Professor Rio de Janeiro State University, Fluminense Federal University
1
2
[email protected]
Professor Rio de Janeiro State University
Keywords: Environmental history, Environmental education, Serra da Tiririca State Park, Itaipu Archaeological Museum.
Introduction
This paper is an evaluation that starts from biologists’
point of view. But, citing Drummond (1991),
many natural scientists pointed out that the full
understanding of human societies depends on the
studies of its interactions with the natural environment.
Considering this, interdisciplinarity is a basic premise
of Environmental History research and Environment
Education activities developed nearby the Serra da
Tiririca State Park (PESET – Niterói/Maricá, RJ)
and the Archaeological Museum of Itaipu (MAI –
Niterói, RJ). Therefore, from this perspective, such
activities seek to balance fragmented and sometimes,
oversimplified visions (LEIS, 1995) in order to
broadly address the socio-environmental issues,
enabling the full understanding of nature’s dynamics
under the influence of human activities over time.
Thus, this paper aims to describe some actions and
approaches in socio-environmental research that could
contribute to the construction of this broader vision
and the rapprochement of these institutions to local
communities.
Development
The Environmental History as a tool to reach
environmental broader comprehension
The Environmental History is a part of History that
has been structured since the early 1970s, when the
theoretical basis for understanding the landscape
as a historical document begin to be established
(DRUMMOND, 1991; HUGHES, 2006; WOSTER,
1991). Therefore, this discipline considers the
environment as a synergic agent in human history on
the planet (WOSTER, 1991).
Thus, Drummond (1991:5/8) indicates a number
of characteristics of Environmental History studies.
Such analyses constantly dialogue with Biology
and Ecology and generally cover areas with some
natural identity and reciprocal influences in the use
of resources. There are a wide variety of sources from
written documents to people’ reports. In these studies,
fieldwork is an essential condition for this historical
reading of the human marks in landscapes. So, these
studies cover the ecosystem dynamics in the past and
relations with the socioeconomic domain, as well as
environmental changes caused by human actions. In
addition, the Environmental History also focuses on
thought structures of human societies on the natural
world (Hughes, 2006; WOSTER, 1991). Therefore,
such discipline depends on an interdisciplinary vision
and still is structuring its concepts.
Raising environmental awareness
The process of raising environmental awareness
encompasses perception and emotion in a gradient that
generates differences in attitudes toward the nature, which
129
ends up becoming a field of symbolic representations
(TUAN, 1983). Those are built from the way someone
perceives the world subjectively. Perception is the way we
look at the world and the values are projected onto it.
The perception also carries a strong cultural component
that depends on beliefs, experiences, traditions, ideas and
socioeconomic contexts (TUAN, 1983; Younes; GARAY,
2006). Under this cultural bias, the Environmental
History brings the capacity on critical analyses of
environmental changes over space and time and allows
broader discussions about the relationship between
society and the environment. Therefore, the individual
stories and local changes in space are valued and that
knowledge becomes important for the Environmental
Education process.
Public use in Protected Areas
The Brazilian parks are protected areas (PA) where the
main focus is the ecosystems’ conservation and only the
indirect use of resources is allowed, generally related to its
visitation (BRASIL, 2002). Environmental Education,
in turn, is an integrated part of public use. Such
educational process represents an activity provided by law
for all protected areas, often related as a tool to enable
ecotourism and parks management.
So, the term public use is adopted by official agencies
linked to the management of protected natural areas
in Brazil and can be defined as the usufruct enjoyed
by the PA’s public user, whether recreationist, tourist,
educator or researcher (MAGRO, 1999). The activities
of public use and environmental education could be
considered as a long-term investment in environmental
conservation and basic premise of the ecotourism’s role
in protecting biodiversity. Thus, environmental education,
associated with ecotourism, catalyzes a deeper reflection
on the individual values to foster environmentally
responsible behavioral change, reconnecting people to
the natural environments. It should also stimulate a more
comprehensive view of the environmental problems,
assisting in understanding the social, economic and
political complexities involved in ecosystems, besides
encouraging individual and collective participation
(SILVA; COSTA NETO, 2007; Vasconcellos, 2006).
130
The Archaeological Museum of Itaipu (MAI) has a
strong relationship with the Serra da Tiririca State Park
(PESET) and the integrated institutional actions can
help foster recognition of the region peculiarities, thus
raising awareness of local environmental issues, creating
an institutional link to the surrounding communities.
According to Pimentel (2008) the historical issues related
to the region development and specifically to the PESET
are valued by the inhabitants of the neighborhoods of
Niteroi and Maricá municipalities. Selles and Abreu
(2002) conducted Environmental Education activities
with teachers from nine local schools, using the rich
local historical record, as generator theme to develop
new environmental perceptions. The authors concluded
that the integration between history and biology was
essential to this process. Currently, there are investments
to structure the “Paths of Darwin” in the state of Rio de
Janeiro (Charles Darwin visit the study region in XIX
century) and specifically in PESET. Thus, historical fact
can help management to build a greater appreciation
of the Park by the public. In fact, interdisciplinary
projects involving natural and social history of the
region are important in this context and the MAI and
PESET represent an excellent locus to these activities.
Such projects are being developed with public funds by
Interdisciplinary Environmental Study Group (GEIA)
of Rio de Janeiro State University (UERJ).
History of the Serra da Tiririca State Park’s
institutionalization
The park’s management involves different social and
biological scales. Conflicts were and are catalyzed when
parks are created and explanation for this goes back to
the practical application of a conservation vision, as well
as some difficulty in expanding the park management to
consider the relations maintained with society. In this
sense, research on the social perception about the parks
and their management falls within the perspective of
Environmental History, considering the intangible of
human relationships with nature (HUGHES, 2006,
WOSTER, 1991).
It should also be considered that the parks occupy
a conceptual space that takes a referential of nature
(Watson, 2000). They can be analyzed through the
prism of nature’s social construction (WEST; Igoe;
Brockington, 2006).
Still considering an interdisciplinary view, the
establishment of PAs can be focused by the construction of
the identity of a regional space. So for, management must
be given under three conceptual axes: a) the territorial
form legally established; b) the institutional form that is
responsible for the perpetuation and control of space and
c) the symbolic forms related to the people’s perception
and action about space (PIMENTEL; MAGRO, 2012).
Thus, the study of perceptions about the parks embraces
the attributes proposed by Freitas (2005) to intersect
the human geography and history’ points of view, as
these visions include three sets of questions related with
the biological and ecological attributes of a geographic
space, the socio-economic domain, modes of production,
institutions and politics as well as the perceptions and
values assigned by individuals to the parks.
The Parque Estadual da Serra da Tiririca (Peset), which
separates the cities of Niterói and Maricá, (Rio de Janeiro
- Brazil), was deployed in a massive covered by Atlantic
Forest that penetrates the continent towards SW/NE,
almost perpendicular to the shoreline. This region is
characterized by a rich social and environmental history
(Barros et al., 2003). The Park’s name is related to the
passage of mule trains along a path filled with plant
“tiririca” (Cyperus) (Barros et al., 2010), also used by
Darwin in April 1832. The naturalist noted in his journals
(p.70) that: “After passing through some cultivated
country, we entered a forest which in the grandeur of all
its parts could not be exceeded [...]”
The PESET was created in 1991 under the auspices
of a major mobilization of social groups in the region.
Environmentalists who individually or with the
establishment of NGOs and residents’ associations, acted
politically in order to preserve the massif region of Serra
da Tiririca by the constitution of a State Park. Since the
1950s, several real estate companies sought land in the
region. This turns out to promote popular mobilization
that resulted in a Civil Public Action, the first in Brazil
to instigate the state administration to effectively assume
the Park’s conservation (BARROS et al., 2003). However,
the inefficient performance of the former Forests’ State
Institute (IEF) and current Environmental’ State Institute
(INEA), as representative of Park’s administration,
amplifies its image of “paper park”.
This negative perception is mainly catalyzed by the 16year period of PESET’s uncertainty about its limits.
Only in 1993 the boundaries of the “study area” were
established. The state administration expected that the
definitive limits could be established trough democratic
consultation. In 1999, the IEF composed a second
Commission, which was constituted under protests of
manipulation and lack of transparency (VALLEJO,
2005). In 2001 the discussions were ceased and the
proposed new boundaries, approved. However, only in
September 2007, the definitive, but not actual limits were
sanctioned.
Considering this, this Park is an important example of
how social and political interactions can influence the
conservation efforts in different manners. To illustrate
this, the PESET’s limits were recently expanded with
the inclusion of Peça’s Hill, the Father, Mother and Girl
Islands, the surroundings of Itaipu Lagoon and 90% of
Darcy Ribeiro Ecological Reserve’s area. Which will in
turn, amplify the administrative problems.
The PESET’s Institutional Sphere has been marked
by lawsuits to undermine the government in effective
conservation, but this history about boundaries
definitions guided the legal dimension of the Park. In
the end, with the sanction of the definitive limits of the
Park, a liability related to the traditional people of Serra
da Tiririca, was left. Two legal instruments sought to
guarantee their right to remain and use areas of the park
(RIO DE JANEIRO, 2007).
In the symbolic sphere, the Park represents the good and
the bad of the relationship between people and protected
areas. However, while an institutionalized space, much of
bad is related to administrative problems of INEA. The
public administration did not build an image of Park
with social significance. The positive relationships are
131
represented by popular demand for the Park’s creation,
which is a history of social and environmental struggle
and constant vigilance (PIMENTEL; MAGRO, 2011).
The study of this socio-environmental process is framed
by Environmental History. The point to note is that
although the political and administrative problems have
scratched the PESET’s image, knowing its story allows
highlighting the positive aspects of the relationship
between Park and society, for its better social integration.
Those who do not have this historical view can be
informed by Environmental Education programs. These
should be broader than just environmental interpretation
activities encompassing the region’s occupation and the
process of space’s institutionalization into a park. So, the
Environmental History knowledge is also important to
park’s administration.
The Environmental History as a basic tool for
Environmental Education activities
The Environmental Education concept, established
in 1977 on Tbilisi Environmental Education
Intergovernmental Conference, encompass important
parameters such as promoting understanding of
economic, social, political and ecological interdependence
and acquisition of knowledge, values and new attitudes
to improve environment quality. This concept’s basis
acknowledges that Environmental Education is a process
that seeks to understand the interrelationships between
humans and the biophysical environment. Furthermore,
they emphasize the importance of encouraging decisionmaking, ethics as a central issue and quality of life’s
improvements through the understanding of the
environment as a space of continuous modifications,
whose anthropocentric influences are better understood
in a historical context (DIAS, 2003; UNESCO, 1998).
In Brazil, this discussion process also starts from the
1970s, but only gets larger public dimension in the
1980s. The 1988 Federal Constitution establishes the
promotion of environmental education as a responsibility
of the Government. The PRONEA (National
Environmental Education Program - 1994) aimed the
issue’s consolidation as a public policy. In 1999 it was
published the law establishing the “National Policy
132
on Environmental Education”, which reinforces the
view that this educational process should take place
in a coordinated manner in formal and non-formal
spaces (LOUREIRO; AZAZIEL; FRANCA, 2003;
LOUREIRO, 2004).
The goal of this section is to report the activities of the
project “Monitoring and Diagnosis of Itaipu Lagoon
Health and Fisheries Resources” of Environmental
Education Program (PEA) performed at the Itaipu
Archaeological Museum in partnership with the
Interdisciplinary Environment Study Group (GEIA),
based on the text of Fernandes, Pimentel and Ferreira
(2011).
The MAI has its headquarters in remaining ruins
of Recolhimento de Santa Teresa, dating from the
eighteenth century (SILVA; MOLINA, 2010). This
Museum is a institution currently linked to the Brazilian
Institute of Museums (IBRAM), an agency of the
Ministry of Culture. It is inserted in the middle of
several archeological sites and the ecosystem complex
of Itaipu, which includes beaches, dunes, rocky shores
and the Atlantic Forest. Portions of these formations are
protected by the PESET.
Thus, the MAI can be seen as a non-formal educational
space, however well qualified for the promotion
of Environmental Education as it emphasizes
interdisciplinary actions, expanding their role beyond
their institutional walls, involving and stimulating the
local population. The students of the Municipal College
Professor Marcos Waldemar de Freitas Reis participated
on different activities. Thus, the process of teaching and
learning can be investigated, becoming a study’s object
about what happens in the formal and non-formal
educational spaces. Accordingly, it is intended to generate
criticism from local environmental issues, fostering a
process of collective reflection-action (FRANCO, 2005).
Activities are held since the year 2010. The workshops
happen weekly in and around the MAI. Such activities
carried out in the surroundings stimulate discussion
on socio-environmental relations, and count on the
collaboration of local social actors. The actions are
organized in six stages developed continuously.
the changing profile of the natural terrain is prohibited.
The workshops utilized various teaching tools allowing,
such as PESET’s trail visits, landscape observations
and fishery measurements, to holistically address the
environmental issues in the region. These observations
were deployed in a similar study in the region of PESET
(MEIRELLES; PIMENTEL, 2008). The project
encourages community participation that extended
to other activities such as Museum exhibitions, the
“National Museums Week” and “Environment Week”.
The MAI is an important institution that seeks to support
and define your goals in strengthening their relationship
with communities, highlighting the local region’s socioenvironmental interactions across the cultural and
historical context of occupation in the Oceanic Region
of Niterói.
The focus of this discussion is based on the use of the
restinga’s fruits by the fishermen’s community. Fourteen
residents were interviewed, aged from 50 to 91 years old.
Twenty four species were reported by residents, and the
majority cited Myrtaceae family. This family is one of the
main fluminense’s restinga representatives with higher
species richness (ARAUJO, 2000). The main used fruit
was Cambui (Myrciaria floribunda (H. West ex Willd.)
O. Berg), consumed directly as food or inserted into local
cachaça bottles to flavor the drink. The collected data
exemplify the cultural wealth of the Caiçara population
that must be preserved as much as the restinga. The
cultural relationships with the Maricá Restinga’s
ecosystem, reinforces the need for a conservation plan
that brings together the environment features and local
culture.
Traditional Knowledge and the Biological Diversity
Brazilian coastal ecosystems have suffered the
consequences of a disorderly human occupation in
recent years. Thus, most relations between mankind and
environment are still unknown, especially in restinga’s
environment. The appropriation of natural resources
implies the construction of a new environment, which
expresses the culture of a particular community. In this
sense, the history of humanity is closely allied to the
domestication and use of plants for food, medicine,
construction material or habitat for game animals
(WOSTER, 1991). Plants represent a crucial role in the
survival of human kind.
In this way, the research with traditional knowledge is
important to know the use of the biological diversity.
An example is the study realized with the fishermen’s
community of Vila de Zacarias that occupies the region
about 200 years, using natural resources for survival.
Actualy this area is part of the Environmental Protection
Area of Maricá, located in the municipality of Maricá
(RJ, Brazil) and created by State Decree 7230 of 23
April 1984 with a total area of 8.3 km2 (PEREIRA et
al. 2001). The decree included part of the lagoon and
the surrounding area of Maricá and the subdivision of
land for urban purposes, deforestation, removal of local
vegetation characteristic, hunting, trapping animals and
Nearby the MAI there is also the opportunity to prospect
this traditional knowledge primordially constructed by
the local fisherman population. In fact, many participant
students are from this community and learn to valorize this
historic way to look and to relate with the environment.
Final Thoughts
The Environmental History has as integrator axis the
search for a broader view of environmental issues. The
construction of this vision depends on an interdisciplinary
process that considers environmental awareness as a
prerequisite for people to pay attention to the occurring
changes in their surroundings.
The MAI, like PESET and others nearby Protected
Areas are integrators of environmental issues in the
Oceanic Region of Niterói and Maricá, since they
offer the possibility of critical observation of the locally
relationship between society and environment. In the
Park’s case, the story of its creation is highly valued by
the population and the process of institutionalization
of regional spaces can be configured as an important
object of study in history. Both are institutions that
seek to approximate the surrounding population and
133
Environmental History appears as an important tool
for Environmental Education, whose activities can
foster interdisciplinary comprehensive discussions of
environmental issues in these non-formal educational
spaces. This aspect fits importantly in the basic guidelines
of the Environmental Education proposals. But
integrating the activities of these institutions, together
with formal spaces offered by local schools represent a
unique opportunity to develop an educational process for
the formation of full ecologically aware citizens, capable
of a critical discussion on environmental issues.
References
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Barros, A. A. M.; Sathler, E. B; Conceição, M. C. F.;
Pimentel, D. S. 2003. Aspectos Ambientais e legais
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Fernades, R.; Pimentel, D.S.; Ferreira, M. de S. A
Educação Ambiental como mediadora na diluição de
fronteiras institucionais. In: Seabra, G.; Mendonça I.
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seus habitantes. In: Oliveira, r.r. (Org.). As marcas
do homem na floresta: história ambiental de um
trecho urbano de Mata Atlântica. Rio de Janeiro:
Ed. PUC-Rio, cap. 1, p. 37-50.
Hughes, D. J. 2006. What is environmental history?
Cambridge: Polity Press. 180p.
Leis, H.R. 2005. Sobre o conceito de interdisciplinaridade.
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Loureiro, C.F.B.; AZAZIEL, M.; FRANCA, N.
2003. Educação ambiental e gestão participativa
em unidades de conservação. 2. ed. Rio de Janeiro:
IBAMA, 44 p.
Loureiro, C.F.B. 2004. Educação ambiental e gestão
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Magro, T.C. 1999. Impactos do Uso Público em uma
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dos parques. 2008. 254 p. Tese (Doutorado em
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Piracicaba, 2008.
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(UFU. Online), v. 23, p. 275-283.
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muitas imagens: o manejo de parques com base na
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p. 92-113.
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de 2007. Dispõe sobre o perímetro definitivo do
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de Niterói e Maricá. Diário Oficial do Estado do
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<http://www.revista.uea.edu.br/abore/comunicacao /
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Souza%20da%20Silva.pdf>. Acesso em: 27 mar. 2008.
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Niterói (RJ): Nitpress, 109pp.
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São Paulo: Ed. DIFEL, Difusão Editorial, 250 p.
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da Conferência de Tbilisi. Brasília: Instituto Brasileiro
de Meio Ambiente e Recursos Naturais Renováveis,
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ambiental em unidades de conservação. Cadernos de
Conservação, Curitiba, v. 3, n. 4, 86 p. dez.
Vallejo, L.R. 2005. Políticas públicas e conservação
ambiental: territorialidades em conflito nos Parques
Estaduais da Ilha Grande, da Serra da Tiririca e do
Desengano (RJ). 2005. 288 p. Tese. (Doutorado em
Geociências) - Instituto de Geociências, Universidade
Federal Fluminense, Niterói,
Watson, A.E. 2000. Wilderness use in the year 2000:
societal changes that influence human relationships
with wilderness. USDA forest service proceedings
RMRS, Washington, v. 4, p. 53-60,
West, P.; Igoe, J.; Brockington, D. 2006. Parks and people:
the social impact of protected areas. Annual Review of
Anthropology, Palo Alto, v. 35, p. 251-277.
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Históricos, Rio de Janeiro, vol. 4, n. 8, p.198-215.
Younés, T.; Garay, I. 2006. As dimensões humanas
da biodiversidade: o imperativo das abordagens
integrativas. In: GARAY, I.; BECKER, B.K. (Org).
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135
Protected Areas for Regional Development in Latvia
Plone Evija1, Stokmane Ilze2, Nataļja Buļipopa3
1,2,3
Latvian University of Agriculture, Latvia
1
2
3
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
Keywords: special protected area, rural areas, regional development, environmental management
One of the cornerstones of country’s sustainable
economic development is judicial management of natural
resources. Specially protected areas - geographically
defined areas in Latvia - fall under the category of
natural resources. They are under special protection of
the state in order to protect and preserve the natural
diversity - rare and typical natural ecosystems, habitat
of species, and unique, beautiful landscape characteristic
of Latvia, geological and geomorphological formations,
dendrological plantings and secular trees, as well as areas
important for public recreation and education.
Specially protected natural areas in Latvia are mostly
located in rural areas, where they could serve as an
engine of economic development and, for example, help
to promote a stable environment for employment, but
on the condition that the implementation of targeted
development strategy, involving all the interested and
site-related social, economic and political entities
is in place. Recent studies have concentrated on
136
the biodiversity in protected areas, the impact of
environmental and human behavior factors on these
areas, lack of funding for maintenance of areas etc., but
the investigation of variety of information resources
leads to conclude that the specially protected natural
areas have not been studied as an economic legacy with
future potential for sustainable development of rural
areas.
Every administrative territorial unit and region can be
described by number of different sizes, and according
different distinct geographical clusters can be formed. To
verify the ongoing development tendencies in Latvian
regions and in particular the proportion of protected
areas and their role in the development of territorial
units, the study focuses on the specific weight of
proportion of specially protected areas in every Latvian
territorial unit, examining spatial development index,
entrepreneurial activity and other figures that illustrate
place making trends in the development of the region.
As realidades socioculturais implicam nos modelos
de produção de sementes florestais tropicais em
comunidades do Alto Xingu no Brasil?
Lilla Jessica Brokaw 1, Danilo I. de Urzedo 2
Edson Vidal 3
1,2,3
ESALQ/USP, Piracicaba, SP - Brazil
1
[email protected]
2
[email protected]
3
[email protected]
Keywords: Rede de sementes do Xingu, sementes florestais tropicais, modelo organizacional.
O estado do Mato Grosso (Brasil) se transformou após
as políticas de ocupação territorial, que induziram uma
migração nacional, criação de assentamentos rurais e
latifúndios voltados a produção agropecuária, culminando
em graves conseqüências socioambientais e nas maiores
taxas de desmatamento da Amazônia. Entretanto, ações
tem sido promovidas para atenuar esses impactos, como a
restauração ecológica no Alto Xingu. Para isso, foi criada
a Rede de Sementes do Xingu, abrangendo mais de 300
famílias inseridas em diversos contextos socioculturais. A
partir da hipótese que diferentes realidades socioculturais
implicam em modelos de planejamento e gestão local, este
estudo objetiva analisar como estes fatores socioculturais
influenciam a produção de sementes florestais tropicais.
Por meio da realização de pesquisas de campo, observação
participante e entrevistas de diferentes comunidades, foi
constato três modelos de atores sociais com características
socioculturais particulares, sendo eles: indígenas,
agricultores familiares e coletores urbanos. Cruzando tais
informações com o banco de dados de comercialização
da rede do ano de 2011, foi estabelecido indicadores dos
grupos, abrangendo os parâmetros: potencial de produção
de sementes descrito pelo coletor; produção demanda
para comercialização; produção efetiva do coletor.
No ano de 2011 a Rede produziu 9,9 t de sementes, o que
correspondeu a 81% da demanda. Os coletores urbanos
produziram em média 177,9 kg de sementes, embora
representassem 31,2% dos pedidos da Rede, produziram
40,1% das sementes. Tais coletores possuem percepção
empreendedora, realizando investimentos e gerindo
as atividades com planejamento e escala de produção.
Entretanto, a atividade é desarticulada entre os coletores,
que não se reconhecem como grupo. Suas motivações
e envolvimento com a atividade é reflexo do histórico.
Geralmente tais coletores migraram da região Sul e
Suldeste, motivados por políticas públicas para tornar a
região produtiva e prosperarem economicamente.
Os agricultores familiares apresentaram uma produção
média de 40,9 kg de sementes por coletor, representando
58,9% dos pedidos da rede, porém, produziram 13,7% a
menos da demanda. Essas famílias, geralmente, possuem
um modelo de produção agroflorestal fundamentado na
agroecologia e soberania alimentar. Quadro que diverge
da realidade dos assentamento da região marcados por
políticas públicas de estímulo ao agronegócio. Deste
modo, a semente é compreendida como um complemento
de renda por esses atores pioneiros que atuam visando a
diversificação produtiva.
Nas aldeias indígenas a produção média por etnia foi
de 173,3 Kg de sementes, representando 14,6% da
produção da rede, valor superior ao demandado (9,8%).
Assim, a atividade é uma alternativa de geração de
renda, visando atender algumas demandas que foram
externalizadas, conforme o contato desses atores com a
realidade ocidental. A produção é estimulada, sobretudo,
137
pelo propósito de restauração ecológica da paisagem
que os rodeiam. Entretanto, a produção não é autogestionada, sendo requerido subsídio em detrimento do
próprio investimento, em razão de compreenderem que já
cumprem com o seu papel realizando a atividade.
A realidade sociocultural dos coletores de sementes do
Alto Xingu afetou diretamente nos modelos de produção,
portanto as estratégias de planejamento e gestão da
produção devem reconhecer as particularidades locais,
sendo fundamentado por processos participativos com o
envolvimento da percepção local
Bacha CJC. 2004. O Uso de Recursos Florestais
e as Políticas Econômicas Brasileiras: Uma
Visão Histórica e Parcial de um Processo de
Desenvolvimento. Est. Econ, São Paulo, p. 393-426.
Sills E, Shanley P, Paumgarten F, de Beer J, Pierce A.
2011.Evolving Perspectives on Non-timber Forest
Products. In: Shackleton S,
Shackleton C, Shanley P, editors. Non-Timber Forest
Products in the Global Context. Springer-Verlag,
Berlin Heidelberg, p. 23–51.
Referencias
Klimas CA, Kainer KA, Wadt LHO 2012. The
economic value of sustainable seed and timber
harvests of multi-use species: An example using
Carapa guianensis. Chicago, US. Elsevier, Forest
Ecology and Management 268, 81-91.
Ross, JLS. 2011. Geografia do Brasil. 6th ed. São Paulo,
BR: Editora da Universidade de São Paulo.
Arnold JEM, Perez MR. 2001. Can non-timber forest
products match tropical forest conservation and
development objectives?. Elsevier, Ecological
Economics 39, Madrid, SP, p. 437-447.
Stickler CM, Nepstad DC, Coe MT, Mcgrath DG,
Rodrigues HO, Walker WS, Soares-Filho BS,
Davidson EA. 2009. The potential ecological
costs and co-benefits of REDD: a critical review
and case study from the Amazon region. Global
Change Biology 15: 2803–2824
Soares-Filho B, Silvestrini R, Nepstad D, Brando P,
Rodrigues H, Alencar A, Coe M, Locks C, Lima
L, Hissa L, Stickler C. 2012. Forest fragmentation,
climate change and understory fire regimes on the
Amazonian landscapes of the Xingu headwaters.
Springer Science, Landscape Ecol, DOI 10.1007/
s10980-012-9723-6
138
Usage of plant resources of coastal ecosystems by the
fishermen community in the Environmental Protection
Area of the Restinga of Maricá, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
Patrick de Oliveira1, Alexandre Verçosa Greco2,
Ana Angélica Monteiro de Barros3, Maria Célia Rodrigues Correia4,
Ana Tereza Araújo Rodarte5, Douglas de Souza Pimentel6
12345
UFRJ, Museu Nacional, Laboratório de Biologia Floral
3
Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro.
3
6
[email protected]
Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro e Universidade Federal Fluminense.
6
[email protected]
Keywords: traditional knowledge, caiçaras, fruits
Brazilian coastal ecosystems have suffered the
consequences of a disorderly human occupation in
recent years. Thus, most relations between mankind and
environment are still unknown, especially in restinga’s
environment The appropriation of natural resources
implies the construction of a new environment, which
expresses the culture of a particular community. In
this sense, the history of humanity is closely allied to
domestication and use of plants for food, medicine,
construction material or habitat for game animals
(Worster, 1991). Plants represent a crucial role in the
survival of human kind.
The present study took place on the fishermen’s
community of Vila de Zacarias, which occupies part
of the Environmental Protection Area of Maricá,
located in the city of Maricá (RJ, Brazil). Maricá’s
Restinga is formed by a plain of sand ridges acroos
five kilometers between the sea and Guarapina-Maricá
lagoon system, composed of Barra, Padre, Maricá and
Guarapina Lagoons. The lagoon system communicates
with the sea through artificial channels of Ponta
Negra (Guarapina) and Costa (Maricá), ending at
Alto Mourão Hill at Serra Tiririca Massif (Perrin,
1999). The Environmental Protection Area was created
by State Decree 7230 from April 23th 1984, at the
coordinates 22°52’-22°54’S and 42°48’-42°54’W, with
a total area of 8.3 km2 (PEREIRA et al. 2001). This
decree included part of the lagoon and the surrounding
area of Maricá and the subdivision of land for urban
purposes, deforestation, removal of local vegetation
characteristic, hunting and trapping animals, besides it
prohibited changing the profile of natural terrain.
The community of Vila de Zacarias occupies the region
about 200 years, using natural resources for survival.
The focus of the present study was based on the use
of restinga’s fruits. To obtain information regarding the
use of fruits, semi-structured questionnaires were used,
which contain questions about people’s knowledge
about the fruits.
Fourteen residents were interviewed and aged from 50
to 91 years old. Twenty four species were reported by
residents, being the majority from Myrtaceae family.
This family is one of the main fluminense’s restinga
representatives with higher species richness (Araujo,
2000). The main used fruit was Cambui (Myrciaria
floribunda (H. West ex Willd.) O. Berg), consumed
directly as food or inserted into local cachaça bottles
to flavor the drink. The collected data exemplify the
139
cultural wealth of the Caiçara population that must
be preserved as much as the restinga. This work
contributes to understand cultural relationship with the
Maricá Restinga’s ecosystem, reinforcing the need for a
conservation plan that brings together the environment
features and local culture.
References
ARAUJO, D.S.D. 2000. Análise florística e
fitogeográfica das restingas do estado do Rio
de Janeiro. Rio de Janeiro. Tese (Doutorado em
Geografia). Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro.
169p.
Pereira, M.C.A.; Araujo, D.S.D.; Pereira, O.J. 2001.
Estrutura de uma comunidade arbustiva da restinga
de Barra de Maricá - RJ. Revista Brasileira de
Botânica, São Paulo, v. 24, n. 3.
Perrin, P. Evolução da costa fluminense entre as Pontas
de Itacoatiara e Negra: Preenchimento e restinga.
In: Lacerda, L.D.; AraUjo, D.S.D.; Cerqueira, R.
& Turcq, B. (eds.) Restingas: origens, estruturas,
processos. Universidade Federal Fluminense,
Niterói, CEUFF, p. 65-74, 1984.
WORSTER, D. Para fazer História Ambiental. Estudos
Históricos, v. 4, n. 8, p. 198-215, 1991.
140
Concurrent Session F
Boosting Connectivity:
Trans-boundary Parks and Corridors
Session organizer:
Taiichi Ito,
University of Tsukuba,
School of Life and Environment Sciences, Japan
141
Environmental compensation and biodiversity bank in brazil:
study case Harpia harpya eagle at green farm CO2free project,
Itaquiraí, MS
Eder Zanetti1, Luiz Samartano2
1,2
1
Green Farm CO2FREE
[email protected]
2
[email protected]
Keywords: Environmental Compensation, Green Farm CO2FREE, Biodiversity Bank, Harpia Harpya
Introduction
While human-made capital such as roads, industries and
buildings appreciate with their increase, natural capital
suffers devaluation from degradation and fragmentation.
It is urgent to generate adequate conditions for natural
capital introduction within properties, municipalities,
states and federal government’s GDP accountability.
Valorization of natural capital is the only path to
achieve green infrastructure monetary appreciation,
otherwise it will keep its vanishing pace.
Environmental Compensation is an attempt to address
such situation, creating tools and regulation to enforce
environmental damage accountability and measure
to compensate for acceptable levels of disruption.
In Brazil, transaction cost involved are too high and
private participation is insignificant.
New legislation has been introduced in order to allow
an increase on private investment towards selling
of environmental compensation to business under
environmental licensing. A move that has been capture
by Green Farm project in Mato Grosos do Sul, Brazil.
Environmental compensation in brazil
Environmental issues emerged within formal brazilian
legislation at industrial zoning for critically polluted
142
areas guidelines by Law 6803/1980. Environmental
impacts evaluation and compensation to assure main
ecological process were incorporated by Law 6938/1981
– National Environmental Policy. The National Council
on Environment – CONAMA was always involved
on regulating environmental compensation procedure,
some include Resolutions 01/1986 and 03/1987.
Brazilian national constitution, in 1988, contains the
225 article and several disperse itens regarding State
and civil society environmental roles. CONAMA
02/1996 and 237/1997 also addressed environmental
licensing and compensation. Law 9985/2000,
regulated by Federal Decree 4340/2002 complemented
by 6848/2009 had specifics on environmental
compensation, as CONAMA 371/2006.
In Brazil, Business and development projects under
licensing procedures holding significant environmental
impacts, described within Environmental Impacts
Assessment and Environmental Impacts Reports
– EIA/RIMA, must compensate for those impacts
towards payments for environmental compensation.
Until 2011 the single option available for entrepreneurs
was to collect values from those appraisals to a federal
compensation fund, turned to strengthen federal
Conservation Units management. In an attempt of
searching for better results when applying financial
resources of environmental compensation, the IN
20/2011 (MMA/ICMBIO)estates at its 11th article:
“For fulfilling fixed environmental compensation, the
Boosting Connectivity: Trans-boundary Parks and Corridors
entrepreneur can opt for executing it by its own means,
being able to, for achieving it, contract third parties
including financial institutions, preferably official
ones…”. Also, the Law 12651/2012 – Native Vegetation
at its 41st article, 6th paragraph says: “landowners
located at buffer zones surrounding Integral Protection’s
Conservation Units are eligible to receive technical and
financial support from environmental compensation...”.
The Brazilian Fund for Biodiversity – FUNBIO is
already working at organizing state level environmental
compensation funds. However it is imperative to have
a regulation on the previous quoted 11th article to
provide legal assurances to the process. In the case of
biodiversity, private initiative participation represents
a great decrease on project costs and increase on
effectiveness, transparency and monitoring. Public
agents do not need to engage at project development,
implementing and monitoring and can play them
role at over viewing and eventually approving project
activities with high quality, since they hold the power
to demand compliance and effective implementation,
under the threat of fines and other legal actions.
Biodiversity banks
Over the last 120,000 years, planetary species lost (large
mammals, birds and other vertebrates) has been directly
related to human population growth rates at specific
regions. Within the last 10,000 years every mammal
with more than 1 t has been extinct from inhabited
areas as well as a large number of vanished endemic
species. Between 1600 and 1900 circa of 75 species
were extinct, same number as between 1900 and 1975.
Some 24% of mammal, 20% of all river fisheries and
12% of bird species are threaten around the globe.
Ecosystem services are provided, but not remunerated.
The recognition of their societal role and importance
is a form of promoting sustainable development.
Environmental and ecosystem goods and services are
linked to the Millennium Development Objectives
– MDO number 7, in the sense they can be used to
integrate sustainable development objectives within
national policies and programs and reverse the lost
of natural resources Ecosystem services have a global
value estimated at US$33 trillion per year (WBCSD,
2009) with strong participation by Brazilian entities,
considered one of the main global players in a growing
green economy. On the other hand destruction of flora
and fauna costs US$ 3.1 trillion yearly to the world,
around 6% of all nations’ GDP. In Brazil, the Amazon
forest alone it is estimated US$ 4 trillion per year can
be assigned as the value of ecosystem services. However,
currently, there are only a few isolated cases of Payment
for Ecosystem Services - PES in place. Nevertheless
the number of local, sub-national, national, regional,
international and global public and private institutions
and organizations including industry, agriculture,
construction, energy concessionaries, transport,
reforestation, universities, research centers, NGOs,
foundations and others, interested on PES and EGS
are growing fast.
With the aim of producing scientific and political
proposal to incorporate this new reality to daily
economic activities, the Intergovernmental Science and
Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services
(IPBES) has been assembled and its headquarters are
in Bonn, Germany. The IPBES is the ultimate forum
at global level responsible for organizing and supplying
information on the theme of biodiversity and ecosystem
services to all governments on the planet. It will provide
a mechanism of support for decision-making around the
theme and identify tools and methodologies relevant
for governments. IPBES was officially established in
April, 2012, by more than 100 countries present at the
second general assembly in Panamá, as an independent
intergovernmental body, jointly administrated by the
United Nations Environmental Program, the UN
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization,
the UN Food and Agriculture Organization, and the
United Nations Development Program.
Biodiversity Banks Around the Globe
Transactions involving biodiversity totaled US$ 2-3
billiion in 2010 from 64 active programs of various
types running, with the United States leading the
143
market with a share of US$ 2,4 billion (MADSEN,
CARROLL e KELLY, 2010). In 2012 those payments
for biodiversity went over US$ 4 billion, some other
US$ 5 billion / year are estimated to be needed for
having all world threathen species preserved on
biodiversity banks (MACCARTHY etall, 2012). Brazil
has some 1,8 million species spread all over its territory
(IPEA, 2010).
Threaten and Endangered Species in Brazil
Brazil and 17 other countries hold 70% of global
biodiversity, with Brazil alone accounting for up to 305.
Brazilian Conservation Units represent 17,4% of the
country, with 310 Federal, 620 State nd 59 municipal.
Even so, Brazil has 75% of its threatened fauna and
flora species without any management measure. At the
country there is none DNA study covering amphibians
threaten with extinction and only 3% of birds under
risk do have some. On reptiles those studies don’t cover
15% and only 22% of mammals. Owner of the largest
world biodiversity, Brazil has 627 fauna and 472 flora
species threaten with extinction (IPEA, 2012).
Opportunities in Brazil
Annual cost estimates of Brazilian National
Conservation Units System – SNUC (from portuguese:
Sistema Nacional de Unidades de Conservação) is
minimum US$ 1,5 billion / year, while current federal
budget goes bellow US$ 300 million / year. To create
1,099 biodiversity banks for private and public investors
funding on threatened species would allow inflows of
around US$ 1 billion / year to reduce pression and
cooperate with Conservation Units objectives.
Opportunities in Atlantic Forest
In Brazil, within Interior Atlantic Forest region, there
are 25 million people, from which 18.6 million are
urban and 6.4 million rural, spreading over seven states:
144
Goiás, Mato Grosso do Sul, Minas Gerais, Paraná, Rio
Grande do Sul, Santa Catarina e São Paulo, divided in
1,374 municipalities. The region goes over Paraguay’s
123 municipalies and Argentina’s 75 municipalities.
All those cities hold candidates to sponsor biodiversity
credits from species within it.
Opportunities at the Parana River International
Biodiversity Corridor
within the region comprehended by Interior Atlantic
Forest there is the Alto Paraná Forest Ecoregion,
located close to Paraná and other large rivers. Those
forests play an essential ecological role on sustaining
water quantity and quality by avoiding erosion and
superficial flows. This region has under it the Guarani
acquifer, one of world largest and most populated ones,
and its forest cover has been reduced as much as 99%.
At Itaquiraí region the Atlantic forest is eventually
extinct from private properties, with the few remaining
under significant levels of degradation.
Green farm project
Green Farm CO2FREE project is an initiative
promoted jointly by Green Farm, a private company and
CO2FREE, a NGO. The project goal is to rehabilitate,
maintain and enhance ecosystem services supply from
best practices of land use, using the project area as a
major prototype for future interventions. Green Farm
CO2FREE project is located at BR 487, Itaquiraí – MS.
The project is adjacent to Ilha Grande National Park, in
Parana state.
Green Farm CO2FREE approach to access, evaluates,
manage and report on ecosystem services provision
from the area is based on a current list of 40 different
types of those nature assets. The ecosystem services
provided by different land uses are identified using a
framework of general characteristics of the landscape,
addressed to each strata in order to include it as one
or another group and specifics (support – carbon
cycle, Cultural – Recreation and P&D and so on).
The use of the list helps to identify possible links
between the service provided by ecosystem and the
impacts from different human activities. Using the
same list production and service chains can identify
particular impacts. Those impacts when identified using
similar procedures as those on the field will result in
compatibility of assessments, generating the possibility
of mutual compensation.
The methodology involves three mains steps:
stratification, clear objective statement and adequacy.
Stratification is done by assessing current land uses
and ecosystem services they provide. Clear objective
statement is made by Sustainable Ecosystem Services
Management Plans - SESMP (strategic, tactic and
operative). Adequacy is prescribe by the plan and also
monitored according with the baseline and monitoring
methodology adopted at each ecosystem service
management procedure, as stated on the SESMP.
Harpia harpya eagle biodiversity bank
Green Farm CO2FREE project believes that
biodiversity lost can be avoided and to cope with that
objective it has produced methodology and project
document for a BIODIVERSITY BANK in Brazil. The
Green Farm CO2FREE Biodiversity Bank is aiming at
revert extinction threats over 5 Brazilian fauna species.
The first credits to become available come from Royal
Eagle (Harpiaharpya), threaten all over Latin America
and included within a National Plan for the species
conservation.
The project is located within the priority conservation
areas of International Biodiversity Corridor of
Parana River and at the buffer zone surrounding Ilha
Grande National Park, a Federal Integral Protection
Conservation Unit, therefore perfectly aligned with the
new national environmental legislation. The Biodiversity
Bank documents include definition of a Service Area,
MRV methodology, Conservation Easement, species
fund (for perpetuity of management), crediting
estimate procedure and environmental license of the
activity. The Green Farm CO2FREE Biodiversity Bank
shows private sector potential of improving conditions
for threatened biodiversity species conservation,
investing on avoiding their extinction. The project
supplies reliable, traceable, transparent and accurate
accountability of all its aspects, contributing to enhance
companies’ results from environmental compensation
payments.
Harpia harpya is within the Brazilian Official list of
Threaten species, institute by normative nº 3/2003
(Ministry of Environment - MMA). The specie is
included into the National Plan for prairie birds.
Harpia eagle is considered ”conservation dependent”,
which means it needs investment on biodiversity banks
creation in order to avoid its full extinction within
Interior Atlantic Forest. Harpia harpyja(Linnaeus,
1758) Royal Eagle. Status in other lists: Cites:
Apendice I; IUCN: NT; states: RS: probably extinct;
PR: critically endargered; SP: critically endargered; RJ:
critically endargered; MG: probably extinct (ICMBIO,
2008).
The Atlantic Forest’s Harpia harpya was orginallly
dispersed over 110 million ha. Interior Atlantic
Forest is one of the remaining ecoregions with worst
conservation status. The largest track of semidecidual
seasonal forest with some 47 million ha included the
Alto Parana Atlantic Forest ecoregion (Parana Jungle),
also known as Interior Atlantic Forest, from which that
are only 2.7% remaining on sparse and fragmented
areas ( (RBMA, 2004).
The Royal Eagle needs at least 100 ha of continuous
forest land with a home range over 800 ha (ICMBIO,
2008). In Mato Grosso do Sul state it’s been registered
at Bodoquena montains. Local populations are
assumed to be declining wherever found (ICMBIO,
2008). Within the region of natural occurence there
are less than 700,000 ha with this capacity, carrying
capacity of circa of 1,000 individuals (SAMARTANO
e ZANETTI, 2012).
Itaquirai’s Interior Atlantic Forest region is the place
where Green Farm’s Royal Eagle Biodiversity Bank
is located. This region use to have the Royal Eagle, it
145
was extinct locally and Green Farm is responding by
creating the first commercial genetic variability bank for
the species. At Green Farm’s Royal Eagle Biodiversity
Bank the species is being deposited in order to assure
its perenity.
Over 500 bird species were identified within this region,
some rare as Purple Breasted Parriot and Royal Eagle.
Some of the most threaten primates occur, as Black
Lion Monkey. Painted Panther, Royal Eagle, Ariranha
and Wild Pigs are some of the native species demanding
large forest tracks to survive over time, a significant
challenge for fragmented and fragile landscapes. Royal
Eagle biodiversity bank at Green Farm intends to start
the process of rehabilitaion by contribution on forming
of a regional network conservation dedicated. The bank
is primarly regulated by Normative 169/2008, towards
the Porto Bonito Wild Animals Conservation Nursery
– CCASC Porto Bonito (from portuguese: Criatorio
Conservacionista de Animais Silvestres para Fins de
Conservaçao).
The overvall project aims at 365 individuals within
it 28,000 m2 wild animals dedicated infrastructure,
starting by 37 individuals from 5 species: Harpiaharpya
(1 adult couple), Caimam latirostris (1 male and 10
female); Crax fasciolata (2 couples); Cuniculus paca
(2 male and 10 female) and; Tapirus terrestris (1 male
and 3 female). Finantial budgeting and schedule for
implementation reached US$ 1,5 million over 3 years,
with an annual cost of US$ 600,000.
The Royal Eagle biodiversity bank looks into assuring
species perenity by selling environmental compensation
credits to companies under environmental licensing
process. The Service Area of this bank covers Interior
Atlantic Forest ecoregion, justifiable by its landscape
coherence and adherence to ecosystem service provision
principles.
on free market allowing individuals and corporations
to obtain profit from threaten wild animals protection
from credit selling, with prices determined by the
market itself. Biodiversity banks emerge as a corporate
strategy to determine monetary values of conserved
habitat and species, perform within markets, simplifies
and make lincensing process more agile – since local,
state and federal laws regulates it.
One of the main advantages on having a biodiversity
bank is related to its implementation before the damage
is done, avoiding habitat and species lost. Compensation
activities within legislation EIA/RIMA covers damages
that are about to occur, while the bank is established
long before development projects being planned. It is
part of a conservation and preservation effort covering
species that are not formally covered by management
plans at conservation units, a complementary activity.
Apart from the regulatory or voluntary framework for
biodiversity banks establishment there are ecological
criteria: species adequacy, relation Rehabilitation
X Maintenance, Area adequacy, Service Area,
Conservation Factors and Credits, property, credit sales
schedule, monitoring, permanence, species management,
habitat, guidelines for habitat management for target
species, neighboor areas interaction and others. Global
climate change poses new challenges (CARROL, FOX
e BAYON, 2008).
Green Farm Royal Eagle’s Biodiversity Bank
developed, tested and validated the ”Royal Eagle
Baseline and Monitoring Methodology for Wild
Animals Conservation Nursery – Genetic Variability –
GFMRVSEBVGHarpia 001/2012 (from portuguese:
Green Farm Mensuração Relatório e Verificação
de Serviço Ecossistêmico de Biodiversidade de
Variabilidade Genética de Harpia harpya, versão 001
de 2012).
Mensurable, Reportable and Verifiable Methodology
(MRV)
Credit Ammount
To be considered valid a Biodiversity Bank must comply
with regulation. The Bank is an enterpreneurship based
From an embrionary form of multiples, biodiversity
banking evolve to incorporate Discounted Free Cash
146
Flow (DFCF) as price parameter for credits release
(CARROLL, FOX e BAYON, 2008). For species
its genetic variability, population and community are
the main indicators used for crediting, used related
to a new individual, or the increase on individuals of
a local popualation. Area can be applied together with
habitat rehabilitation. Same parameters should be used
by companies under environmental licesing to measure,
report and verify their own impacts.
Credits Emission Schedule and Pricing
Biodiversity banks are implement on phases. Each phase
can generate a determined number of credits, which
can be emitted after auditing bankholder performance
compliance levels. Time for implementation will
depend on size, number os species, habita and other
local parameters. Credit emission schedule follows
this implementation and auditing process, with a cost
attached to each of them. Each bank has its own price,
as well as its on demand, which are the basis for pricing
credits. Green Farm Royal Eagle Biodiversity bank has
2 credits already performed and licensed worthing US$
300,000, for being used at the Interior Atlantic Forest
Ecoregion (AS001/12 Harpiaharpya).
Conclusion
Royal Eagle Biodiversity credit represents an effort
to build a network of investments driven towards
preservation and conservation of threten species of
Brazilian Fauna and Flora. The bank is implemented
before the damage is done at the most suitable site and
the investments are adequate to provide for the species
perenity.
were planed, implemented and are currently monitored
to generate benefits for companies under environmental
licensing requiring environmental compensation, as
state by the legislation. The bank is itself licensed.
References:
BRASIL. Lei 12651/2012. Lei da Vegetação
Nativa. Acesso no site: http://www.planalto.
gov.br/ccivil_03/_Ato2011-2014/2012/Lei/
L12651compilado.htm em 29/12/2012. 2012.
INSTITUTO
CHICO
MENDES
DE
BIODIVERSIDADE – ICMBIO. Plano de
Ação Nacional para a Conservação de Aves de
Rapina. Acesso no site: https://gestao.icmbio.gov.
br/menu/manejo-para-conservacao/planos-deacao-para-conservacao/aves_de_rapina_cs3.pdf em
22/09/2012. 2008.
ICMBIO. Instrução Normativa no. 20, de 22 de
novembro de 2011. Acesso no site: http://www.
icmbio.gov.br/portal/images/stories/in202011.pdf
em 29/12/2012. 2011.
INSTITUTO DE PESQUISA ECONÔMICA
APLICADA IPEA. Sustentabilidade Ambiental
no Brasil: Biodiversidade, Economia e Bem-Estar
Humano. Brasília, DF. Disponível no site: http://
www.ipea.gov.br/portal/images/stories/PDFs/
comunicado/110217_comunicadoipea78.pdf .58
pgs. 2010.
This conservation modality has grown from scratch
to a US$ 5 billion / year market over a few years, and
methodologies for determining credit value evolved
following new demand regulation, including DFCF
parameter for pricing.
Green Farm’s Royal Eagle Biodiversity Bank and credits
147
Enlargement Protected Areas System by Increasing Connectivity
Taiichi Ito1, Akihiro Nakamura2 , Atsushi Kawabata3
1
University of Tsukuba, Japan
1
[email protected]
Keywords: Aichi biodiversity targets, connectivity, corridor, protected area management categories, zoning
One of the Aichi biodiversity targets of COP10 expects
at least 17 per cent of terrestrial areas consists of
connected systems of protected areas by 2020. To realize
such a goal, enlargement of existing protected areas as
well as establishment of new ones are required. In case of
PAs in Japan, three approaches are practical.
First, expanding existing protected areas is more realistic
in buffers than in cores according to MAB biosphere
reserve zoning model (UNESCO, 1974). In case of
Japan’s natural park system, the ordinary zones with
agricultural and residential areas can be recognized as
the buffers of MAB. Increace of such buffers makes the
park boundary invisible, but boosts connectivity with
surrounding areas.
Second, designating new protected areas is more realistic
in protected landscape (V) or managed resource protected
areas (VI) of IUCN protected area management
categories (Dudley, 2008). Especically category VI
was added in 1994 with recognition of sustainably
managed forests including urban ones. Urban-fringe
forests or Satoyama in Japan is occasionally designated
as prefectural natural parks as sub-category of national
parks based on Natural Park Law of 1957. Such parks
can be interpreted as VI or V of the IUCN categories as
well as the buffers of the MAB zoning model.
Third, corridors (Shafer, 1990) or greenways (President’s
Commission on American Outdoors, 1986) should be
recognized as protected areas as well as part of them. In
the United States, Applachian trail with wide corridors
proposed in 1921 (MacKaye, 1921) became a category of
national park sytem in 1968. Influenced by this, Japan
also started long-distance trail sytem in 1970. However,
such trails do not have legal support out of natural parks.
On the ohter hand, some prefectural natural parks have
148
corridor-like forms. This suggests that long-distance
trails with corridors can be designated as prefectural
nature parks. The IUCN categories do not mention
about the size or shape of protected areas, but corridors
can be classified as category VI or other protected areas.
In Japan, nesting and overlapping of protected areas,
zones and corridors bring confusions. The result is
omitting of some protected areas from the United
Nations list (Chapes et al. 2003). The understanding that
these three are interchangiable seems important.
References
Chape, S. et al. (compilers) 2003 2003 United Nationas list
of protected areas. IUCN and UNEP-WCMC, 44pp.
Dudley, N.(editor) 2008 Guidelines for applying protected
area managemntr categories, IUCN 86 pp.
MacKaye, B. 1921 An Appalachian trail: aproject in
regional planning, Journal of American Institute of
Architects, 325-330.
President’s Commission on American Outdoors (1986)
Report and recommendations to the president of the
United States, US Government Printing Office, 209
pp.
Shafer, G.L. 1990 Nature reserves: island theory and
conservatin practice, Smithonian Institution Press, 189
pp.
UNESCO 1974 Programme on MAB task force on: criteria
and guidelines for the choice oand establishement of
biosphere reserves.
Concurrent Session G
Human – Wildlife Conflict Management
Session organizer:
Rogério Cunha de Paula,
ICMBio, Brazil
149
Adult environmental education for top predator
conservation in protected areas
Mayla Willik Valenti1, Haydée Torres de Oliveira2
1,2
São Carlos Federal University, Brazil
1
[email protected]
2
[email protected]
Keywords: biodiversity, community participation, critical dialogic environmental education
Introduction
The practice of conservation is showing that management
based only in technical interventions is not enough and
that communicative interventions are fundamental to
maintain biodiversity (Castillo, 2003). Accordingly,
species conservation projects need community
involvement for the environmental education (EE)
process to be successful in the long term (Curti; Valdez,
2009). Indeed, many papers report the perception
of biological researchers regarding the necessity of
including educational actions in conservation projects
(Alegre, 2007; Curti; Valdez, 2009; Barreda-Leyva, 2010;
Espinosa; Jacobson, 2012).
Although adults are the main decision makers in
biodiversity conservation, frequently this audience is not
considered in EE programs. This choice can be explained
by the misconception of adult incapacity to learn and
by leaving all responsibility of changing the world to
children (Guimarães, 2004). On the contrary, Freire
(2005) argues that all people know something and ignore
other things. Thus, all people can learn by intersubjective
dialogue. According to this author, the dialogic learning
and the critical approaches of environmental education
are valid for a great diversity of audiences (Flecha, 1997;
Guimarães, 2004). The concept of lifelong learning,
adopted by UNESCO in the 1970s, can help us to argue
about the importance of adult education (Flecha; Mello,
2012). Among other aspects, it recognizes that permanent
learning is essential for survival and improvement of
life quality; there are many systems, places, means and
modes of learning and it is necessary to ensure learning
150
opportunities for all people, throughout their entire lives
(Torres, 2006).
Nevertheless, the adult EE practice has not been reflected
well in literature and research (Lunge; Chubb, 2009) and
has potential to move forward through the expansion of
the dialogue with educational theories (Fisher, 2009).
Lunge and Chubb (2009) indicate that in North America,
the theory and practice of adult EE are underdeveloped.
In Brazil, studies that associate non-scholar adult
education and EE did not relate characteristics of adult
life with pedagogy strategies for EE (Fisher, 2009).
Many studies have discussed initiatives for engaging
community in participatory management in protected
areas, but they have focused more on social issues than
on adult education theories. While many papers in
conservation show some attitude changes in populations
after educational actions (Alegre, 2007; Curti; Valdez,
2009; Barreda-Leyva, 2010; Espinosa; Jacobson, 2012),
they also report resistance of people in making changes
when they cause economic and cultural impacts on their
lives (Curti; Valdez, 2009; Espinosa; Jacobson, 2012).
Thus, the aim of this study was to search for EE actions
that could enhance the relations of the surrounding
community of a protected area (PA) in the central area of
São Paulo State (Brazil) with top predator populations,
like puma (Puma concolor). The growth of cities and
roads in this region are pressuring a puma population,
particularly by habitat losses, road kills and conflicts
with humans and their livestock (Miotto et al., 2011).
Moreover, educators working in protected areas of the
region have difficulties in mobilizing the surrounding
community (Oliveira et al., 2011). In this context, we
investigated limiting and transformative factors for
developing an EE program with adults.
study. The product of this interpretation was discussed in
each group of interviewees to re-interpret the data with
the participants. The results presented and discussed here
were produced in this dialogical process.
Methodological procedures
Results
We carried out communicative discussion groups with
seven people working with EE in two protected areas in
Itirapina, central São Paulo State (Brazil). The ecological
station and experimental station of Itirapina are adjacent
to each other and share an integrated management plan,
staff and administration. Thus, in this paper we refer to
both of them as protected areas and, when necessary, we
distinguish their categories. The city has approximately
15,000 inhabitants and is contiguous with the areas. We
take the problem of puma conservation as a background
of the dialogue. Recently, a puma was found in the urban
area. In the surroundings there are also many small farms
in which puma can prey on livestock. On the other hand,
there is difficulty in dialoguing with the surrounding
community. These elements have informed our choice
about the study area.
In the three dialogical discussion groups we found 20
limiting dimensions and 21 transformative dimensions
for developing an EE process with adults in PAs
considering puma conservation as a background. First,
we present them separately. Subsequently, we discuss
them as associated to each other.
We promoted three communicative discussion groups
according to the critical communicative methodology
(Gómez et al., 2006). Individuals were grouped by their
history of working together to enable real equalitarian
dialogue between participants. In this process, the
understanding was based on the arguments and not on
participants’ positions of power. Furthermore, all the
arguments could be criticized in order to make it possible
for them to be validated (Gómez et al., 2006). The role of
the researcher was to include in the dialogue theoretical
elements about EE and dialogical learning, as well as her
experience as a researcher and environmental educator.
In the first meeting with each group, we asked questions
about the experience of participants in adult EE and
limiting and transformative dimensions for developing
an educational program with adults in the PA. The
dialogue was recorded and transcribed, and then the units
of analysis were organized into categories. After that, we
described and interpreted the information, linking it to
theories of environmental education and the aims of the
Limiting dimensions
Local residents and tourists are responsible for negative
impacts in the studied PAs and in the surroundings. It is
possible that they do not know they are impacting the
environment or why their practices are illegal. The PAs
were created without community participation, which
could be the origin of the lack of dialogue with the
community. Initially, the focus was forestry production
and research for conservation of native tree species.
Besides, before being a protected area, the region was a
farm - indeed, most people call the experimental station
area “little farm”. In addition, the population of the city,
the tourists and even the employees of the areas know
little about the conservation goals of the PAs.
The absence of infrastructure and staff is the greatest
obstacle for developing EE actions with adults.
Therefore, the educators prefer to work with children,
using the infrastructure of schools and teacher support.
This situation is common in other PAs of the region.
We observed that people are unaware of either these
difficulties or the need of community participation for
the maintenance of the areas.
Another obstacle for dialoguing with the surrounding
community is related to the characteristics of adulthood.
Many people are not organized in formal groups and the
spaces where they are grouped and organized are usually
not focused on educational actions, as children in school
151
are. Moreover, adults frequently have a full schedule,
other priorities and less willingness to participate in
extra activities. Another worry concerns non-dialogical,
imposing activities that do not favor adult education.
There is a deficit in communication actions like putting
up educational signs and distributing flyers on the roads
and using local radio and websites. On the other hand,
there is difficulty in keeping in contact with the audience
and access the results of this kind of action. We also
discussed activities performed with adults that usually
prioritize working for a problem solution over enjoying
leisure time or an aesthetic experience.
or positively. The contact with these audiences can be
performed by visiting small landowners, approaching
tourist at toll stations and calling the residents for
a workshop. Moreover, children can participate in
educational activities and be encouraged to dialogue with
their family and employees of the PAs, who are able to act
as disseminators of knowledge in the community. Some
activities with adults will be put into practice in the area
soon, such as the distribution of flyers with information
about road kills at the toll stations, workshops with the
community and college education for the employees of
the PAs.
Transformative dimensions
Discussion
Many people have positive interactions with the studied
PAs, like good memories and aesthetic experiences. We
observed that people who fish or hunt also like to be in
touch with nature. Besides, the proximity with urban
areas facilitates the access of people to the experimental
station, where public use is permitted.
The studied context has shown the importance of
implementing adult EE programs in central São
Paulo State PAs. According to Blair (2008), adult EE
is one of the key principles for the effectiveness of a
community program. In Itirapina, negative interactions
with the PAs and with predators have been registered.
In addition, most people know little about conservation
goals and actions of the studied PAs. These aspects
show a limited dialogue with the community. Based on
an initial diagnosis (Oliveira et. al., 2011), we presume
that this reality also occurs in other protected areas. The
UNESCO defines adult EE as a permanent process in
which individuals gain awareness of their environment
and acquire the knowledge, values, skills, experiences and
also the determination which will enable them to act
individually and collectively to solve present and future
environmental problems (…) as well as to meet their
needs without compromising those of future generations
(UNESCO, 1999, p. 4)
In the PAs, we identified possibilities of partnerships
with universities, NGOs, an existing project developed
with young people in at-risk situations, schools, city
hall, local radio and road toll concessionaires. Many of
these institutions have already been partners of the PA
on education actions and the results, in general, were
significant.
Some principles and criteria were pointed as important.
Enhancing participant knowledge and thinking is
required when planning activities with adults. Working
from a concrete problem, for example, the predation
of puma on livestock can help to mobilize landowners.
Besides, reestablishing contact with nature and using
species that people imagine as flagship species can attract
attention to biodiversity conservation.
We identified different adult audiences in Itirapina: small
landowners, floating population, permanent residents,
tourists, participants of a social project and the employees
of the protected areas. Each of them interacts with fauna,
including predators, directly or indirectly and negatively
152
The studied context and the UNESCO definition indicate
that adult EE may be transformative for biodiversity
conservation, as well as for human life quality.
The main obstacle for an adult EE program is the lack
of infrastructure and staff of the PAs, but partnerships
can be a way to overcome this limitation. In Itirapina
this difficulty was cited in different moments in the
dialogues. Indeed, there is a gap between the needed and
implemented investments in Brazilian protected areas.
On the other hand, collaboration from other institutions
and researchers was pointed out as a way to put some
ideas into practice. Similarly, Curti and Valdez (2009)
highlighted the importance of partnerships to overcome
the challenge of working with a small staff. Although
collaboration is welcome, it is important to emphasize
that it is the government’s responsibility to support EE
programs in the PAs, since this is guaranteed by law
An adult EE program for biodiversity conservation in
PAs needs to consider the characteristics of adulthood and
must be based on some principles. As our data show, adult
life has some peculiarities that can hinder the approach
to this audience. One of the main problems in adult
education is not considering these characteristics and
carrying out an educational process similar to childhood
education (Flecha; Mello, 2012). Therefore, this has to
be taken into account when planning adult EE even in
a non-scholarly context. Dialogue, appreciation of local
knowledge, obtaining instrumental knowledge and sense
of belonging were indicated as important principles on
this process. All of them were also cited in papers about
educational actions for biodiversity conservation with
communities (Alegre, 2007; Blair, 2008; Curti; Valdez,
2009; Barreda-Leyva, 2010; Espinosa; Jacobson, 2012).
The combination of many kinds of approaches and
educational actions can make an adult EE program for
predator conservation more efficient. We identified a
great diversity of adult audiences in the studied context.
Each of them interacts with fauna, including predators,
directly or indirectly and negatively or positively. This
information shows that biodiversity conservation is a
complex issue and it is necessary to use different strategies
considering the particularities of each group. A dialogical
diagnosis is fundamental for this process (Cerati; Souza,
2009; Torres; Oliveira, 2008). Additionally, we listed a
number of actions that could be put into practice in the
studied area. This list includes sporadic and continuous
activities and both direct and indirect ways for
approaching adults. In the literature, many descriptions
of experiences cite a great variety of activities carried out
(Quevedo et al., 2006; Curti; Valdez, 2009; Pádua, 2010).
Based on this information and considering the diversity
of audiences and interactions involved in this educative
and transformative process, we understand that the
association of different actions can promote a successful
adult EE program.
The theoretical foundations and principles for adult
environmental education are still in development
(Lange, 2010). In this study, we seek to contribute
to the advance of this field associated to biodiversity
conservation. In subsequent studies, our results will be
related to a dialogue with the surrounding community of
Itirapina’s PAs. Thus, we expect to enlarge the knowledge
of this reality and the possibilities of transformation. We
trust that dialogical learning (Flecha, 1997) and critical
communicative methodology (Gómez et al., 2006) can
greatly contribute to develop practice and research in
adult EE field.
Acknowledgements – We are thankful to Carolina,
Helena, Diógenes, Fernando, Mariano, Matheus and
Paulo for their participation on this research; to CNPq
and FAPESP for financial support of Top Predators
Network – SISBIOTA; to CAPES for the scholarship to
the first author; and to André Valenti for English review.
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ambiental para la introducción del pensamiento
ambiental a nivel local. DELOS: Desarrollo Local
Sostenible, Málaga, v. 1, n.0. Disponível em <http://
www.eumed.net/rev/delos/00/sia.pdf>. Acesso em:
04 nov. 2011.
Barreda-Leyva, N. 2010. Vinculando a la comunidad
en los conteos de aves rapaces migratorias (Aves:
Falconiformes) en el este de Cuba. Ra Ximhai,
6(3):478-486. Disponível em: <http://www.uaim.
edu.mx/webraximhai/Ej-18articulosPDF/15Comunidad%20Rapaces%20Migratorias.pdf>
Acesso em: 15 mar 2012
Blair, M. 2008. Community environmental education as
a model for effective environmental programmes.
Australian Journal of Environmental Education, v.
24, p. 45-53.
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Castillo, A. 2003. Comunicación para el manejo de
ecosistemas. Tópicos em Educación Ambiental, v. 3,
n. 9, p. 58-71.
Guimarães, M. 2004. Educação ambiental crítica. In:
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ambiental brasileira. Brasília: MMA. p. 25 – 34.
Cerati, T. M.; Souza, A. Q. 2009. Educação Ambiental
de Percepção: o caso do Parque Estadual das Fontes
do Ipiranga, São Paulo - Brasil. Rev. eletrônica
Mestr. Educ. Ambient, v.23, p. 232-250. Disponível
em:
<http://www.remea.furg.br/edicoes/vol23/
art16v23.pdf>. Acesso em: 14 jan. 2012.
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A.; Ross-Gordon, J. (Eds.) Handbook of Adult and
Continuing Education. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
Publications. pp.305-315.
Curti, M.; Valdez, U. 2009. Incorporating Community
Education in the Strategy for Harpy Eagle
Conservation in Panama. The Journal of
Environmental Education, v. 40, n. 4, p. 3-15.
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docs/pdf/research-library/2009/2009-Curtiharpy-eagle.pdf> Acesso em: 15 mar. 2012.
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Conflict and Environmental Education: Evaluating
a Community Program to Protect the Andean
Bear in Ecuador. The Journal of Environmental
Education, v. 43, n. 1, p. 55-65.
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conhecimentos. Revista Brasileira de Educação. v.
14, n. 41, p. 371-398.
Flecha, R. 1997. Compartiendo palabras: el aprendizaje
de las personas adultas a través del diálogo.
Barcelona: Paidós. 157p.
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e educadores para um modelo social de educação
de pessoas jovens e adultas: perspectivas dialógicas.
Revista FAEEBA. v. 21, n. 37, p. 39-52.
Lange, E.; Chubb, A. 2009. Critical environmental
adult education in Canada: Student environmental
activism. New directions for adult and continuing
education. n. 124, p. 61-72.
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concolor) population in a fragmented landscape in
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154
Beyond the Protected Area: the case studies of two twin
jaguars around the Iguaçu National Park – Brazil
Marina Xavier da Silva1, Carlos R. Brocardo2,
Apolonio Rodrigues3, Alexandre Vogliotti4
1,2,3,4
Projeto Carnívoros do Iguaçu - Parque Nacional do Iguaçu/ICMBio
1,2,3,4
4
[email protected]
Instituto Latino-Americano de Ciências da Vida e da Natureza
Universidade Federal da Integração Latino-Americana.
Keywords: local community, carnivores, wildlife depredation
Introduction
Human Wildlife Conflict (HWC) is fast becoming
one of the most urgent threats for predators` survival
(Treves & Karanth, 2003). Most researchers fail trying
to put the literature knowledge into practice, because at
some point, the conflict doesn’t work as rules to follow.
In fact, most part of the time, the conflict per se could be
a particular science with lots of doubts and labor work.
For these reasons, it seems that sharing experience
between professionals worldwide has resulted in one of
the most effectiveness strategy to solve some particular
HWC.
The wild carnivores’ population that lives in the area
enclosed by Iguaçu National Park (INP) in Brazil and
other important protected areas in Argentina were first
studied by the biologist Peter Crawshaw in the 90s.
Crawshaw (1995) provided relevant contributions for
the local biodiversity and, in the end of his studies, he
was concerned with the treats for jaguar population,
alerting mainly for human-carnivore conflict. Later,
other researchers continued Peter´s job and described
that, at least, 30 jaguars were killed in three years, which
represents significant loss caused by human-carnivore
conflict in this area (Azevedo & Conforti, 1999).
After a period of few information, a second and recent
edition of the “Projeto Carnívoros do Iguaçu” (PCI)
started in 2009 to study and protect the jaguar (Panthera
onca). One of its main aims was to comprehend the
causes of conflicts and mitigate threats over the
endangered symbol of the Iguaçu National Park.
Methods
Study area
Iguaçu National Park (INP) lies on the western
border of Paraná state, southwest of Brazil (25°05S 25°41´S, 53°40´W-54°38´W) close to the international
boundary between Argentina and Paraguay. The INP
covers 185.262 ha and shares adjacent 67.620 ha with
Iguazú National Park in Argentina (Fig.01). The area
belongs to the innermost ecoregion of the Atlantic
Forest complex, the Upper Paraná Atlantic Forest
ecoregion (Di Bitetti, Placci & Diez, 2003) and protects
important assemblage of the Atlantic biodiversity. The
landscape surrounding the Park is predominantly
formed by grain tillage and cattle breeding farms.
Capture
Two twin jaguars were captured in different times
and methods, which occurred after the jaguars killed
calves in farms surrounding the Park. Jaguar 1 ( J1) was
captured on May 2010 in a box-trap baited with the
carcass of his prey. The second one ( J2) was captured by
a foot-snare settled in the immediacies of his predation
site on January 2012. Both were fitted with GPS collars.
155
Results
domestic dogs (Fig.01).
Gps data
J1 occupied the touristic area of the INP (encompassing
the famous waterfalls and the rest of the touristic
attractions) and a similar area of riparian vegetation
outside the protected area belonging to several farms
along the Iguaçu River margins. During this period,
the animal was responsible for many attacks to calves,
chickens and dogs. The two monitored months provided
an estimated home range of 50 km2 and a 2 km2 core
area outside the Park. At this time, the brothers were
still living together (confirmed by more than 1 hour of
in loco observation inside the Park) but, it is not clear if
they left the Park and were responsible for the damages
caused.
Because of his tender age, J1 was monitored just two
months before activate the drop-off device of his collar.
J2 was monitored for 6 months until the end of their
collar’s battery. Their presence around its ranges was
even recorded for almost two months after ending
the remote monitoring. Nevertheless, there are no
information about J1 and J2 since June 2010 and
November 2012, respectively.
Two years later, J2 was captured more than 100 km
far from his last recorded place and, as an adult was
monitored as long as possible. He explored the North
and East portions of INP occupying around 958 km2
of the most primitive area of the Park. His 10 km2
core area was established near the city where he was
captured after several attacks on calves, chickens and
156
Figure 01: Location points of J1 and J2 across the Iguaçu
National Park and the neighbor farms closest to jaguar’s core
areas (details).
Community work
The strategies to deal with Human Wildlife Conflict
(HWC) were little different between the two cases.
However, the first short-term attitude adopted in both
cases was to keep one technician frequently visiting all
farms with or without depredation history. This action
basically allows the perception that the community is
not alone with the problem, and also keeps the link
between new attacks and immediate actions for conflict
mitigation.
The second strategy used at J1 case was to mobilize
the injured community for an educational lecture
about jaguar’s biology, ecology, conservation, and also
management actions to avoid conflicts. The success of
this activity was evaluated by questionnaires applied to
those attending the lecture or not. The basic aim of the
questionnaires was to assess the local perception towards
the conflict and the predators. Besides its sampling and
analytical weakness, results suggested positive attitudes
towards predators. The same perception was found in
a previous and similar work at INP region (Conforti
&Azevedo, 2003).
The actions related to J2 case were deeper and brought
more experiences to the PCI team. The fear of locals
due to jaguar proximity was highlighted in the region
and increased the pressure for its removal. A public
meeting with the presence of the local environmental
prosecutor was organized in order to orientate the
community and to elucidate their doubts. As a result
of this meeting, we passed to long-term strategies,
as the creation of a working-group (WG) joining
landowners, local authorities and technicians to find
solutions to recurrent jaguar attacks. Another strategy
was to adjust the animal facilities (stables and pigpens)
of one small farm where the losses were more frequent,
as an example for the entire community. Due to the
permanence of J2 in the region, and encouraged by
some local TV reports, the city stayed around, releasing
negative jaguar’s news, nearly always. An educational
program was created with the teenager students of one
public local school and some lectures were made to
children from other elementary schools.
The PCI efforts kept in the city during this period
allowed the extended survivorship of J2 in the region
as well as some damages to domestic dogs. The
WG worked well in the beginning, discussing not
only jaguar depredation, but also, things that could
improve the community’s livelihood, as the creation
of a financial fund to support the improvements on
farm management and production. All activities had
been shared with the town hall and mediated by the
environmental prosecutor. Later, the jaguars’ damages
decreased as well the population´s endeavor. Their
routine activities were recovered, the WG and their
meetings were exhausted and the problem remains
unsolved besides the Park and IC team´s commitment.
Discussion
Local people, particularly cattle owners, are generally
hostile towards big cats and see few benefits from
living close to the Park. Because of that the jaguar´s
damages are perceived to be held by the government.
Additionally, the frequent institutional presence in the
region made difficult the poaching activities (forbidden
by Brazilian law n° 5.197/1967) creating negative
feelings about the PCI efforts in the area. Besides, longterm solutions such as improving husbandry practices
and protective enclosures, keeping pastures cleaned
and discarding carcass appropriatedly were viewed as
very labor work for the community. All those things
together make difficult the relationships with the
community surround Park. In spite of that, the HWC
actions adopted by the PCI were positive in keeping
the jaguars alive, at least during their monitoring
period, although some continued losses.
In conclusion, we consider that collaboration is
one of the most important things in dealing with
HWC, putting together the scientific and population
knowledge, environmental and agricultural public
policies, and ranger patrolling increase. However,
the lack of responsibility sense by the inhabitants
surrounding INP was the most important reason for
the failure of actions. The great challenge still remains
on integrate civil and governmental commitments for
social-economic development of the communities and
wildlife conservation (Conover, 2000; Messmer, 2009).
157
References
Azevedo, F.C.C. de, Conforti, V.A. Predation dynamics
of wild carnivores on livestock ranches surrounding
Iguaçu National Park: evaluation, impact and
implementation of preventive methods. Final
report submitted to Fundação O Boticário de
Proteção à Natureza. Foz do Iguaçu, Paraná. 1999.
Conforti, V. A and Azevedo, F.C.C. de. Local
perceptions of jaguars (Panthera onca) and pumas
(Puma concolor) in the Iguaçu National Park
area, South Brazil. Biological conservation, v.111,
p.215-221. 2003.
Crawshaw, J. P. G. Comparative ecology of ocelot (Felis
pardalis) and jaguar (Panthera onca) in a protected
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Dissertação de doutorado (ph.d.). Universityof
Florida, Gainesville, 1995.
Conover, M. R. Resolving human–wildlife conflicts:
the science of wildlife damage management. Lewis
Publishers, Boca Raton, Florida, USA, p.440. 2002.
Di Bitetti, M.S., Placci, G. & Dietz, L.A. A biodiversity
vision for the Upper Paraná Atlantic Forest
ecoregion: designing a biodiversity conservation
landscape and setting priorities for conservation
action. Washington, DC: World Wildlife Fund.
2003.
Messmer, T. A. “Human–wildlife conflicts: emerging
challenges and opportunities”. Human–Wildlife
Conflicts, Vol (3), No 1, p. 10–17. 2009.
Treves, A and Karanth, U. Human-Carnivore Conflict
and Perspectives on Carnivore Management
Worldwide. Conservation Biology, v. 17, No.6,
p.1291-1499. 2003.
158
A system for the management os species,
individuals and predation
Thiago Duarte Mota1, Rogerio de Paula2 , Beatriz Beisiegel3,
Carlos Roberto Bastos Araujo Filho4, Ronaldo Morato5, Rose Morato6
1, 4
UFRJ/COPPE/IVIG, Cidade Universitária, Centro de Tecnologia, Ilha do Fundão, Rio de Janeiro RJ
2
1
[email protected]
4
[email protected]
CENAP, Estrada Municipal Hisaichi Takebayashi, 8600, Baierro da Usina, Atibaia SP
2
3, 5, 6
[email protected]
ICMBIO, Estrada Municipal Hisaichi Takebayashi, 8600, Baierro da Usina, Atibaia SP
3
[email protected]
5
[email protected]
6
[email protected]
Keywords: jaguar, puma, farm susceptibility to predators, human-wildlife conflict
Abstract
In the last years, there have been tested and studied
different forms for generation, storage and availability
of samples and data on predation, for the study
of predation, proposals of control, and sharing of
information among research institutions. As examples
of items disposed we can mention the documents and
databanks generated by ICMBIO – CENAP from
data sent by different information units.
Our work consists in the presentation of a tool for
the electronic registry of this data that was developed
to attend the projects of the ICMBIO – CENAP of
the Environmental Ministry. This tool was generated
particularly as a source of regulation and control
of samples collected in diverse places, projects and
categories. The samples require today a great deal of
control of the processes of documentation and storage,
and significant investments in human, financial and
logistic resources. Combining computer technology
with the internet and the registry system allows for a
better integration and distribution of incident cases,
turning the digital media into an efficient tool for the
control of collected samples.
The process of documentation of blood samples, serum
samples, photographs, are examples of the variety of
samples that we can work on and format to provide
standardized documentation of events in research
institutions and include in the tool.
The purpose of this work is to present the model of a
system created for the documentation, registration and
availability of the processes of samples collection, and
of predation of wild animals received by ICMBIOCENPA from researchers or research institutions,
documenting in a definite and single standard all
entries received by the institution.
The protocols were developed by veterinarians and
biologists participants of the project, and all information
159
was registered in the documentation. Some of the
digitalized protocols were submitted to editing through
an appropriate text edition program to obtain better text
quality and allowing for the deletion of inconsistencies
and repetitions. After this, we established the protocols
that gave origin to the tables and relations of the system
to be applied in the collection of data. This material was
generated through PHP program language, with Ajax
and made available in Hyper Text Markup Language
(HTML) format.
Protocols were structured and defined by ample
areas, being the first and most important”Samples/
Entry of Material” and the second “Predation/Entry
of Information”, and were made accessible through
the system in the web environment for access and
registration of all the information so that, today, from
any place in the country, a researcher may communicate
and describe an event on the databank if he has access
to the internet as a tool.
Introduction
In the last years, different forms of generating, filing,
and making available samples and data on predation
have been studied and tested for research, control and
exchange of information among research institutions.
The documents and databases generated by ICMBIO
– CENAP from the basic data received from various
units are an example of this effort.
Blood samples, sera, photos, are some of the samples
that can be subject to a process of registration that we
can work on to define and standardize the generation
of information in research institutions.
The objective of this work is to present the model of
a system created to document, register, and make
available, the processes and collection of samples of
wild animals and predation, received by ICMBIOCENPA from individual researchers or institutions,
documenting in a single pattern all entrances received
at this institution.
160
Materials and Methods
1 - Equipments used for tool development
The development team, up to now, comprises
eight persons, using 8 PC Microcomputers, 7 with
Windows operational system and one with Ubuntu
(Linux version) operational system; WAMP for
system management; databank management program
PostgreSQL version 8.3; “internet pages” and clip
development program in Java generating pages for the
system in PHP.
Of the eight persons, one is a biologist from ICMBIOCENAP (Brazilian Ministry for the Environment),
three are veterinarians from ICMBIO-CENAP
(Brazilian Ministry for the Environment), one is a
Computer Engineer and Consultant for ICMBIOCENAP (Brazilian Ministry for the Environment),
two are Systems Programmers and one is a Database
Manager.
2 - Equipments used for availability and access to the
system
A WEB server, DELL Server microcomputer, with
Windows 2003 Server operational system, data bank
PostgreSQL, WAMP, internet plate 10/100 Ethernet
3COM, connected through an outsourcer (TEES)
providing 24 hours a day/seven days a week support,
was used to make the system available.
The system can be accessed from any personal
computer, with any operational system (Windows,
Linux, etc), a web navigator (Mozilla, Internet Explorer
or other) and access to the internet (network, ADSL
[Asymmetrical Digital Subscriber Line] connection,
3G or by telephone), allowing access by workers from
other institutions through pre-registration of users and
passwords.
3 – Generation of registers and documentation of
samples and predation
Protocols were gathered by one of the veterinarians of
the project, using a laptop. The generated archives were
initially described in minute registries, in Word 2000
(Microsoft) used in the laptop, and all registries were
based on the material existent at ICMBIO-CENAP.
Some digitalized protocols went through an edition
process, in an appropriate text edition program, to obtain
better quality, with the withdrawal of inconsistencies
and repetitions. After the final organization of this
material, we elaborated protocols that gave origin to
the tables and relationships of the system to be applied
in the data collection. This material was generated in
PHP program language, with Ajax, and made available
in Hyper Text Markup Language (HTML) format.
of precedence, traps, trap registry, habitat, projects,
programs, and others.
,).))&-5 1,5 /#&.5 (5 -*,.5 #(5 \&,!5 ,-]65
being the first and most important “Samples/ Material
Entries” and the second, “Predation/Information
Entry”, and were made available for access and
registration on the internet.
To make available these materials in HTML/PHP/
Ajax format, there was the need to create a security
mechanism to avoid other users to access the system.
The security device was developed in PHP with
JavaScript/Ajax, were the users must register before
entering the sample collection.
After entering with the identification and password,
the user will see a list of systems at his disposal. At this
point he should enter the system clicking the Access
button (figure 2). When he enters the system, a new
screen will open with the available items (figure 3). In
figure 4, through the options on the menu, we can see
the possibility of listing all samples from the Databank.
Figures 5 and 6 shows details of the samples, such as
date of collection, place, etc, and that it is possible to
associate images to the sample, since it is possible to
register a photo sample (it could also be blood, urine,
hide, etc).
Results
1 – Structure and presentation of the tool
Not finding in the market an adequate tool to fully
answer the needs of ICMBIO – CENPA and other
institutions that do joint research on wild animals, we
developed a system to attend the demands of biologists,
veterinarians, and other professionals linked to the
Brazilian fauna, to attend the items of the project.
2 - The tool for institutional users
For institutional users the tool offers the possibility of
tracing samples, identify them (figure 7 – example with
fictitious information) etc. and generate documents on
predation, when it occurs. Clicking on the Barr Code
item allows printing of this sample identification,
documenting the received material. Other buttons
work with the same concepts throughout the system
(as shown in figure 8).
Using the PHP, Ajax, HTML, JavaScript (scripts
languages frequently used to build pages in the Internet)
program languages and the Database Postgre SQL,
a tool was built for the management, construction,
recording and registration of samples and predation,
separated into different indicators, such as institutions,
place of sampling collection, kind of sample, etc. The
model used in this relational database disposes many
tables, such as traps, individuals, species, gender, family,
sample, kind of individual, kind of material, kind
To access the path http://200.201.188.211/icmbio/
manut/, shown in figure 1, the user must enter the
Intranet option on the right side menu. Entering the
username and password is the next step (figure 2). At
this point the user will have a registered identifier “login”
and a password that liberate the access. The identifier
should be previously registered and the password is
generated by the system and sent by e-mail to the user.
In the item described as INCLUDE NEW highlighted
as a green button, the user can inform a new sample
to be included (figure 8) and clicking on the item
EXCLUDE the screen shown in figure 9 will show
up. Clicking on EDIT the user can alter the included
information.
In figure 11 we can see the individuals that have been
already documented and in figure 12 the identification
of the individual. This identification can be generated
161
through the identification of the individual and
the filing of his documents as microchip, earring
or localizing necklace. The databank also stores
information on coordinates of the individual, once
he is already registered in the system. We can also
store information on material collection besides the
coordinates, such as the collecting team, traps used and
even the program, project and research line to which
it is associated, and classify the sample through these
variables, as shown in figure 13; or see the information
imported into the system (figure 14).
Figure 4 – Main item, sample registry.
Figure 1 – System entry with user control and password with
different profiles for individual or groups.
Figure 5 – General data on the sample.
Figure 2 – Just one system of access for the users of existing
modules.
Figure 6 – Associating images to a sample.
Figure 3 – Entry on the Integrated Information System for
Species and Individuals.
162
Figure 7 - Generation of the bar code and identification of
the sample in the system and physically
Figure 10 – The button Edit allows alteration on the register
that was imputed in the system – in this example altering
data of a sample.
Figure 8 – The system works with the same conception in all
screens, where can be seen the buttons of Include, Log, Edit,
Exclude and others.
Figure 13 – The information on the sample includes data on
sample collection, with a classification, besides quantity, place,
etc.
Figure 9 – Confirm exclusion. All items to be excluded – after
clicking on the exclusion bottom there is a confirmation, for
guarantee of the exclusion, and the safety.
Figure 14 – Still in the sample, we can see information
imported from other systems, allowing for a more detailed
analysis.
163
In the other options of the system we can see reports
that can be generated (figure 15) and their results
(figure 16), that can be exported (figure 17).
Figure15 – Example of reports that can be generated from the
information on the system, where for a period the samples on
the database can be selected.
The system further allows, through the group of
administrators, the listing of Samples associated
with Research Lines/Programs and Projects of the
Institution, the requiring of traps for capture and later
for the registration of what was captured and generated
as sample.
The control menu is used to generate the indicators of
the system (figure 19), where all the types of screens are
being registered (figure 20).
Another large area of the system is the predation part
(figure 21), where we can see the list of predations and
generate their registers (figure 22), with the nature and
type of the occurrence, characteristics of the property
and of the owner (figure 23), see data on natural
vegetation and cultivations on the property (respectively
figures 24 and 25), types of existing animals and animal
husbandry (figure 26), information as to the attack
(figure 27) and do a follow-up on the predation (figure
28). At this same point we also generate information
on the predator (figure 29), for this is the most relevant
information for the Institution, and it can become a
sample in the future, on the database; we can also audit
the information that is included in the system (figure
30).
Figure16 – Report with the list of samples informed in the
Different from the samples, all information registered
as predation does not enter automatically into the
database, being previously analyzed to avoid the
contamination with previous registration of the same
episode that can have been already registered and
confirmed. These data are often visited and documented
in studies of the habits that can result in a meaningful
return to society.
Figure 17 – Example of a report being exported to Excel
164
period, showing the possibilities of exportation, in PDF,
Excel, XML, or other formats if necessary (for example
SPSS).
or any other spreadsheet software to generate graphics and
research.
Figure 18 – Options of the system administrator, where can
Figure 21 – Example of information on Predation that are
and Projects of the Institution; solicitation of traps for capture
for verification and complementation.
be seen associated the Samples, Research Lines/Programs
and later for the registration of the capture and generation of
informed on the site and afterwards analyzed in the system
the sample.
Figure 22 – In Predation a contact is made between ICMBIO
Figure 19 – List of options on the control menu, where we
find the system indicators.
Figure 20 – Another example, where the type of material by
Individual or Species is shown.
and the person/institution that informed the predation. Later
on more information will be collected.
Figure 23 – We have the occurrence of predation and, in this
case, the data of the property where it occurred.
165
Figure 24 – Here we have the kind of native vegetation
remaining on the property to compose the information for
Figure 27 – Other information on the attack/predation.
further analysis.
Figure 28 – Registry of a Follow-up.
Figure 25 – Type of crop and pasture.
Figure 29 – Information on the predator, comprising a
Figure 26 – Type of animals in the area.
166
complete record of the occurrence.Figure 28 – Registry of
a Follow-up.
Figure 30 – LOG on the predation screen, showing who
informed and what was informed.
References:
Niederauer, J., Desenvolvendo Websites com PHP,
Editora Novatec, 2004, Edição 2, 272.
Ramakrishnan, R., Sistemas de Gerenciamento de
Banco de Dados, Edição 1, Editora McGraw Hill.
Marchini, S., Cavalcanti S.M.C., Paula, R. C. de,
Predadores Silvestres e Animais Domésticos Guia
Prático de Convivência Atibaia, São Paulo, Brasil,
2011.
167
Large predators and livestock activities in the region
of Iguaçu National Park, Brazil
Marina Xavier da Silva1, Carlos R. Brocardo2,
Apolonio Rodrigues3, Alexandre Vogliotti4
1,2,3,4
Projeto Carnívoros do Iguaçu - Parque Nacional do Iguaçu/ICMBio
1,2,3,4
4
[email protected]
Instituto Latino-Americano de Ciências da Vida e da Natureza
Universidade Federal da Integração Latino-Americana.
Keywords: jaguar, puma, farm susceptibility to predators, human-wildlife conflict
Introduction
Human populations and their activities as agriculture,
livestock, impounding water and urbanization have
occupied and modified several ecosystems around the
world, leaving few areas available for wildlife (Myers et
al. 2000). The insularization of natural remnant areas in
highly anthropogenic landscapes is generally associated
with conflicts between wildlife and human populations.
Large predators are example of these wildlife-human
negative interactions because the damages on livestock
which generally ends with predators´ persecution
(Woodroffe 2000, Conforti & Azevedo 2003, Tamang
& Baral 2008). Predators´ elimination and habitat loss
are the main threats to their conservation (Nowell &
Jackson 1996). Thus, the creation of protected areas
has been the most effective action to biodiversity
conservation and as way to barrier human expansion
(Bruner et al. 2001).
The landscape beyond Iguaçu National Park (INP), an
important protected area located in southern of Brazil,
is predominantly formed by grain tillage and cattle
breeding farms. Thereby jaguars and pumas (Puma
concolor), the two large cats inhabitant this Park, are
killed as retaliation for livestock predation (Conforti &
Azevedo 2003), turning both species locally threatened
(Margarido & Braga 2004). The jaguar populations are
declining in Upper Paraná Atlantic Forests, including
INP, due to lack of natural prey and ranchers’ persecution
(Azevedo & Conforti 2008, Paviolo et al. 2008). Thus,
preventing livestock predation from jaguar and puma
168
is essential to avoid retaliatory measures by farmers,
which is one of the aims of the project “Carnívoros do
Iguaçu” (CI) developed by INP, since 2009.
Methods
Study area
The Iguaçu National Park (Fig.01), located in Western
region of Paraná state, Brazil (S 25°03’13 – S 25°36’32;
W 53°37’54 – W 54°28’32), was created in 1939, being
the second national park in Brazil. It covers 185,262
hectares, being the largest remnant of Seasonally Semideciduous Atlantic Forest of Brazil (Ribeiro et al.
2009), and together with Argentinean Iguazu National
Park and other important protected areas of Misiones,
Argentina, form a 300,000 hectares forest continuum
(De Angelo et al. 2009). The INP has a fundamental
role in the local conservation of large-sized mammals,
such as jaguars (Panthera onca) and tapirs (Tapirus
terrestris), which were extirpated from other forest
remnants of Western Paraná state (Brocardo &
Cândido-Jr 2012). The landscape surrounding INP was
changed rapidly from the 1950s on, when the greatest
deforestation and colonization of this region for the
development of agricultural activities took place (De
Angelo et al. 2009, Gulbert-Filho 2010).
Assessing human wildilife conflict
To assess the local perception about the two large cats
inhabiting INP, and record information on livestock
depredation and management systems, the IC team
initiated a registration program of the neighboring
farms. The program consists of questionnaires
containing questions on opinion and management and
it has been applied mainly in the farms that share the
borders with the Park.
Results
Until now, we have accessed 78 farms. Seventyseven percent are dedicated to livestock activities.
Depredation cases are recorded in 43.6% of farms. To
assess the relationship of management system adopted
and depredation cases, we classified farms in very small
(< 18 ha; N = 25), small (18 to < 72 ha; N = 18), medium
(72 to < 270 ha; N = 15) and large (> 270 ha; N = 15)
Figure 1. Study area. A) Brazilian Atlantic Forest, original
distribution in Brazil; B) Forest remnants of Paraná State;
C) Iguaçu National Park and main economics activities
surrounding the park.
169
(Fig.01), according to Brazilian law nº 8.629/1993.
The farms were grouped in smaller (very small + small)
and larger (medium + large) because the similarities in
its management systems, and we applied a chi-square
statistic test to assess relationship between farm size
and livestock depredation report.
The chi-square test was significant (X-square = 16.5, df
= 1, p < 0.01) for the relationship between depredation
and farm size. Smaller farms had lower frequency of
livestock reports than larger ones.
Discussion
A probable explanation for observed results is related to
the management systems adopted by different groups.
Large farms are dedicated to extensive cattle ranching
in large paddocks surrounded by barbed or flat wire
fences and employing few human herders, which makes
cattle more susceptible to predation. On the other
hand, small farms have small dairy herds handled daily
in small paddocks often surrounded by simple electric
fences, but losses have more economic and personal
importance. To other large carnivores, like wolves, the
farm size, herd size and further distance of herd from
human dwellings were also related to more incidences
of predation events (Mech et al. 2000).
Results shows the relationship between carnivore
depredation and economical aptitude of farms along the
region and points out two different strategies of action
regarding to farms size. Any actions will be fettered
by social, cultural, economical and political obstacles
over civil and governmental spheres, requiring intense
articulation skills of the place makers.
Bruner, A.G.; Gullison, R.E.; Rice, R.E. & Da Fonseca,
G.A.B. 2001. Effectiveness of parks in protecting
tropical biodiversity. Science, 291, p. 125–128.
De Angelo, C.; Paviolo, A.; Wiegand, T.; Kanagaraj, R.
& Di Bitetti, M.S. 2013. Understanding species
persistence for defining conservation actions: A
management landscape for jaguars in the Atlantic
Forest. Biological Conservation, 159, p. 422-433
Conforti, V.A. & Azevedo F.C.C. 2003. Local
perceptions of jaguars (Panthera onca) and pumas
(Puma concolor) in the Iguaçu National Park area,
south Brazil. Biological Conservation, 111, p. 215221.
Gubert-Filho, F. A. 2010. O desflorestamento do Paraná
em um século. In: Sonda, C. & Trauczynski, S.C.
(Eds.). Reforma agrária e meio ambiente: teoria e
prática no estado do Paraná. Curitiba: ITCG, p.
15-25.
Margarido, T. C. C. & Braga, F. G. 2004. Mamíferos. In:
Mikich, S. B. & Bérnils, R. S. (Ed.s) Livro vermelho
da fauna ameaçada no Estado do Paraná. Curitiba:
Instituto Ambiental do Paraná.
Mech, L.D.; Harper, E.K.; Meier, T.J. & Paul, W.J.D.
2000. Assessing factors that may predispose
Minnesota farms to wolf depredations on cattle.
Wildlife Society Bulletin, 28, p. 623-629.
Myers, N.; Mittermeier, R.A.; Mittermeier, C.G., Da
Fonseca, G.A.B. & Kent, J. 2000. Biodiversity
hotspots for conservation priorities. Nature, 403, p.
853-858.
References
Nowell, K. & Jackson, P. 1996 Wild Cats: status survey
and conservation action plan. IUCN/SSC Cat
Specialist Group, Gland, Switzerland.
Brocardo, C.R. & Cândido-Jr, J.F. 2012. Persistência de
mamíferos de médio e grande porte em fragmentos
de Floresta Ombrófila Mista no estado do Paraná,
Brasil. Revista Árvore, 36, p. 301-310.
Paviolo, A.; De Angelo, C.D.; Di Blanco, Y.E. & Di
Bitetti, M.S. 2008. Jaguar Panthera onca population
decline in the Upper Paraná Atlantic Forest of
Argentina and Brazil.Oryx, 42, p. 554–561.
170
Ribeiro, M.C.; Metzger, J.P.; Martensen A.C.; Ponzoni,
F.J. & Hirota, M.M. 2009. The Brazilian Atlantic
Forest: How much is left, and how is the remaining
forest distributed? Implications for conservation.
Biological Conservation 142, p. 1141–115.
Tamang, B. & Baral, N. 2008. Livestock depredation
by large cats in Bardia National Park, Nepal:
Implications for improving park–people relations.
The International Journal of Biodiversity Science
and Management, 4, p. 44-53.
Woodroffe, R. 2000. Predators and people: using human
densities to interpret declines of large carnivores.
Animal Conservation, 3, p. 165–173.
171
Presenting a georeference model
for sighting of wild animals
Thiago Duarte Mota1, Rogerio de Paula2 , Jean Pierre Santos3,
Carlos Roberto Bastos Araujo Filho4, Ronaldo Morato5, Rose Morato6
1
UFRJ/COPPE/IVIG, Rio de Janeiro RJ
1
2
[email protected]
CENAP, Estrada Municipal Hisaichi Takebayashi, 8600, Baierro da Usina, Atibaia SP
2
3
[email protected]
Instituto Pro-Carnivoros, Parque Edmundo Zanoni, Atibaia SP
3
4
[email protected]
UFRJ/COPPE/IVIG, Rio de Janeiro RJ
4
[email protected]
5,6
5
ICMBIO, Atibaia - SP
[email protected]
6
[email protected]
Keywords: Databanks, Georeference, GPS, Sample, Predation, Systems, Bioinformatics.
Abstract
Many activities have been developed in the last
years to implement technological solutions for the
documentation, manipulation, control and tracking of
wild animals. We can mention the use of GPS for the
tracking of tagged animals, collars of radiofrequency,
besides the development of databanks for the storage
and disclosure of the collected information. Next to
the Databank of ICMBIO / CENAP / Atibai for the
control of predation, we created a system to document
the sighting of animals and associated predation, and
the data from socioeconomic protocols applied to
the land properties as well as documentation from
georeferenced video, photos or audio. This work
consists in the presentation of an electronic applicative
accessed through any mobile dispositive (telephone,
tablet, notebook, etc) for the georeferenced electronic
registry of sighting and predation to be imputed to
the Databank of the Projects of ICMBIO – CENAP
172
of the Environmental Health Ministry. This tool was
especially generated as a source for the georeferenced
control of field samples from various places, projects
and categories. Our objective is to present a tool
that can collect georeferenced data from sighting,
predation, or documentation of land properties and
through this system, created to document, register and
make accessible the sampled data, dispose this unified
and georeferenced Databank of ICMBIO-CENPA
through the internet for the access, for non-commercial
purposes, of other researchers. Initially, information
from two protocols was collected referring to predation
by wild animals and to the socio-economic information
on the properties where predation occurred or the
animals were seen. These protocols were analyzed by
biologists and veterinarians participants in the project
and all the information oral and documented was used
for the creation of the Georeferenced Databank. All this
material was made available on the internet through a
web platform system, in PHP language and PostgreSQL
Database, where through applicatives for android and
IOS it can be accessed by mobile phones and collect the
georeferenced data. Even if the equipment is without
access to the web, through this tool it can file the data
and as soon as they gain access they can transmit the
information to the data center. Applicatives were
structured separately to allow use in any type of
technology, for the objective of being multiplatform and
be able to obtain data when an agent/researcher is in the
field looking for information. With this information we
can provide many other details of the sighting, of what
is happening in the area, in the region, for all is related
with the georeferenced data.
a standard pattern for documentation of all entries
received in the institution.
Introduction
The technical team for systems development used as
manager of WEB applications the WAMP for the
machines that used Windows as the software for the
management of the system. For the development of the
tools we used the software SVN Tortoise as controller
of the version of the system. The management of the
databank was done through PostgreSQL version 8.3.
For the development of the WEB system, we used the
software Eclipse developed in Java and generating pages
for the system in PHP. For the application designed for
mobiles, cell phones and tablets, we used the plug-in
ADTPlugin that together with Eclipse allows us to edit
codes in android and all this to be stored in the SQLite
– local databank of the mobile equipment for storage of
information collected in the field.
Technology is evermore becoming a part of our daily
activities , and so is the use of information registered
in Databanks for species and individuals. These
informations are often not made widely available and
in many databanks they are not georefered through
longitude and latitude coordinates. Even so, studies are
being undertaken to explore different ways of providing
availability of information as well as ways to generate,
file and make available samples and data on predation
that are georefered, for studies and control, and for
reporting and sharing among research institutions.
The process of field registration, documentation and
availability of blood, serum and photographic samples
as well as others, are examples of the kind of samples
that can be worked as georefered , and formated for
padronization of a wild animals research databank.
Objective
The objective of this work is to present an internet
tool created to register and document as well as to
make available the processes and the collection of
samples and the predation events of wild animals
received by ICMBIO-CENPA from researchers or
research institutions, with georefered data, so providing
Material and Methods
Our team, that took part in the development of
the Project and in the building of the databank,
included six people from the IT area and four from
the environmental area (biologists, veterinarians, etc).
During the development of the tool we used PC type
microcomputers with Windows 7 operational system
and also PC type microcomputers with Ubuntu (Linux
version) operational system, a telephone, and a tablet
with android operational system.
To make this system available to be used in the field, we
used a WEB Server,a microcomputer type Server, with
Windows 2008 Server operational system, PostgreSQL
databank, WAMP, webplate 10/100 Ethernet,
connected through the web.
All access to the system can be done through any kind
of equipment with access to the internet with a web
navigator (Mozilla, Internet Explorer or other internet
navigation program). With this, we can allow access to
all in the academic community.
173
Processes and Outcomes
The registry of collected samples in the field can be
done through a mobile device such as a cellphone or
tablet with android system, that through an aplicative
installed in the device, will be able to photograph, film
or record an audio of an animal. This information will
be stored in the mobile equipment, in its local databank,
called SQLite, which on finding a data web, internet,
will transmit the information to the databank server.
JavaScript (scripts language frequently used for building
pages in the Internet) and the Databank Postgre SQL,
we biult a tool for the management, construction, record
and registry of samples and predation, separated by
diverse indicators, such as institution, collection place,
type of sample, etc. The model used in this relational
databank has several tables such as traps, individuals,
species, gender, family, sample, type of individual, kind
of material, procedence, build-up, build-up registry,
habitat, project, program, etc.
The generation of registries and documentation of
samples and predation can be answered through the
system with the use of protocols for information capture
that have been developed by the technical team.
To access the system in the mobile equipment, figure
1, the user must enter user identification and password.
Having done this, he will enter the list of collected
animals.
These sample registration protocols are answered by
the user of the system, identified through a login and
password. With the results from the protocols we
created the structures of the databank for the entry
of samples, and these gave origin to the tables that
establish relations in the database. The material was
developed through program language PHP, with Ájax
and made available in Hyper Text Markup Language
(HTML) format.
Figure 1 – Entry to the system with control of user and
Protocols were established and separated by areas,
considering the samples, socioeconomic data, property
or place of sample collection data, etc, and were made
available for access and registry through the internet.
Our main objective was to develop a tool and a Databank
where ICMBIO may not only register all samples
collected in the field in georefered format, but also may
do this automatically with any dispositive without the
need of a computer.
password with different profiles for persons or groups.
Figure 2 – List of registry already imputed in the system.
Not finding such a tool available in the market,
providing for all the needs of ICMBIO – CENPA
and other institutions that participate in their research
projects on wild animals, we developed a system to
attend the demands of biologists, veterinarians and
other professionals linked to the study of the Brazilian
fauna.
Using program languages PHP, Ajax, HTML,
174
After entering identification and password the user
will see the list of registries already entered and will be
able to register a new animal,as can bee seen in figures
3 and 4. At this point the system is ready to capture
the georefered data and record the information on the
databank of the mobile equipment, as can be seen in
figures 5 and 6. In the next figures we can understand
what the researcher is capable to associate to the
system of the Predation Databank after the capture of
the georefered data in the field. We can see details of
the sample such as date of collection, place, etc., and
associate images to the sample, since the register can be
done for a photograph (as could also be a blood sample,
urine, hide, etc).
Once the field images are captured, and all the samples,
data, predation or other events, the researcher can
return to his base, be it a hotel, home, etc ,with access
to the internet and transmit the data from the mobile
equipment to the central databank. This is the system or
Databank where the system is running, on a server, such
as was described above.
Figure 5 – Data on position with latitude and longitude
captured by the mobile equipment.
Figure 6 – Picture of an animal. We can insert a video, an
image, or even the audio of an event, with one or more
registries associated.
Figure 3 – Entry of data of a new event (data of a spotting,
data of an animal, of a predation or of a field collection).
In the images bellow we can see how the system works
in the internet environment where I am transmiting the
collected data.
Figure 4 – Filling of the data-fields.
In figures 7 to 14 we can see the documented individuals,
the lists and the ways to research an individual that already
has data registered in the database. The identification
of registries can be generated through an individual
identity and the file of his documents as a microchip,
localization collar or ring. We can also store information
on the coordenates of the material collection besides
its localization, such as the team who proceded to the
collection, traps used, and even the program, project or
research line to which it is associated, and classify the
samples.
175
Figure 7 – Registry of the local of an event collected in the
field.
Figure 12 – Advanced research, or a search possibility in the
database.
Figure 8 – List of an individual and all its data. Through the
databank system, if the individual has been documented,
we can see all the locations were he was detected with the
georefered data that was collected.
Figure 13 – Example of search for all individuals of a species
Figure 9 – Registry of many individuals accessed by the system
through the internet.
Figure 14 – Search for a specific individual.
Figure 10 – Map with location were the individual was seen
or tracked.
Figure 11 – Example of a list of data from the system, where
through the left lateral menu other filters can be applied.
The system also allows, through
the group of
administrators, the listing of samples associated to the
research lines, programs and projects of the institution;
the requirement of traps for capture and afterwards
the registration of what was captured and generated a
sample.
This application allows for many kinds of reports
associated to the main predation databank. All
information obtained today through research of
members of our group and sponsored by the institution
have their data registered and georefered.
As the main result we have the criation of a single
structure database where we can register all our
information, with data from fieldwork campaings stored
immediately in georefered format and the archive also
in a georefered database. With this, in the future, we can
list an area presenting all campaings developed there, all
the collected material , all that was seen in the area, all
176
predations, etc, and with this elaborate an environmental
map of all that can be found in the area. All this
provides indicators and data relevant for the researches
of the institution, and aims to provide an answer to the
rising demand from researchers for consistent and safe
data, and also foster the habit of georefered research
providing a significant return to society.
Topografia, Georreferenciamento.
Florenzano, T.G Teresa Gallotti. Iniciação em
Sensoriamento Remoto, Segunda Edição. Oficina
de Textos.
References
Santos, J.P. 2007. Análise quantitativa e métodos
preventivos de predação de animais domésticos por
canídeos selvagens no entorno do Parque Nacional
da Serra da Canastra. Monografia de Graduação.
Instituto Superior de Educação – UNIFOR-MG.
Formiga.
Spercoski, K.M. Morais, R., Morato, R. Paula, R.C.,
Azevedo, F.C., May Junior, J. A, Santos, J. P.,
Reghelin, A.L., Wildt, D., Songsasen, N. 2012.
Adrenal activity in maned wolves is higher on
farmlands and park boundaries than within
protected areas. General and Comparative
Endocrinology. 179 (2): 232–240
Corral, L. 2007. Avaliação da predação de criações
domésticas
por
lobo-guará
(Chrysocyon
brachyurus) no entorno do Parque Nacional da
Serra da Canastra, MG, Brasil. Dissertação de
mestrado, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais,
Belo Horizonte.
Niederauer, J., Desenvolvendo Websites com PHP,
Editora Novatec, 2004, Edição 2, 272.
Ramakrishnan, R., Sistemas de Gerenciamento de
Banco de Dados, Edição 1, Editora McGraw Hill.
Marchini, S., Cavalcanti S.M.C., Paula, R. C. de,
Predadores Silvestres e Animais Domésticos Guia
Prático de Convivência Atibaia, São Paulo, Brasil,
2011.
Ramos, D. Geodésia na prática. GPS Geodésia,
177
178
Concurrent Session H
Conservação da Natureza
e Desenvolvimento Rural
(language Portuguese)
Session organizer:
Ana Margarida Euler,
Amapá State Forestry Institute, Brazil
179
The impact of timber forest management on the livelihoods
of local managers: Case study of the Mamirauá Reserve of
Sustainable Development
Philippe Waldhoff 1, Saulo E.X.F. de Souza 2,
Edson Vidal 3, Andrea Abdala 4
1
Instituto de Educação, Ciência e Tecnologia do Amazonas (IFAM); ESALQ/USP
1
[email protected]
1,2,3,4
Escola Superior de Agricultura Luiz de Queiroz ESALQ/USP;
Keywords: Amazon, sustainable use reserve, community based forest management.
Introduction
The dimensions and possibilities to community based
forest management are expressive. Approximately 44%
of the territorial area of Legal Amazonia is occupied
by protected areas, from which 49% is composed
by Indigenous Territories and 33% by Reserves of
Sustainable Use (PEREIRA, 2010). Of the total 290
million hectares of the currently registered Brazilian
public forests, half of these (145 million) are handled for
communitarians (SFB, 2010).
According to various actors that could be protagonists
of forest management, it is considered community or
familiar based when the management plan is executed
by familiar agriculturists, settled from agrarian reform
and by traditional people and communities, and
that the activities performed by outsources does not
mischaracterize this definition, since the reported
plan continues under community responsibility
(BRASIL, 2009). Treating strictly the community based
management; the common use of some resources is
established by arrangements influenced by an extensive
net of relations, rules and social values that determine
the process of including and excluding other people
from using resources (DIEGUES, 2001).
Even considering such a diversity of factors influencing
and shaping community based forest management,
180
it has been considered as a strategy to reduce
deforestation (BRAY et al., 2008), to strengthen land
tenure and use rights (MOLNAR ET AL., 200O)
and to reduce poverty by the time that conciliate
conservation and sustainable use of forests (HAJJAR,
2011; RADACHOWSKY et al, 2012). Nevertheless,
in some cases the conservation of ecosystems has been
more efficient than the improvement of livelihoods
(THOMS, 2008), or yet, eventually failed in respect to
both expectations (MARSAHLL, 2006).
Looking upon such diversified expectations brought by
community based forest management; we identified the
perception of forest users related to ultimate changes
related to their livelihoods and to forest conservation.
The established hypothesis is that the community
based forest management could improve the livelihoods
of protagonists while contributing significantly to
environment conservation.
Methodology
Study area
This research was developed at Mamirauá Reserve of
Sustainable Development (Mamirauá RSD), which
encompasses a total area of 1,124,000 ha, situated on the
Medio Solimões River, State of Amazonas. The studied
communities lye between the rivers Solimões, Japurá
Conservação da Natureza e Desenvolvimento Rural
and Paraná do Aranapú. This region is composed by
flooded forests where meadow ecosystems predominate
(ALENCAR, 2010), and where the water level of rivers
could even oscillate 12 meters along the year. Economic
activities are performed according to the water regime.
The main activities are agriculture and fishing during dry
season, while wood harvesting is the only income source
for many families during flooding season (PIRES, 2004,
apud Ayres et al, 1997).
Data collection
We adopted the study case methodology (LUDCKE;
ANDRÉ, 1986), through data collecting based on
structured and semi structured interviews, besides
documental analysis (BARBETTA, 2012; LUDCKE;
ANDRÉ, 1986). Participant observation was performed
during work development together with communities in
their forest management areas (BERNARD, 1988). We
adapted the tool “Sustainable Livelihoods Framework”
(DFID, 1999) in order to assess the impacts of
sustainable forest management on the managers
livelihoods. The interviews were followed by a script of
questions based on the method presented by Kusters et al
(2005), comparing forest management with traditional
wood harvest executed before the implementation of
the current management system, or in some cases, with
other work activity.
The methodology separates the indicators related to life
conditions into distinct groups, which were considered
as dimensions. Dimensions and indicators were defined
through a wide review and discussion done by researches
of the Laboratory of Tropical Forestry, from ESALQ/
USP, encompassing: (i) Human dimension – safety,
environment and feeding at work; access to school; use of
traditional knowledge; learning new knowledge; vision
of the productive process; leisure access and; happiness;
(ii) Social dimension – work opportunity and income;
internal relationships within community; external
relationships between groups/institutions; organization
participation; female empowerment; (iii) Physical
dimension – changes in community infrastructure and
goods; changes in household infrastructure and goods;
changes in work infrastructure and goods; equitable
access to work equipment; (iv) Financial dimension
– adding value to the product; income regularity;
equitable income distribution; independence of external
human and physic resources and; (v) Natural dimension
– conservation of managed resources; access control to
resources; environmental conservation.
Data analysis
Each indicator was assessed through questions that,
when answered, met an ordinal scale of five levels (-2=
very negative; -1 negative; 0= neutral; 1= positive; 2
very positive). We analyzed data through descriptive
statistics and exploratory analysis ( B A R B E T T A ,
2012). Besides, we used the triangulation technique
to compare data collected from forest managers with
those collected from specialists and documental analysis
(VERDEJO, 2010).
Results
We performed 41 interviews with forest managers
representing 19 communities which are involved, or
had already been involved with community based
forest management for wood, during the period
between January and March 2013. Within the scope
of this work we defined as forest managers, the people
directly involved in one or more activities related to
forest management, since planning, forest operations,
transport, and even product sales.
The system of forest management adopted inside
Mamirauá RSD was defined in a participative manner,
considering the characteristic systems of the reserve
communities, the traditional use of forest resources
and stocks availability. (PIRES, 2004). The absence of
specific rules to forest management in meadow areas led
to the adoption of the rules from simplified community
forest management, legally instituted through the Act
2,788, from September 28th 1998, which subsidized the
elaboration of Sustainable Forest Management Plans
in Mamirauá RSD (QUEIROZ; PERALTA, 2006).
Thus, the implemented system of forest management
considered the traditional knowledge about logging in
meadow ecosystems, which included new exploration
181
techniques to reduce damages to the forest and improve
the workers security (PIRES, 2004).
We identified environmental conservation (natural
dimension) as the main positive impact of the forest
management, while aspects related to the input of
resources (financial dimension) was the main fragility.
Such a result corroborates the one found by Thoms
(2007) when studying changes in life conditions
promoted by community based forest management in
Nepal. This author argued that community management
has obtained limited results in improving life conditions,
despite great success for conservation.
Figure 1- Results of timber forest management on the
livelihoods of forest managers.
Among five indicators of the financial dimension, three
presented negative results: (i) income regularity; (ii)
income duration and; (iii) independence of external
agents. To forest managers in Mamirauá RSD, income
irregularity is the main limiting factor to the activity
development. The main factors causing income
irregularity are related to the delay of the inspections
and the emission of environmental licenses, as well as to
differences on the flooding levels.
The centralization by Instituto de Proteção Ambiental
do Amazonas (IPAAM), responsible by inspections
and license emissions in Manaus, the lack of trained
human resources and divergent interpretations of the
182
rules are the main barriers related to environmental
licensing of forest management plans (KIBLER, 2008).
Another factor related to income irregularity has a
natural cause and is related to the flooding levels. The
forest management performed along the meadows
of Mamirauá RSD predicts that logs could be carried
via fluvial. To make it happen, after cutting the trees is
expected that the water level, during the flooding season,
reaches those cut trees and allows draining them to the
river. When floods are weak and the water level dos
not reach the previously cut trees, it cannot be removed
and commercialized, thus causing loss of production in
many cases.
The conservation of natural resources was the main
effect of the forest management for wood. Nevertheless,
in a conjectural analysis, we noticed that it is due to
either the promotion of forest management in the
reserve, or even to the establishment of Mamirauá
Ecological Reserve in 1990, transformed into a Reserve
of Sustainable Development in 1996. According to
Pires (2001; apud PIRES, 2004), illegal logging reduced
25,7% with the implementation of forest management
programs, environmental education and inspection
by environmental agents from the community.
Notwithstanding, the author highlighted the challenges
to implement sustainable ways of using timber resources.
The conservation of managed species was highlighted
among natural dimension. According to interviwees,
before they were harvested without criteria and
conservation concern, and after management they
started to follow the rules established legally. Another
important factor is the access control to resources,
because with the implementation of management, areas
were defined communally, being formally delimited
to the forest management and the access to areas and
resources inside the reserve, collectively accorded.
Relating to human dimension, the results found were
positive in general. The acquisition of new knowledge
related to sustainable forest management through
trainings and capacity building was the factor that most
contributed for it. Other important factors were the use
of traditional knowledge, those commonly used for forest
exploration before management and that continued to
be applied, and the happiness feeling showed by the
interviewed managers when cited satisfaction with the
work and its outcomes.
The community based forest management also generated
positive outcomes related to the social dimension.
Results indicated that the participation of managers
in the process of organizing the activity was real in
the majority of the targeted communities, including
the formalization of community associations and
representation in specific forums. Although the social
dimension showed a negative result relating to female
empowerment. Besides impeding women involvement
in forest management activities, when they were rarely
involved, they prepared meals and were not properly
recognized, being unconsidered for payments.
Finally, relating to the physic dimension, the results
showed that the income from forest management allowed
buying and maintaining work materials and equipment,
besides transportation of managers. Relating to work,
the only used equipment are chainsaws, and relating
to transportation, the use of little stern engines (5hp)
in canoes, called “rabetas”. Therefore, the technological
level of materials and equipments is very low in this kind
of management. The income from forest management
also provided the acquisition of household electrical
appliances, or rebuilding their own houses.
Conclusion
The improvement in forest conservation is associated
mainly to the conservation of commercial interest
species and to the control of access and use of resources,
which are results from wide actions related to the
reserve creation associated to higher control promoted
by the implementation of forest management in the
communities. Such management led communities to
establish boundaries for proper managed areas inside
each community, which generated collective agreements
of use of these areas and recognition either in the local
level or in the presence of outside institutions.
By the other hand, despite such managed timber
presents a distinct value in the market, the challenges
found to overcome the licensing and commercialization
barriers have prevented continuity of the process. Rules
and laws ordering sustainable forest management did
not considered the complex agrarian system and the
productive arrangement of communities, generating
difficulties for the activity licensing and, associated to it,
annual changes in the flood regime lead to irregularities
of production and income. Due to its barriers, but
not restricted to them, forest management has had
difficulties to keep people interested in the activity.
We considered “Sustainable Livelihoods Framework”
as a proper method to assess the results of the community
based forest management at Mamirauá RSD, once it
allowed identifying the need of improvements related
to financial outcomes, and thus contribute to overcome
the presented barriers and became a sustainable activity.
This way, community based forest management has been
more efficient for forest conservation and for improving
some social aspects.
Acknowledgment
This study was developed with support from the
Government of Amazonas State, through the Foudation
for Research (FAPEAM), with the grating of the
scholarship Program PRO-DPD/AM. Local support
was given by Mamirauá Institute for Sustainable
Development. Special thanks for Elenice Assis do
Nascimento by dialogue with the community and
discussions, and to Marina Losi Monteiro for the help
with the interviews.
References
Alencar, E. F. 2010. Memórias de Mamirauá. Instituto
de Desesnvolvimento Sustentável Mamirauá, Tefé,
AM, 292p.
Barbetta, P. A. 2012. Estatística aplicada às ciências
sociais. Ed. da UFSC. 8ª. ed. Florianópolis. 318p.
Bernard, H. R. 1988. Methods in Cultural Anthropology.
Ed. Sage Publications. Califórnia. 518p.
Brasil. Decreto No. 6.874, de 05 de junho de 2009.
183
Institui, no âmbito dos Ministérios do Meio
Ambiente e do Desenvolvimento Agrário, o
Programa Federal de Manejo Florestal Comunitário
e Familiar. Disponível em: <http://www.planalto.
gov.br/ccivil_03/_Ato2007-2010/2009/Decreto/
D6874.htm>. Acessado em: 30.03.2012
Bray, D. B.; Duran. E.; Ramos, V. H.; Mas, J-F; Velasquez,
A.; MacNab, R. B.; Barry, D.; Radachowsky, J.
Tropical deforestation, community forests, and
protected areas in the Maya Forest. Ecology and
Society. 13(2). 56. 2008.
learned from Mexico and Bolivia and policy
implications for decision-makers. UNEP World
Conservation Monitoring Centre. Cambridge. 2006
Molnar, A.; Gomes, D.; Souza, R.; Vidal, N., Hojer, R.
Community Forest enterprise markets in Mexico
and Brazil: new opportunities and challenges for
legal access to the forest. Journal of Sustainable
Forestry 27 (1e2), 87-121. 2008.
Pereira, Denys et al. Fatos Florestais da Amazônia 2010.
Belém: IMAZON, 2010
Diegues, A. C. Repensando e recriando as formas de
apropriação comum dos espaços e recursos naturais.
In: In: Espaços e Recursos Naturais de Uso Comum.
Org.: Diegues, A.C.; Moreira, A. C.C. USP. São
Paulo. 2001
Pires, A. 2004. Princípios e processos na implantação do
manejo florestal comunitário na RDS Mamirauá.
In: Terras Indígenas & Unidades de Conservação da
natureza: o desafio das sobreposições. Fany R. (org).
Instituto Socioambiental, São Paulo, p. 558-563.
DFID. 1999 Sustainable Livelihoods Guidance Sheets.
Department for International Development. UK. ?p.
Queiroz, H.L.; Peralta, N. Reserva de Desenvolvimento
Sustentável: Manejo Integrado dos Recursos
Naturais e Gestão Participativa. In: Garay, I e
Becker, B.K (Orgs.). Dimensões Humanas da
Biodiversidade. Petrópolis: Vozes, 2006.p.447- 469
Hajjar, R.; McGrath, D.G.; Kozak, R. A.; Innes, J.L.
Framing community forestry challenges with a
broader lens: case studies from Brazilian Amazon.
Journal of Environmental Management. Elsevier, v.
92, p. 2159-2169, 2011.
Kibler, J. F.; Silva, L. N. da. Articulação nacional e
internacional no Projeto Floresta Viva. T & C
Amazônia. Manaus???. Ano VI, n.15, out. 2008.
Kusters, K.; Belcher, B.; Ruiz-Pérez, M.; Achdiawan,
R. 2005. A method to assess the outcomes of forest
product trade on livelihoods and environment.
Bogor Barat, Indonésia. CIFOR Working Paper
No. 32. 23p.
Radachowsky, J. et al. Forest concessions in the Maya
Biosphere Reserve, Guatemala: A decade later.
Forest Ecology and Management, v. 268, n. 0, p. 1828, 2012.
SFB. Plano anual de manejo florestal comunitário
e familiar: período 2011. Brasília, 2010. 148 p.
Disponível em: < http://www.youblisher.com/
p/155818-Plano-Anual-de-Manejo-FlorestalComunitario-e-Familiar-PAMFC-2011/>. Acesso
em: 15.04.2012
Ludke, M.; André, M. E. D. A. 1986. Pesquisa em
educação: abordagens qualitativas. Editora
Pedagógica e Universitária. São Paulo. 99p.
Thoms, C. A. Community control of resources and the
challenge of improving local livelihoods: A critical
examination of community forestry in Nepal.
Geoforum, v. 39, n. 3, p. 1452-1465, 2008.
Marshall, E.; Schereckenberg, K.; NEWTON, A. C.
(eds). Commercialization of non-timber forest
products Factors influencing success. Lessons
Verdejo, M. E. 2010. Diagnóstico rural participativo:
guia prático DRP. Ministério do Desenvolvimento
Agrário. Brasília. 62p.
184
Tropical forest seed production chain: Diagnosis in
communities of Alto Xingu, Brazil
Sarah Domingues de O. Andrade1, Danilo I. de Urzedo2
Edson Vidal 3
1,2,3
Universidade de São Paulo, Piracicaba, Brasil.
Keywords: non-timber forest products, rural development, socio-biodiversity
Diagnosis of seed productionin the Upper Xingu
communities
Cultural and socioeconomic vision of the production
chain
Multiple use forest management (MFM) encompasses
the valuation of ecosystems from management of timber
and non-timber systems to payment for environmental
services. MFM is praised as an important strategy
that meets the demands of diverse actors, in addition
to being anecological way of harvesting and to adding
more value to forests, making them more robust to
conversion(García Fernández et al, 2008).Thus, this
contemporary approach has been recognized as an
important tool to promote the maximization of forest
production with the conservation of ecosystems,
guaranteeing greater community governance regarding
the production system, as well as greater security of
household income (Panayotou,1992).Additionally,
community forestrysupports cultural diversity and
traditional and local knowledge, present in the local
community (Charnley, 2007).In this way, management
of non-timber forest products (NTFPs), such as forest
seed, is an important means to promote the consolidation
of a community forestry model. However, the production
chains of NTFPs have many functional limitations,
which currently are conferred on the forest seed sector,
presenting serious deficiencies in order to meet the
growing demand for ecological restoration projects in
Brazil. In this context, the study of productive forestry
chains consists of a relevant instrument to evaluate
the functional system and seek new alternatives that
consider the reality of the communities that promote
their articulation. The present study aims to diagnose
factors influencing the tropical forest seed production
chain in the Upper Xingu communities in the Amazon
watershed, analyzing production bottlenecks and how
they can be mitigated in order to create a structured
chain of non-timber forest products.
The data collection was carried out by means of semistructured questionnaires and participant observation
in three cores of the Seed Network of Xingu, involving
family farmers (Confresa and Canabrava do Norte),
indigenous core (ethnic Ikpeng) and urban collectors
(Canarana and Nova Xavantina), involving 32 local
actors (53% female). The following factors were
assessed of local production of seeds: (i) distance of
areas; (ii) distance for production; (iii) equipment and
materials; (iv) credit and financing; (v) analysis of the
physiological quality of seeds; (vi) technical assistance;
(vii) training courses; (viii) security of the collector. From
these variables,their respective attributes according to
the degree of consolidationwere defined,ranked on a
crescent ordinal scale of 1 to 3. From these data,the
consolidation rate of seed production (CRSP)was
calculated, according to Equation 1.
185
Where:
i: indicator of different factors.
Fi: indicator of production consolidation.
Regarding the values of the CRPS, the family farmers
presented the highest value (0.51), followed by urban
collectors (0.46) and indigenous core (0.20). These data
suggest that family farmers and urban collectors are in
a process of achieving greater governance in production
when compared to the indigenous core. However, each
core of study has specific features, which implicate in
diverse forms in the factors studied, as illustrated by
Figure 1.
Regarding production, family farmers and indigenous
people need to traverse greater distances, spanning
more than 15 Km, to transport the seeds to the storage
chambers located in the centers of cities (Indigenous
= 1.00; family farmers = 1.00; urban collectors =
3.00), resulting in higher production costs or even in
disturbance on the physiological quality of lots.
However, these two cores traverse smaller distances to
access the collection areas, whether in areas that cover
their territories or the surrounding areas, which are less
than 5 Km (indigenous = 3.00; family farmers = 3.00).
In contrast, urban collectors travel more than 250 miles
to collect seeds in third areas or in fragments on the
edge of highways (urban collectors = 1.00).
The highest incidence of participation in training
courses was observed in the family farmers’ core and
indigenous people’s core (indigenous = 2.27; family
farmers = 2.78; urban collectors = 1.50). This is due,
Figure 1- Factors affecting seed production of indigenous core, family farmers and urban collectors from Upper Xingu.
186
possibly, to the inclusion of seed productionactivity
in the scope of action of other environmental projects
that are implemented by local institutions in those
communities, which does not occur in the urban
context.
The plots sowing to analyze the physiological quality
consists of a widespread technique employed by both
family farmers and urban collectors (indigenous =
1.00; family farmers = 1.89; urban collectors = 2.83).
Thereby, the collectors begin to monitor the rate of
seed emergence, which improves the quality of the
monitoring techniques used in production.
The group which presents the greatest quantity and
diversity of materials and equipment is the urban
collector (2.50) followed by family farmers (2.22), a
result both of financial investments and of the creativity
and innovation of these actors.On the other hand,
the same factor generates constraints in indigenous
production (1.00), which faces lack of materials and
equipment for production, although there is potential
to apply traditional materials and equipment (matting,
sieves and baskets made from natural fibers) to furnish
this demand, enriching the local culture. This factor is
possibly enhanced by access to financing and credit,
which is more widespread among family farmers
(2.56) and collectors (1.50) when compared with the
indigenous core (1.00).
directly to the different social and cultural realities.
Nevertheless, the communities had deficiencies with
regard to technical assistance, safety and transportation,
factors that directly affect the cost of production,
technical instruction, seed quality and the welfare of
the collectors. Therefore, access to credits and financing
is essential to the articulation of new instruments for
the structuring of local seed production.
References
Panayotou, T. & Ashton, P.S. 1992. Not by timber alone:
economics and ecology for sustaining tropical
forests. Washington, DC and Covelo, California,
Island Press.
García-Fernández, C; Ruiz-Pérez, M; Wunder,
S. Is multiple-use forest management widely
implementable in the tropics?, Forest Ecology and
Management, Volume 256, Issue 7, 20 September
2008.
Charnley S, Fischer AP, Jones ET: Integrating traditional
and local ecological knowledge into forest
biodiversity conservation in the Pacific Northwest.
Forest Ecology and Management 2007, 246:1428.
All cores studied express seriousshortageof technical
assistance (indigenous = 1.00; family farmers = 1.00;
urban collectors = 1.08), which may affect the quality of
seeds, as well as in the joint and the group’s involvement.
Furthermore, safe seed collection was an obstacle in the
cores (indigenous = 1.00; family farmers = 1.67; urban
collectors = 2.00) mainly due to the non-adoption of
techniques and equipment for vertical rise, which may
threaten the health and well-being of the collectors.
Although family farmers and urban cores had better
overall performance in production, the studied
communities feature a broad diversification in local
demands for seed production, a fact that speaks
187
Legal forest reserv – transition from rural use to urban use
Fernando Almeida Costa1, Alisson Santos Neves2
Natanael Antunes Abade3
1,2,3
Instituto Brasília Ambiental – IBRAM, Brasília – DF
1
[email protected]
2
[email protected]
3
[email protected]
Keywords: legal forest reserve, subdivision of land, urbanization, environmental liabilities
The balanced environment, collective right established
in 1988 Constitution of Federal Republic of Brazil,
is sought through various normative instruments by
Brazil. Among them are the establishment of protected
areas by law, such as the Nature Conservation Units,
Permanent Preservation Areas and Legal Forest
Reserves. They all contribute to the maintenance of
ecological processes and ecosystem services essential to
human needs, and for that limit the use and occupation
of land, whether in public or private property.
The Legal Forest Reserve Areas - LFRA are
mandatory to all rural properties, with the function to
guarantee the sustainable use of these, coupled with
creation of ecological corridors that must link to the
other protected areas. The law provides that the LFRA
maintenance is required until its gets obtained approval
to urban subdivision, through licensing installment of
the respective property, with the concomitant public
registration in official extrajudicial authority.
However, mainly due to technological and operational
limitations of the State’s administration, this legal
requirement is not fulfillment in much of rural
properties, which implies harm to the natural collective
patrimony. But such default is compounded when it is
not considered in the environment licensing process of
188
parceling urban land, resulting in a kind of prescription
of environmental liabilities of the property, which is in
transition from rural use to urban use.
Added to this, the fact that the environmental regularity
of rural properties amenable to urban use, usually
severely charges the landlord or the entrepreneur who
undertakes regular routes to land subdivision. This onus
is due to the requirement for forest compensations
and / or environmental compensations during the
environmental licensing administrative procedure.
These compensation mechanisms was designed so that
environmental impacts are mitigated. In the case of
the Distrito Federal, Federation Unit of Brazil, there
are the demand of forest compensation to planting of
30 native trees for every single native tree removed.
However, areas devoid of the minimum percentage of
native vegetation required by law, not infrequently pass
off these mechanisms of environmental management,
1"#"5 &-5 .)5 ."5 ),'(.#)(5 \*,-,#*.#)(5 ) 5
environmental liability’ because there is no charging
to maintenance the minimum of vegetation required
for regularity , whether preserved or in recovery. It is
observed so that much environmental damage to the
community as a lack of equality in the treatment of
administered by the State.
Figure –Legal forest reserves overlaid on urban expansion
plan of Distrito Federal-Brazil
From various observations on administrative procedures
pending in Organ executor of environmental policy
of the Distrito Federal, in 2012, this article proposes
guidelines for the mitigation of biodiversity loss and
ecosystem services arising from the conversion of
rural use to urban use of defaulters properties in the
definition and/or maintenance of legal forest reserve
area in the Distrito Federal, Brazil.
References
COSTA, F.A ; NEVES, A. S; ABADE, N.A.
2013. Legal Forest Reserve – Transition from rural
use to urban use. Not Published
189
190
Concurrent Session I
Private Sector on
Nature Conservation
Session organizer:
Giovana Baggio de Bruns,
TNC, Brazil
191
Mato Grosso healthy & prosper:
Green Infrastructure proposal
Eder Zanetti1, Paulo Borges2
1
1
Green Farm CO2FREE
[email protected]
2
Instituto Ação Verde.
2
[email protected]
Keywords: Green Economy, Green Infrastructure, Mato Grosso; PNBSAE.
The global regime of trade & environment is, and
will be, directed to look into opportunities for
promoting world sustainable development. The global
environment, international development and trade
are pillars of such discussion; reflected within UNEP,
UNDP, World Bank, IMF, FAO, WHO and WTO,
among others. Today most of the discussion is directed
to free trade of environmental goods and services
and quality certification criteria for differentiation
of products and services at international trade. The
perspective of growth in a Green Economy is based
on countries willingness to adopt measures for
promoting EGS and PES as ways to contribute for
a global sustainable development. While there is a
great risk of losing markets, clients and reputation
from unsustainable practices, the opportunity shines
for corporations adopting precautionary measures to
evaluate, mitigate and compensate for negative impacts
on ecosystem services such as carbon cycling, water
quality & quantity provision, biodiversity cultivation
and many others (see MEA2005). Green Economy
insertion depends on the level of environmental and
social commitment of production and service chains
and early initiatives are promoted towards Corporate
Socioenvironment Responsibility – CSR procedures.
In Mato Grosso this has been approached towards
an overall project of Green Infrastructure building,
directed to provide and interconnected network of
rivers, lagoons, wetlands, forests, pastures and other
natural areas of regional significance for the natural
192
resource base. Grey infrastructure of roads, damns,
airports and so on will have to adapt and comply
with green infrastructure master plan for their
implementation, which actually speeds up licensing
process and public scrutinizing of development
projects. Mato Grosso Healthy and Prosper master
plan has the mission of “Assuring State’s environmental
quality and sustainable development of all ecosystems
for this and the future generations”. The Green
Infrastructure proposal aims at assuring the State’s
environmental quality will be kept over the years
throughout na interconnect system of micro, meso
and macro regions working for healthy ecosystems.
It is the first Project of this magnitude in Brazil and
one of the largest in the planet, comprising over 22
million of private and public Conservation Units
and their buffer zones, river’s margins (Corridors of
River Ecosystem Reserves) and private and public
properties all over the Sate. The proposal looks for
implementing it towards a Public-Private-Partnership
already initiated with the Platform for Business with
Environmental & Ecosystem Goods and Services
(PNBSAE - www.pnbsae.com.br), performing
carbon (and other ecosystem services) payments for
individuals, organizations and institutions complying
with the overall objectives and within eligible areas.
Three yearly payments has been performed in 2010,
2011 and 2012, benefiting three local communities
and serving as field demonstration of project activities
and objectives.
Private Sector on Nature Conservation
Assessment of High conservation value areas
in a private forest company (Fibria –Aracruz Unit)
Ana Paula Correa do Carmo1, Ana Paula Pulito2, Antonio do Nascimento Gomes3
Fibria Celulose S.A
[email protected]
2
[email protected]
3
Nascimento Consultoria
3
[email protected]
1,2
1
Keywords: high conservation value, landscape analysis, private conservation areas, landscape planning, criteria definition
ibria has established itself as a brazilian company
engaged in sustainable forest management capable of
creating value from renewable resources. The company
owns about 900,000 hectares of land in seven states
within Brazil. Fibria’s lands are managed with eucalypt
plantation forests dedicated to wood production
(57%) in mosaics with native vegetation dedicated to
conservation purposes (37%). The company’s certified
forest areas in the states of Bahia, Espírito Santo and
Minas Gerais (which comprises Fibria’s Aracruz Unit)
were the object of an assessment of high conservation
value areas (HCV) as proposed by FSC standards in
2012. The assessment comprises the interpretation of
the six global definition of HCV, following ProForest
and HCV Network. Lacking a national interpretation
of HCV, we established quantifiable criteria to define
HCVs at each category, using the company geographical
database, public information from environmental
agencies and NGOs, as well as historical data from
biodiversity studies and monitoring conduced inside de
forest management areas. The list of criteria defined to
limit each HCV were: HCV 1 – Private conservation
units or areas inside conservation units of restricted
use; Areas assembling more than 5 species critically
threatened with extinction (the average plus a standard
deviation of the number of critically threatened species
in the previously studied forests); Areas assembling
more than 135 species threatened, rare or endemic
(the average plus a standard deviation of the number
of species with these characteristics in the previously
studied forests); Areas assembling more than 100
individuals of the same migratory bird species in a
single observation; HCV 2 – Core-area fragments with
a significant total area compared to the total area of
legal conservation units at each Environmental Unit;
Core-area fragments adjacent to a conservation unit
of restricted use; Core-area fragments with a total
area feasible to maintain a population of an “umbrella”
species (Tapirus terrestris in this case); HCV 3 –
Core-area fragments of endangered ecosystems with a
representative total area at each Environmental Unit;
HCV 4 – Watersheds that have a water collecting point,
more than 50% of its total area occupied by Fibria’s
lands and an index of water availability lesser than
30%; Areas with more than 45% of terrain declivity;
HCV 5 – Areas within 9 km of local communities,
with natural resources (food, drinking water, medicine
or other forest products that generates income) needed
for the survival of at least 25% of the community with
no available alternatives; HCV 6 – Areas with religious
(sacred) sites or historical monuments linked with the
identity of an ethnical group or essential to the culture
of local communities or indigenous groups; Areas with
cultural, archeological or historical value in a national
or international level. Based on the above listed criteria
Fibria identified 21 HCV areas (totalizing about
12.000). At each identified HCV area, specific actions
are in place to assure the maintenance and enhancement
of each identified value. Also, the company monitoring
programs included those areas aiming to evaluate the
effect of the management applied to its conservation
and the perpetuation of its benefits.
193
The importance of natural areas conservation
in the private sector - a regional perspective
Ivone Satsuki Namikawa1, Samantha Nazaré de Paiva2
Klabin SA, Brazil
[email protected]
2
[email protected]
1 ,2
1
Keywords: Mosaic Forest Landscape Management, Conservation, Private Areas
The conservation of natural areas on private forest
companies, is a constant challenge in apparent
contradiction with the best economical land use.
However, the conservation of natural areas and
the maintenance of the landscape mosaic through
ecological corridors, brings significant environmental
improvements . The maintenance of biodiversity, the
quality and quantity of water, carbon sequestration
and soil conservation, among other benefits, results in
improvements for the community and for own forest
operation by minimizing the incidence of pests and
diseases and ensuring sustainable forest productivity.
Strategic actions that promote the conservation and
restoration of natural forest areas inside and outside
company lands are critical to the ecological corridors
establishment in the region, expanding the concept
of landscape management. Among the external
actions, the ”Matas Legais” Program, established in a
partnership between the company Klabin SA and Non
Governmental Organization Apremavi - Association
for the Preservation of the Environment and Life, has
accounted since 2008, 437 farmers. It accomplished the
demarcation of 768.61 ha of permanent preservation
areas, with a donation of 310,655 seedlings of native
species for restoration in the state of Paraná. This
program began in the state of Santa Catarina in
2005 and was expanded to Paraná state, in the areas
of influence of the company in 2008. Regarding own
company areas, several actions are performed, as the
establishment of Private Natural Heritage Reserve
(RPPN) of Monte Alegre, with 3852.3 hectares in
194
1998, and the definition of forest management model
implemented in the company since the 70’s based in
a mosaic system. Also a methodology for identifying
areas of high conservation value, was initiated in
mid-2007and are being developed based in a strong
monitoring system. These methodology is being used
to prioritize the integrity of natural environment and
to monitore fauna and flora. It will help to know the
exixting biodiversity and possible impacts of forest
management. As a result of these actions and others,
it appears that the intensification of technical advice
to small farmers reflects positively on increasing the
extent of ecological corridors and greater awareness
of stakeholders on nature conservation issues mainly
related to biodiversity, soil and water, as well as the
better planning of their land use. In company´s own
areas, the different monitoring programs indicate
that forest management run by the company, has
several environmental benefits because the planted
forests, interspersed with natural forest fragments
- called mosaic model, allow the wildlife movement
through corridors, including large mammals,
such as the puma - Puma concolor. The numbers
obtained in the monitoring of fauna and flora
quantitatively demonstrate the importance of this
forest management model. Regarding to landscape,
the conservation of forest fragments in areas larger
than legal environmental requirements - areas of legal
reserve and permanent preservation areas – changed
positively the natural landscape of Telemaco Borba
region.
Monitoring ecological processes for Fibria’s
Environmental Restoration Program
Roberto Mediato1, Angelo Conrado Moura2, Tathiane Santi Sarcinelli3,
Juliano Ferreira Dias4, Ana Paula Pulito5
1,2,3,4,5
Fibria Celulose S.A., Aracruz-ES, Brazil
1
[email protected]
2
[email protected]
3
[email protected]
4
[email protected]
5
[email protected]
Keywords: restoration models, monitoring indexes, Atlantic Forest, private initiative
Fibria Celulose S.A. is the global leader in short
fiber pulp, operating three plants and a forest base of
974,400 hectares, of which 352,000 is intended for
environmental conservation. Fibria’s Environmental
Restoration Program has the goal of promoting the
restoration of 30.000 ha by the year 2025.
This Program, which began in 2010, has already
promoted restoration activities in more than 6,000
hectaresdistributed among the company’s properties
located in Espírito Santo, Minas Gerais and Bahia
States. Among the restoration techniques employed
by the Program are the planting of native species,
enrichment with high species diversity, natural
regeneration conduction and exotic and invasive alien
species control. The planting is done with great diversity
of species, employing two functional groups: filling and
diversity. The filling group consists of fast-growing and
wide canopy species, which provide rapid closure of
the planted area. On the other side, the diversity group
includes slow-growing and/or narrow canopy species
that attract wildlife and enhance the diversity of the area.
The areas under restoration process are evaluated using
a monitoring tool that consists of field evaluations, data
consolidation, interpretation of results and improvement
actions based on operational recommendations.
Monitoring indexes were defined in terms of their
relevance in the ecological restoration process, such
as native and exotic and invasive alien plants density,
number of species, percentage of accordance with the
planting methodology, proportion of successional
groups, equitability index (proportion of planted
species), average height of planted individuals, pioneer
species index, species dispersion index, and percentage
of crown cover.
The results obtained with the monitoring tool are useful
to validate or improve the restoration techniques and
adopt operational improvements, bringing gains in
environmental quality and reducing operating costs.
Also, this tool can lead to the development of new
restoration models.
References
ATTANASIO, C.M. 2008. Technical Manual:
restoration and monitoring of riparian vegetation
and the Legal Reserve for Agricultural certificationbiodiversity conservation in coffee plantations.
Imaflora, Piracicaba, 60 p.
195
UEHARA, T.H.K., GANDARA, F.B. 2009. Books of
riparian forest. Secretary of State for environment,
biodiversity and natural resources. SMA, New York,
68 p.
RODRIGUES, R. R., BRANCALION, P.H.S.,
ISERNHAGEN, I. 2009. The Atlantic forest
restoration Pact: concepts and referential actions
of forest restoration. LERF/ESALQ: BioAtlântica
Institute, São Paulo, 264p.
RODRIGUES, R. R., BRANCALION, P.H.S.,
PADOVEZI, A., FARAH, F.T., VIANI, R.,
BARRETO, T. E. 2011. Monitoring Protocol for
programs/projects of forest restoration. The Atlantic
forest restoration Pact. 2011, São Paulo, 40 p.
196
Biodiversity Conservation Planning for Klabin S.A. in Brazil:
a corporate experience in partnership with
The Nature Conservancy
Giovana Baggio de Bruns1, Leandro Baumgarten2, Anna Julia Passold3,
Marcelo Matsumoto4, Camila Kotsifas5, Ivone Satsuki Namikawa6,
Samantha Nazaré de Paiva7 , Mireli Moura Pitz 8
The Nature Conservancy, Curitiba-PR, Brazil,
[email protected] 2 [email protected] 3 [email protected]
4
[email protected] 5 [email protected]
6,7,8
Klabin S.A., Brazil
6
7
[email protected] [email protected] 8 [email protected]
1,2,3,4,5
1
Keywords: Biodiversity Conservation Plan, Conservation Areas Planning (CAP), The Nature Conservancy, Klabin,
FSC - Forest Stewardship Council, biodiversity monitoring, Atlantic Forest.
The natural remnants owned by forest companies
in Brazil are a huge conservation asset representing
hundreds of hectares in endangered ecosystem like the
Atlantic Forest. Its value becomes even greater when
their biodiversity is well known and the conservation
and restoration efforts are focused on the resilience of
their fauna, flora and natural resources. More so for
companies certified by Forest Stewardship Council
(FSC) and other certification schemes, such Klabin S.A.
Those companies are making significant improvements
in the stewardship of natural remnants, mainly regarding
High Conservation Values Areas functionality and
landscape planning.
Biodiversity management was planned using MIRADI,
software developed specifically for multi-stakeholder
conservation projects.
The Nature Conservancy and Klabin established a
partnership to develop a Biodiversity Conservation Plan
for company´s natural areas which form a mosaic within
Pinus and Eucalyptus plantations on the most threath
ecosystem in Brazil: Atlantic Forest.
Although region-wide high impact threats were not
observed, the assessment indicated that the most
frequent issues were invasive species in grasslands
(pinus and exotic grass species), illegal hunting, forest
fires and cattle impacts on native areas usually caused
by neighbor communities. These threats can cause
problems for biodiversity maintenance, therefore
monitoring is crucial to improve stewardship and
restoration efforts. The Conservation Targets suggested
for monitoring were: endangerous birds and midsize
mammals (jaguar,deer and monkey), sensitive habitat
(savanna, Atlantic forest and araucaria forest). Also
several special fragments were considered HCV areas
The methodology used for site evaluation, monitoring
plan development, and landscape design was based
on Conservation Areas Planning (CAP), a worldwide
known methodology developed by TNC, and GIS
tools applied to landscape analysis and planning. The
GIS tools used were - LandFrag, Corridor Design and
LegalGeo, the last one is developed by TNC in Brazil.
Areas located in 3 watersheds were evaluated in Southern
Brazil, in Santa Catarina State. In this region 47% of
the land is occupied by pinus and eucalyptus plantations
and the company owns almost 64 thousand hectares of
natural areas, (46% of Klabin’s properties). Even though
most of the natural fragments (average size from 15 ha
to 45 ha) present low integrity, the remnants of high
integrity are larger, representing on average 92% of the
total area of the natural fragments.
197
due to biodiversity relevance and/or their importance
for community.
The fragments located within Klabin´s areas are part of
important remnants of Atlantic Forest in this region,
notably the Araucaria forests ecosystem. Combining
monitoring of biodiversity conditions with continuous
improvement of stewardship actions and relationship
projects with surrounding community is crucial for
threat reduction and maintenance of fragments quality.
It is important to highlight that Klabin has already
adopted several environmental procedures in forestry
activities and has a restoration plan in place to minimize
impacts on natural resources as well as a relationship
and environmental education program.
References
Granizo, T. et al. 2016. Manual de Planejamento para
a Conservacao de Areas, PCA. TNC y USAID,
Quito, 204p.
Klabin S.A. 2012. Plano de Manejo Florestal Santa
Catarina. Klabin S.A, Otacilio Costa, 182 p.
198
Innovation and Biodiversity Conservation
Vinicius Suassuna Gonçalves dos Reis1,
João Carlos Augusti2, Ana Paula Pulito3
1
Fibria Celulose S.A., Rodovia Aracruz-Barra do Riacho, s/n, km 25, Aracruz-ES, Brazil,
1
[email protected]
2 ,3
Fibria Celulose S.A.
2
[email protected]
3
[email protected]
Keywords: Fibria, pulp, conservation, biodiversity, mosaic, forest plantation
Fibria has established itself as a Brazilian company
engaged in sustainable forest management capable of
creating value from renewable resources. With 19,000
employees, the company operates in seven states within
Brazil. Fibria owns 975,000 hectares of land, of which
352,000 hectares (36%) are dedicated to conservation
purposes. The wood is used for pulp production,
supplying global demand for high-quality products from
,.#ŀ5*&(.5 ),-.-85Ļ5)'*(3\-5'#(5',%.-5,5
Europe (42%), North America (25%) and Asia (23%).
#,#\-5 ),-.5*&(..#)(-5 ,5 &).5#(5 .",5").-*).-5
for conservation, the Brazilian Atlantic Rainforest, the
Cerrado and the Pampa. Fibria is developing biodiversity
conservation initiatives and projects to reduce loss in
these endangered biomes, with a feasible cost, in eight
thematic areas: wildlife protection, conservation areas,
restoration, landscape management, participation
in conservation forums, environmental education,
biodiversity-community projects, terrestrial and marine
monitoring. Its projects and initiatives align with the
#"#5 ,!.-65 ."5 )'*(3\-5 !)&-5 ,5 .)95 '*,)05
forest management in order to reduce negative impacts
of operations and increase positive impacts; Protect
high conservation value areas and endemic, endangered
and rare species; Mainstream biodiversity conservation
in its practices through environmental education and
biodiversity-related community projects. The Sustainable
),-.5)-#-5#(#.#.#05#-5)(5) 5#,#\-5')-.5#'*),.(.5
projects. Taking the landscape as a unit of management,
the collaboration between companies and nongovernmental organizations represents an opportunity
to test collaborative biodiversity conservation.
Environmental units for biodiversity monitoring were
created and the methodology was converged to drive
actions from the different companies toward a common
goal. Priority areas for restoration were also identified.
A biodiversity-community project, the Brazilian Parrot
(Amazona aestiva) Project, helped to decrease birdtrafficking. In three years, the proportion of nests that
were disturbed fell from 95% to 11%. Artificial nests
were installed and environmental education initiatives
were developed. As a result, disturbance of nests began
to decrease. The concept of using artificial nests was
adopted by the community. Residents installed nests near
."#,5")/--5(5()151."5)0,5."-85#,#\-5*,#0.5
natural heritage reserves (RPPN) and other preservation
areas also play important roles. In 2011, a nature reserve
in the state of São Paulo owned by Fibria was considered
relevant by ICMBio in conserving the southern muriqui
(Brachyteles arachnoides), a species of spider monkey
that is endemic to Brazil. The number of species identified
#(5 #,#\-5 ,-5 #-5 )(-.(.&35 #(,-#(!65 ,0&#(!5 ."5
biodiversity importance of landscape mosaics, where
forest plantations alternate with native forests. After
more than 10 years developing biodiversity conservation
projects, it has become clear that more environmentally
and cost-effective projects are needed. In order to
scale-up its conservation initiatives, Fibria decided to
work alongside partners and stakeholders, with a broad
biodiversity conservation planning process and allied
initiatives. The move toward valuation of ecosystem
services that would allow for the communication and
199
promotion of biodiversity conservation is promising
but it must evolve as part of a process that influences
decision-making.
References
2011. Sustainability Report Fibria. Avaiable in: http://
www.fibria.com.br/rs2011/pt/.
Mesquita, C.A.B. 2012. Sustainable Forest Mosaics.
Series 3. Conservation International, Rio de Janeiro,
p. 1-40.
200
201
Index of Authors
A
E
Abade, Natanael Antunes.......188
Abdala, Andrea.......180
Andrade, Sarah Domingues de O........185
Araujo, Luciana G........46
Augusti, João Carlos.......199
Edwards, David.......96
Euler, Ana Margarida.......179
Evija, Plone.......136
Ezebilo, Eugene E........92
B
Bahia, Natália C. Fidelis.......46
Ball, Alaine.......122
Barros, Ana Angélica Monteiro de.......129, 139
Baumgarten, Leandro.......197
Beisiegel, Beatriz.......159
Berkes, Fikret.......26, 34, 43
Borges, Paulo.......192
Brocardo, Carlos R........155, 168
Brokaw, Lilla Jessica.......137
Brun, Eleandro José.......80
Brun, Flávia Gizele König.......80
Bruns, Giovana Baggio de.......191, 197
Buļipopa, Nataļja.......136
Burns, Robert C........116
Bussolotti, Juliana Marcondes.......108
C
Campbell, Michael.......25, 44, 59
Carmo, Ana Paula Correa do.......193
Castello, Ana Carolina D........62
Castro, Juliana Ferreira de.......73
Castro, Rodrigo.......114
Chagas, Germano F........32
Chamy, Paula.......46
Coelho, Samuel.......62
Correia, Maria Célia Rodrigues.......139
Costa, Fernando Almeida.......188
Couto, Hilton Thadeu Zarate do.......80
D
Davidson-Hunt, Iain.......44, 45
Dias, Juliano Ferreira.......195
Dobbert, Lea Yamaguchi.......69
Duntemann, Mark.......90
202
F
Farinaci, Juliana S........46
Filho, Carlos Roberto Bastos Araujo.......159, 172
Fredman, Peter.......91, 96, 102
Freitas, Rodrigo Rodrigues de.......53
G
Gomes, Antonio do Nascimento.......193
Greco, Alexandre Verçosa.......139
Guimarães, Solange T. de Lima.......108
H
Hanazaki, Natalia.......27
Haque, C. Emdad.......40
I
Idrobo, C. Julián.......44, 45
Ilze, Stokmane.......136
Ito, Taiichi.......141, 148
J
Jensen, Frank S........89
Jensen, Frank Søndergaard.......96
K
Kawabata, Atsushi.......148
Khan, Shah Raees.......40
Kotsifas, Camila.......197
L
Laven, Daniel.......102
Leite, Eliana Cardoso.......62, 79
Lemos, Ginessa Corrêa.......100
M
Magro, Teresa Cristina.......10
Marques, Mel Simionato.......27
Matsumoto, Marcelo.......197
Mediato, Roberto.......195
Miranda, Flávia.......114
Morato, Ronaldo.......159, 172
Morato, Rose.......159, 172
Moreira, Jasmine Cardozo.......95
Mota, Mauricio Tavares da.......79
Mota, Thiago Duarte.......159, 172
Moura, Angelo Conrado.......195
N
Nakamura, Akihiro.......148
Nakamura, Elaine Mitie.......27
Namikawa, Ivone Satsuki.......194, 197
Neves, Alisson Santos.......188
Robim, Maria de Jesus.......100, 108
Rodarte, Ana Tereza Araújo.......139
Rodrigues, Apolonio.......155, 168
Ronqui, Daniele.......114
Ross, Helen.......52
S
Samartano, Luiz.......142
Santos, Jean Pierre.......172
Santos, Vania Mara Moreira dos.......95
Sarcinelli, Tathiane Santi.......195
Silva Filho, Demóstenes Ferreira da.......10, 61, 69, 80, 86
Seixas, Cristiana S........46
Seixas, Cristiana Simão.......53
Sievänen, Tuija.......96
Silva, Marina Xavier da.......155, 168
Souza, Saulo E. X .Franco de.......32, 180
Stein, Taylor V........21
Stuart, Nicole.......90
T
O
Teixeira, Getulio Batista.......100
Oliveira, Haydée Torres de.......150
Oliveira, Patrick de.......139
U
P
Pacheco, Reinaldo T. Boscolo.......103
Paiva, Samantha Nazaré de.......194, 197
Passold, Anna Julia.......197
Paula, Rogério Cunha de.......149, 159, 172
Pimentel, Douglas de Souza.......115, 129, 139
Pitz, Mireli Moura.......197
Polizel, Jefferson Lordello.......69
Portela, Samuel.......114
Premauer, Julia.......34
Pulito, Ana Paula.......193, 195, 199
R
Raimundo, Sidnei.......73, 103
Reinius, Sandra Wall.......102
Reis, Vinicius Suassuna Gonçalves dos.......199
Urzedo, Danilo I. de.......137, 185
V
Valenti, Mayla Willik.......150
Viana, Sabrina Mieko.......86
Vidal, Edson.......32, 137, 180, 185
Viergever, Marcel.......114
Vistad, Odd Inge.......96
Vogliotti, Alexandre.......155, 168
W
Waldhoff, Philippe.......180
Williams, Daniel R........15
Z
Zanetti, Eder.......142, 192
203
International Scientific Committee
Alexandre Schiavetti,
Maria Isabel Amando de Barros,
Universidade Estadual de Santa Cruz, Brazil
MS. Forest Engineer, Brazil
David M. Edwards,
Peter Fredman,
Forest Research, United Kingdom
Mid Sweden University
and the European Tourism Research Institute, Sweden
Daniela Custódio Talora,
Universidade Estadual de Santa Cruz, Brazil
Rogerio Cunha de Paula,
CENAP – ICMBio, Brazil
Demóstenes Ferreira da Silva Filho,
ESALQ, University of São Paulo, Brazil
Silvio Frosini de Barros Ferraz,
Dorothy H. Anderson,
College of Natural Resources, NCSU, USA
Taiichi Ito,
University of Tsukuba, School of Life and Environ. Sciences,
Douglas de Souza Pimentel,
Japan
Universidade Federal Fluminense, Brazil
Taylor Stein,
Frank S. Jensen,
University of Florida, School F. Resources and Conservation,
Forest & Landscape Denmark, University of Copenhagen
USA
Jessica Leahy,
School of Forest Resources, University of Maine
Katia M. P. M. de Barros Ferraz,
Tuija Sievänen,
Finnish Forest Research Institute, Finland
Leide Y. Takahashi,
Yu-Fai Leung,
Fundação Grupo Boticário de Proteção à Natureza, Brazil
College of Natural Resources, NCSU, USA
Maria Inez Pagani,
Universidade Estadual Paulista - UNESP, Brazil
SPONSORS:
PARTNERS:
204
EXECUTIVE
PRODUCER:
205
Precisamos de pessoas
para dar sentido aos lugares.
São necessários lugares
para dar sentido à vida das pessoas.
The role of mankind as custodian
gives meaning to places,
and places are a point of reference
in people’s lives.
Pictures by Teresa Magro
ISBN 978-85-86481-25-3
206

PROCEEDINGS of the Protected Areas and Place Making

Transcrição

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