Selection of Trichoderma stromaticum isolates for

Biological Control 51 (2009) 130–139
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Biological Control
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Selection of Trichoderma stromaticum isolates for efficient biological control
of witches’ broom disease in cacao
Leandro Lopes Loguercio a,*, Aítala Carvalho de Carvalho a,b, Givaldo Rocha Niella c, Jorge Teodoro De Souza d,
Alan W. Villela Pomella b,1
a
Dept. de Ciências Biológicas (DCB), Universidade Estadual de Santa Cruz (UESC), Rod. BR 415, Km 16, Ilhéus-BA 45662-000, Brazil
Almirante Cacau Ltda, Fazenda Almirante, BR 101 p/Barro Preto, Km 2, Cx. Postal 55, Itajuípe-BA 45630-000, Brazil
c
Centro de Pesquisas do Cacau (CEPEC/CEPLAC), Rod. BR 415, Km 22, Cx. Postal 07, Ilhéus-BA 45600-970, Brazil
d
Centro de Ciências Agrárias Biológicas e Ambientais (CCABA), Universidade Federal do Recôncavo da Bahia (UFRB), Centro, Cruz das Almas-BA 44380-000, Brazil
b
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history:
Received 5 February 2009
Accepted 10 June 2009
Available online 14 June 2009
Keywords:
Moniliophthora
Biocontrol
Screening
Theobroma cacao
Antagonistic interaction
Mycoparasitism
Hemibiotrophic pathogen
a b s t r a c t
Witches’ broom is the most devastating disease of cacao in Brazil, and losses to it entail serious socioeconomical and environmental problems. Biological control of the causal agent Moniliophthora perniciosa
(Mp) using the antagonistic fungus Trichoderma stromaticum (Ts) is promising, although the identification
of superior isolates is necessary. Here, we report a study on the selection of more effective Ts isolates
based on field experiments. Sixty-three Ts isolates from a local collection were applied on brooms and
placed under typical conditions of shaded-cacao plantations in southeastern Bahia State (Brazil), during
two periods of three months each. The percentages of Ts sporulation and incidence and severity of Mp
were the parameters used for biocontrol assessments. The results from both experiments were very distinct, indicating a high phenotypic variation in this collection and suggesting a significant effect of the
environment in the Ts–Mp interaction. Ts-sporulation rates were negatively correlated with the presence
of Mp in the brooms and a number of isolates reduced Mp incidence more efficiently than the reference
isolate. Contrasting isolates in their efficiency of reducing Mp incidence were selected and further tested
in four subsequent field trials for validation purposes. The results partially confirmed their biocontrol
phenotypes but also suggested isolate-specific responses to environmental variations. Inhibition of Mpbasidiospore germination by total protein secreted in culture supernatants of Ts isolates correlated well
with field results and revealed a potentially useful procedure for pre-screening of large collections
towards selection of better biological control isolates. The characteristics and efficiency of the method
as a reliable protocol for identification of superior BCAs in the witches’ broom—cacao pathosystem is
discussed.
Ó 2009 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
The witches’ broom of cacao, caused by the fungus Moniliophthora perniciosa (Stahel) Aime & Phillips-Mora (ex Crinipellis—Aime
and Philips-Mora, 2005), has become the most devastating disease
on this crop in the Brazilian States of Amazonas, Bahia, and Espírito
Santo. For the last 17 years, losses in cacao production in Bahia
have averaged 60%, leading to severe economical, social and environmental problems (Donald, 2004; Griffith et al., 2003; Anderbrhan et al., 1999; Pereira et al., 1996). M. perniciosa (Mp) is a
hemibiotrophic pathogen, whose basidiospores infect plant meri-
* Corresponding author. Address: Bio-Protection Research Centre, Lincoln University, P.O. Box 84, Canterbury 7647, New Zealand. Fax: +64 3 325 3864.
E-mail addresses: [email protected], [email protected] (L.L. Loguercio).
1
Present address: Sementes Farroupilha, Rua Major Gote, No. 585, 8° Andar, Cx.
Postal 90, Patos de Minas-MG 38702-054, Brazil.
1049-9644/$ - see front matter Ó 2009 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.biocontrol.2009.06.005
stematic tissues and develop intercellularly, causing loss of apical
dominance, hypertrophy, and hyperplasia (biotrophic phase); later,
tissue necrosis of the broom is induced, whose exploitation (saprophytic phase) leads to formation of basidiocarps, the source of the
infectious propagules (Silva et al., 2002; Griffith et al., 2003;
Meinhardt et al., 2008).
Phytosanitation and protective fungicide applications are common practices to control Mp (Purdy and Schmidt, 1996; Costa et al.,
2006). The use of copper-based fungicides has shown to be economically nonviable and technically ineffective in some cases
(e.g. Krauss and Soberanis, 2002), whereas systemic fungicides
are not routinely used in cacao farming, due to high costs and risks
of contaminating cacao beans and the environment (Meinhardt
et al., 2008). The replacement of diseased trees with genetically
resistant clonal varieties is considered the most viable alternative
(Lopes et al., 2003). However, this results in a delay for production
to restart due to the long life cycle of cacao, and the possibility of
L.L. Loguercio et al. / Biological Control 51 (2009) 130–139
resistance breakdown threatens the long-term sustainability of
this approach. Integrated pest management (IPM) is, therefore, a
complementary and necessary strategy (Costa et al., 2006).
Biological control is an important component of IPM programs
as it helps both in reducing diseases to economically viable levels
and decreasing the use of chemical fungicides (Krauss and
Soberanis, 2001; Bajwa and Kogan, 2004). Increasing public concerns about pesticide residues in food products and the degrading
effects of fungicides on soil biota that negatively impacts soil
health (Van-Zwieten, 2004; Van-Zwieten et al., 2004), indicate that
an environmentally sustainable method for disease control in cacao is necessary. In areas of organic certified production of cocoa
with restrictions to use of chemicals, biologically based management appears to be one of the few viable approaches (Krauss
et al., 2006). Antagonistic fungi such as Trichoderma spp. have
shown significant success against plant diseases in several agricultural systems (reviewed by Benitez et al., 2004; Kubicek et al.,
2001; Hjeljord and Tronsmo, 1998). Studies on the potential of
Trichoderma-based biological control against pod diseases in cocoa-producing regions of Peru (Krauss and Soberanis, 2002), Cameroon (Tondje et al., 2007; Deberdt et al., 2008) and Brazil (Pomella
et al., 2007; Hanada et al., 2008, 2009) indicate promise for this approach. The most likely mode of action of Trichoderma in these
cases is parasitism of the pathogen. Significant diversity in species
of Trichoderma has been described (Druzhinina and Kubicek, 2005;
Samuels et al., 2006), thereby providing the possibility of finding
distinct biocontrol mechanisms and host specificities (Hjeljord
and Tronsmo, 1998; Lorito, 1998). In addition, antagonists naturally found in the areas of application tend to be more easily and
widely acceptable by the public, with potentially faster benefits.
Trichoderma stromaticum Samuels & Pardo-Schultheiss (Samuels et al., 2000) is a mycoparasite of Mp that is promising as a biological control agent (BCA) for the witches’ broom disease of cacao,
as it colonizes the necrotic tissue of the plant and prevents basidiocarp production by the pathogen (Pomella et al., 2007; Hjorth
et al., 2003; Bastos, 1996, 2000; Costa et al., 1996). However, the
isolate currently used in the cacao-growing area of southeastern
Bahia was introduced from the Amazon region and its field performance is greatly influenced by environmental factors (Santos,
2005; Sanogo et al., 2002). T. stromaticum (Ts) isolates are naturally
widespread in Bahia and comprise two distinct genetic groups, I
and II, with the latter showing a higher level of variability within
the group, based on AFLP analysis (De Souza et al., 2006). Moreover, isolates from group II tend to persist longer as endophytes
in cacao trees than those of group I (De Souza et al., 2008). Since
the teleomorphic form of the genus, Hypocrea stromatica (Bezerra
et al., 2003), was also identified in this cacao region, genotypic variability of Ts is thereby expected to be found. Hence, the search for
locally adapted isolates that may be more efficient as BCAs against
Mp is likely to be worthwhile (Costa et al., 2006). In addition, the
ideal situation of achieving a ‘‘biological broom pruning” by treating the cacao canopy with Ts would avoid the need to remove dead
brooms, one the most expensive practices on cocoa farming for
control of witches’ broom (Pomella et al., 2007).
Due to the complexity of variables involved in the phenotype of
a BCA (Rajkumar et al., 2005; Elad, 2003; Hermosa et al., 2000;
Knudsen et al., 1997), field experiments are more likely to render
a methodology capable of selecting superior isolates because all
genetic and environmental factors are considered in an integrative
manner. Nevertheless, this strategy might be hampered if an
excessive number of isolates are to be screened, due to potential
space or time constraints, or resource limitation. In this study, 63
Ts isolates were assessed for their antagonistic capabilities against
the witches’ broom pathogen, under usual field conditions of cacao
farming in southeastern Bahia. The objectives were to establish a
reliable strategy for identifying and selecting superior strains for
131
improvement of this method for disease control. Additional studies
were also performed, to investigate the potential of using in vitro
methods for a first round of isolates selection, prior to screening
experiments in the field.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Isolates and culture conditions
Sixty-three isolates of T. stromaticum (Ts) were provided by
Almirante Cacau Ltda (Itajuípe-BA, Brazil) for use in this study.
They were previously collected in the tropical cacao-growing region of southeastern Bahia (Brazil) and classified into genetic
groups I and II based on AFLP analysis (De Souza et al., 2006), as
shown in Table 1. The abbreviations ‘GI’ and ‘GII’ are used throughout this text. Of the 63 isolates available, 54 were from GI and 9
from GII. An isolate designated ‘TVC’ (AM7, GII) was kindly provided by the Centro de Pesquisas do Cacau (CEPEC/CEPLAC). Because this isolate has been made available to producers since
1999 as the basis of the product ‘Tricovab’ for biological control
of M. perniciosa (Mp), it was used as the Ts isolate of reference.
Pieces of 0.25-cm2 filter paper containing spores from Ts isolates stored at 4 °C (Dhingra and Sinclair, 1985) were placed in Petri dishes containing potato-dextrose-agar medium for incubation
at room temperature (25 °C) for 14 days until sporulation (Sanogo et al., 2002). The conidia that formed were collected and suspended in distilled water, and their concentrations adjusted with
a haemocytometer to 107 sporesmL 1. These suspensions were applied to the dead Mp-infected cacao-stem segments (brooms) used
for the biocontrol field experiments.
For the experiments involving extraction of total secreted protein, the Ts spore-containing filter papers were transferred into liquid TLE medium (0.1% Bacto peptone, 0.03% urea, 0.2% KH2PO4,
0.14% (NH4)2SO4, 0.03% MgSO4, 0.03% CaCl2, and 0.1% trace elements, composed of 2.5% citric acid, 2.5% ZnSO4, 0.5% Fe(NH4)2(SO4)26H2O, 0.125% CuSO45H2O, 0.025% MnSO4, 0.025% NaNO3,
0.025% H3BO3). Two alternative carbon sources, 0.5% glucose or
0.5% dried mycelia of Mp + plus 0.03% glucose, were used. Ts isolates were cultured in 1-L flasks, containing 500 mL of medium,
under 110 rpm constant agitation for 6 days at 25 °C, with the
supernatants being processed afterwards as described below.
2.2. Broom collection and preparation
Brooms of several lengths, averaging 0.75 cm in diameter, were
collected from plants located in areas heavily infested with Mp. To
select those for use in the experiments, brooms were tested for the
presence of the pathogen and for incidental, spontaneous Ts colonization. Segments of 2 cm in length were cut from the ends of
each broom and placed inside humid chambers of small plastic
bags containing wet filter paper. These segments were incubated
at 25 °C for 7 days; appearance of the characteristic white, cotton-like mycelia, and white-to-green sporulation were the indicators of Mp and Ts, respectively. Brooms were standardized to
lengths of 20 cm and only those containing Mp and free of Ts were
used.
2.3. Biological control field experiments
Two screening experiments were conducted with the 63-isolates collection, the first extending from 9 May until 14 August,
2003, and the second from 31 July until 6 October, 2003. Rainfall
and temperature data were collected from the station ‘591’ at the
Almirante Cacau Farm. For these field trials, the 63 Ts isolates
and the control treatment without Ts were applied on the 20
132
L.L. Loguercio et al. / Biological Control 51 (2009) 130–139
Table 1
Description of the T. stromaticum isolates used in this study.
Isolate IDa
Local of originb
Sourcec
Genetic groupd
AM6
AM7*
BA1
BA2
BA4
BA6
BA7
BA8
BA10
BA11
BA12
BA13
BA14
BA15
BA17
BA19
BA20
BA21
BA22
BA23
BA24
BA25
BA26
BA27
BA28
BA29
BA30
BA31
BA32
BA33
BA34
BA35
BA36
BA37
BA38
BA39
BA40
BA41
BA42
BA43
BA44
BA45
BA46
BA47
BA48
BA51
BA52
BA53
BA60
BA64
BA65
BA66
BA67
BA68
BA69
BA70
Medicilandia
Belém
Ubaitaba (plant 1)
Ubaitaba (plant 1)
Ubaitaba (plant 2)
Aurelino Leal
Ibirataia - Ipiaú
Ituberá (plant 1)
Ituberá (plant 2)
Ituberá (plant 2)
Ituberá (plant 3)
Ituberá (plant 4)
Ituberá (plant 5)
Ituberá (plant 6)
Ituberá (plant 7)
Ubatã - Ibirapitanga (1)
Ubatã - Ibirapitanga (1)
Ubatã - Ibirapitanga (1)
Ubatã - Ibirapitanga (2)
Ibirapitanga
Buerarema (plant 2)
Buerarema (plant 1)
Arataca
Camacã (2)
Camacã (2)
Camacã (1)
Itajuipe
Itajuipe
Itajuipe
Itajuipe
Inema-Ilhéus
Inema-Ilhéus
Inema-Ilhéus
Inema-Ilhéus
Inema-Ilhéus
Coaraci
Coaraci
Coaraci
Ibicaraí
Ibicaraí
Ibicaraí
Ibicaraí
Uruçuca (4)
Uruçuca (1)
Uruçuca (2)
Uruçuca (3)
Uruçuca (1)
Uruçuca (1)
Una
Lomanto Junior
Lomanto Junior
Lomanto Junior
SAP.4
NAP.25.12
Itabuna
Mascote
–
Broom
Fallen broom 1
Fallen broom 2
Broom
Broom
Fallen broom
Broom
Broom 1
Broom 2
Fallen broom
Broom
Broom
Broom
Fallen broom
Broom 1
Broom 2
Broom 3
Broom
Broom
Pod
Fallen broom
Pod
Pod 1
Pod 2
–
Pod
Broom 1
Broom 2
Broom 3
Broom 1
Broom 2
Broom 3
Broom 4
Broom 5
Broom 1
Broom 2
Broom 3
Pod
Broom 1
Broom 2
Broom 3
Broom
Pod
–
Pod
Branch cortex
Pod seeds
–
–
Broom
T. grandiflora plant
–
–
Broom
–
II
II
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
II
II
I
I
I
I
I
I
II
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
II
II
I
I
II
II
I
I
I
I
a
ID system based on previous study (De Souza et al., 2006); AM,isolate from the
Amazon region of Brazil (State of Pará); BA, isolate from the State of Bahia. Seven
other isolates tested in the present work (labeled ALF-540, -541, -557, -1092 to
-1095) were not previously studied, therefore, they were not converted to the ‘BA/
AM’ system. *‘TVC’ isolate used in the marketed biocontrol product ‘Tricovab’.
b
Municipality names. Numbers in parenthesis indicate different locations in the
same Municipality. When two names are presented in an entry, the first is from the
District/Village and the second is from the Municipality.
c
Broom, dead branch/twig from the cacao-tree canopy; Fallen broom, dead
broom from the ground; Pod, cacao fruit from the canopy; dashes indicate unknown
source. Numbers on right indicate different positions in the same plant. T. grandiflora, Theobroma grandiflora.
d
De Souza et al. (2006).
cm-length brooms, which were hung at an average height of
1.50 ± 0.3 m (above ground, below the canopy) inside a cacao plantation at the Almirante Farm. The cacao trees were planted in rows
spaced 3 3 m. Spore suspensions of the Ts isolates were amended
with 2% sucrose and 2% OPPAÒ (mineral oil—Petrobrás, Macaé-RJ,
Brazil) for application onto the brooms by spraying until near
run off. This formulation is standard for application of Tricovab
(Pomella et al., 2007) and is known to not affect disease development (Pomella, unpublished data). Each Ts isolate was sprayed
onto a set of 21 brooms, which were randomly distributed in the
field in three groups of seven brooms to facilitate data recording.
Brooms treated only with the formulation (2% sucrose + 2% OPPAÒ)
served as controls.
From the results of each field experiment, the Ts isolates were
ranked according to their biological control activity, based on the
levels of Mp incidence. Isolates with the same Mp incidence were
further ranked based on Mp severity. After these biocontrol ranks
were established, the resulting lists of 63 ordered isolates were
equally divided into three categories or classes. Each category
(‘high’, ‘medium’ and ‘low’) corresponded to a third of the isolates
containing the highest, intermediate and lowest biocontrol-activity
phenotypes, respectively.
For the validation experiments, four selected isolates (BA4 and
8 from GI; BA29 and 66 from GII) were studied in subsequent years
for their activity against Mp, in a cacao plantation located at an
experimental area of CEPEC/CEPLAC. The TVC isolate (AM7, GII)
used in the Tricovab product was included as a reference for comparison purposes. Two 3-month experiments and two 7-month
experiments were performed. Five brooms sprayed with an individual Ts isolate comprised a treatment; treatments were distributed in a randomized-block design, with eight replicates (blocks)
in a single experiment, totaling of 40 brooms per treatment. Controls were sprayed with distilled water.
For both screening and validation experiments, only a singleapplication treatment was used for testing the Ts isolates. The
observation and recording of Ts-sporulating brooms during the
field trials were done two to three times a week. Afterwards, all
the brooms (sporulated and non-sporulated) were brought to the
laboratory, cut into six (for screening experiments) and four (for
validation experiments) equal-length pieces and incubated in humid chambers at room temperature for 7–10 days. The biological
variables assessed were the accumulated percentage of Ts sporulation at the end of the field trial and the residual presence of Mp
after humid-chamber incubation. The latter was evaluated on the
basis of the percentages of brooms (Mp incidence) and broom
pieces (Mp severity) per treatment showing the white mycelia of
Mp. During the field trial, the growth of Mp is typically not observable as it is the basidiocarp production, requiring incubation at
humid-chamber in the lab for mycelia detection.
2.4. Inhibition of Mp-basidiospore germination
For supernatant processing and extraction of total secreted protein, Ts isolates were grown for 6 days in TLE liquid media containing either glucose or dried Mp mycelia as carbon sources and the
cultures were filtered using 3 MM paper to obtain the supernatant.
The total protein secreted in 600-mL of supernatant was extracted
on ice as previously described (Loguercio et al., 2002), with modifications. Ammonium sulphate for a final concentration of 75% (w/
v) was slowly added under gentle stirring over 40–50 min and
keeping on ice for at least 1 h to complete precipitation. Each mixture was centrifuged at 30,500 g for 20 min in 50-mL screw-cap
plastic tubes to obtain the total protein pellet. The supernatant
was discarded and the pellet dried at room temperature
(15 min). Pellets from a single isolate were pooled and resuspended in 2.5 mL of PBS buffer (pH 7.2), thereby allowing the protein content of a culture supernatant to be 240 times concentrated.
To remove the remaining salt, the suspension was dialyzed overnight at 4 °C against 2 L of water. The dialysis membrane had a
L.L. Loguercio et al. / Biological Control 51 (2009) 130–139
133
cut-off of 4000–8000 Da. The protein samples were quantified by
the dye-binding method of Bradford (1976).
Each of five different quantities (0.1, 0.5, 1.0, 5.0 and 10.0 lg) of
total protein, extracted from the culture supernatant of each Ts isolate, were mixed with 2 104 basidiospores of Mp and spread onto
a Petri dish containing 2% agar media. After 4.5 h of incubation at
room temperature, a drop of cotton-blue stain in 20% lactophenol
was added to stop the Mp-basidiospore germination. The number
of germinated spores was counted directly on the Petri dish, using
a light microscope at 400 magnification. Spores were considered
as germinated when the length of the germ tube exceeded the
spore length. The germination percentages were the average of
readings from three different Petri plates per treatment.
2.5. Statistical analyses
The results from the two field screening trials were subjected to
correlation-regression analysis with data pairs corresponding to Ts
sporulation in the field as the independent variable and residual
Mp presence (incidence and severity) after humid chamber as the
dependent variable. For the correlation-regression analysis related
to field and in vitro results, the above Ts sporulation, Mp incidence
and severity results were the dependent variables, whereas the
independent variables were the percentages of Mp-basidiospore
germination after incubation with total secreted protein from Ts
isolates. Results from the same 10 isolates were used in each
regression analysis, being four isolates from the ‘high’, two from
the ‘medium’ and four from the ‘low’ biocontrol-activity class. Statistical significance of regression was assessed by ANOVA.
The results from the four subsequent validation experiments,
with the five Ts isolates selected for comparison, were first tested
for normal distribution of data by the Lilliefors test (Lilliefors,
1967), with the percentage data of Mp incidence previously transformed by the square root of ‘x + 1’ (Steel and Torry, 1980). Since
some samples had the null hypothesis for normality rejected
(p < 0.05) in each of the four experiments, the non-parametric
Kruskall–Wallis test was employed separately for each experiment.
When the H value was significant (p < 0.05), means comparison
was performed by the Student–Newman–Keuls test (p < 0.10).
The normal distribution of the Mp-basidiospore germination
data was confirmed by the Lilliefors test, so ANOVA was performed
with amounts of protein and biocontrol activity classes as the
sources of variation (significance was considered at the p < 0.10 level). Since media with either carbon sources can be used to compare phenotypic classes of Ts, the statistical analysis was
performed for each medium independently. For all the ANOVA
analyses, means comparisons were performed by the Student’s ttest. All statistical analyses were performed using the open-access
statistical software ‘BioEstat 5.0’ (Ayres et al., 2007).
3. Results
3.1. Assessment of M. perniciosa control and field sporulation of
T. stromaticum
A collection of 63 Ts isolates, most of which collected within the
main cacao-producing region in southeastern Bahia (De Souza
et al., 2006), was evaluated for antagonism against Mp. Two experiments were performed in which brooms were sprayed with the
isolates in a single-application treatment and set above ground,
under usual field conditions of cacao plantations (Fig. 1). The percentage of brooms showing Ts sporulation at the end of the field
trial (Fig 1a) indicated colonization by the isolates, and the percentage of these brooms showing growth of the phytopathogen
mycelia after a humid-chamber incubation (Fig 1b) indicated the
Fig. 1. Aspects of the two major parameters used to assess biocontrol efficiency of
T. stromaticum isolates under usual conditions of cacao plantations in southeastern
Bahia. (a) Aspect of T. stromaticum sporulation on brooms during the field tests
(white bar = 2 cm); (b) Aspect of the residual white mycelium of M. perniciosa after
humid-chamber incubation of brooms previously tested in the field (black
bar = 2 cm); (c) levels of rainfall and temperature variation during field trials
(indicated over the bars).
residual presence of Mp (incidence and severity), after the antagonistic interaction took place. The weather conditions were different
for the two experiments. The first occurred in a period of a higher
rainfall and higher maximum and minimum temperatures, which
showed an overall descending pattern as the season progressed
(Fig. 1c). The second was performed in a period of lower rainfall
and lower temperatures, although the ascending period for temperature had started. It is noteworthy that in May, 52% of total
rainfall (146.4 mm) occurred during 4 days at the end of the month
(Fig. 1c).
Since a decrease in the pathogen survival is expected after the
antagonistic interaction in the field, the presence of Mp remaining
in the brooms was used as a ranking parameter to identify superior
BCAs. After ranking, three basic phenotypic categories resulted
from equally dividing the total number of isolates, i.e. high, medium
and low antagonistic activity (Table 2). In both experiments, the
control treatment with no Ts application showed low average levels
of spontaneous sporulation in the field (6%), and the residual
incidence and severity of Mp was about 100% and 60%, respectively.
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L.L. Loguercio et al. / Biological Control 51 (2009) 130–139
Table 2
Classification of 63 T. stromaticum isolates based on the biocontrol phenotypes observed in the two field experiments.
Phenotypea
Residual M. perniciosa (%)
Exp. 1
Exp. 2
Exp. 1
Exp. 2
Exp. 1
Exp. 2
GI
G II
79.1
66.9
56.5
67.50
32.9
15.6
12.0
20.18
5.8
31.6
60.3
32.58
64.0
80.0
92.6
78.89
1.9
16.8
34.1
17.61
37.3
55.0
65.2
52.51
Alf-557; BA2, 8, 23, 11, 26, 32
BA69, 28, 40, 46
Alf-541,-1092; BA4, 43, 44, 51, 60
BA29
BA66
AM6, 7; BA53
Incidence
High
Medium
Low
Total mean
Representative isolatesb
Ts field sporulation (%)
Severity
Italic values indicate the averages.
a
The isolates were ranked as a function of the Mp incidence and severity values observed after field trials; an independent ranking was performed for each experiment,
with the resulting list of 63 ordered isolates being equally divided into the three ‘high’, ‘medium’ and ‘low’ biocontrol-activity classes indicated (see Section 2). Values on the
table are the averages of all isolates belonging to the corresponding class.
b
Only the isolates that ranked consistently on the same third (phenotype) on the two experiments are indicated; G I and G II refers to the genetic groups described by AFLP
analysis in a previous work (De Souza et al., 2006); out of the 63 isolates tested, 54 were G I and 9 were G II.
The split of 63 Ts isolates into three groups revealed a concentration
of Mp incidences around an average value of 5.8% for the class with
high biocontrol activity in the first experiment, whereas in the second, the average Mp incidence was 64% for the same class (Table 2).
Isolates belonging to the genetic groups GI and GII (De Souza et al.,
2006), were found in all three classes in both experiments. From a
total of 1323 brooms evaluated in each experiment, 894 (67.5%)
showed Ts sporulation in the first experiment, whereas only 267
(20.2%) sporulated in the second, which indicated a higher discriminative power among isolates for experiment 1.
In terms of Mp incidences on a per isolate basis, an overview of
observations for the 63 isolates showed remarkably contrasting
outcomes from both experiments (Fig. 2). Although some isolates
were consistently ranked, being classified in the same category in
both experiments (Table 2), most changed their position among
classes between experiments (i.e. ranked high in the first experiment and medium or low in the second, and vice-versa—Fig. 2).
The extent of phenotypic variation among the tested Ts isolates
was much higher under the conditions of the first experiment, with
individual Mp incidence ranging from total absence (0%), found in
12 isolates (BA2, 8, 10, 23, 29, 32 35, 39, 47 and Alf-557, -1094,
-1095), up to 83.3% (isolate ALF-541). For experiment 2, Mp
incidence ranged from 41.6% to 100% (Fig. 2). In the second exper-
iment, a generally poorer biocontrol performance for the isolates
was observed, as shown by an overall higher incidence and severity
of Mp (Table 2, Fig. 2). In both experiments, very few brooms presented production of Mp basidiocarps, which occurred erratically
and, for this reason, was not considered in our analyses.
Upon inspection of the Ts sporulation and Mp incidence data
from both experiments, a possible inverse relationship between
these variables was noticed, so that a correlation–regression analysis was performed to test this hypothesis. A negative correlation
between these variables was apparent (Fig. 3), although a high
experimental variation was generally observed, as evidenced by
the scattering of the plotted data pairs and the relatively low values of the coefficients of determination (R2).
3.2. Performance of selected T. stromaticum isolates from GI and GII in
the field
Aimed at verifying the consistency against Mp of Ts isolates
screened under those two different environmental conditions
(Figs. 1 and 2, Table 2), a series of similar biological control experiments were established in subsequent years, in another experimental area of shaded cacao plantation. In addition, as indicated
by some preliminary work (Santos, 2005; Carvalho, 2006), the
Fig. 2. Comparative biocontrol activity (Mp incidence) for all 63 Ts isolates. Results from the first and second experiments are shown by black and grey bars, respectively. The
order of isolates along the x-axis is presented based on the rank from the experiment 1, considering a decreasing antagonism activity (increasing Mp incidence). Results were
based on the percentage of 21 brooms treated with each isolate that showed the growth of pathogen’s white mycelia in humid chamber, after field trials. The ‘star’ indicate
the TVC reference isolate.
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Fig. 3. Regression analysis between Ts sporulation in the field and remaining incidence and severity of Mp in the brooms. Data-pairs for all 63 Ts isolates were plotted. (a and
b) Correspond to the first and second experiment, respectively. Based on an ANOVA for the regressions, all results were statistically significant (p < 0.05).
hypothesis that Ts isolates from GI tend to perform better as antagonists to Mp than those from GII was also investigated. Two contrasting representatives (i.e. from different biocontrol classes—
Table 2) from GI, two from GII and the reference isolate were used
for these validation experiments. Based on the Kruskall–Wallis test
(p < 0.05), the isolates responded differently to each other, not only
in different experiments (Table 3) but also from what was previously observed (Table 2). For instance, GI isolates BA8 and BA4
(high and low classes on the screening trials, respectively—Table
2) inverted their behaviour relatively to each other on experiments
B and D (Table 3). A similar situation occurred for GII isolates BA29
and BA66 in experiments A, B and D, where no difference in biocontrol activity was detected (Table 3). An evaluation of the combined results from the four experiments, which accounted for a
total period of more than 1.5 years in the field, indicated that the
GI isolates were more effective in reducing survival of Mp in the
hanging brooms than GII isolates (Fig. 4).
3.3. Effects of the total protein secreted by T. stromaticum in liquid
culture on M. perniciosa-basidiospore germination
As an attempt to associate field results with an in vitro
parameter that could allow pre-screening of isolates to be further tested in field trials, the effects of total protein secreted
in the supernatant of Ts cultures upon germination of Mp basidiospores were assessed. Based on the ranking from the more
discriminative screening experiment 1, Ts isolates representing
the highest and lowest activity against Mp were compared
(Fig. 5). Considering the effects of increasing amounts of total secreted protein on the decrease of Mp-basidiospore germination,
ANOVA revealed statistically significant differences among protein amounts for both the high-(p < 0.05) and low-class
(p < 0.10) series. The interaction ‘biocontrol class protein
amounts’ was not significant, either on media with glucose
(p = 0.19) or with dried Mp mycelia (p = 0.67). Comparing the results between the contrasting biocontrol classes, inhibition of
Mp-basidiospore germination correlated well with field results,
as the group of isolates with highest biocontrol activity in the
field also showed higher inhibition of basidiospore germination
at all levels of total protein tested (Fig. 5). However, when
assessing pairwise comparisons at different amounts of total
protein, not all differences between the high and low classes
in both types of carbon sources were statistically significant
according to the t test (p < 0.10, Fig. 5). When assessing the effects of total secreted proteins of BA8 and BA4 isolates (GI) on
Mp-basidiospore germination, the results were compatible to
those of the high class (data not shown), thereby correlating well
with results from the validation field experiments (Fig. 4).
Table 3
Mp incidencea of five selected Ts isolates after four biocontrol field experiments.
Experim.
Control
Ts isolates
G II
A
B
C
D
avg
9.8 ± 0.23 ab
9.0 ± 0.04 a
10.0 ± 0.00 a
9.2 ± 0.28
9.51
GI
TVC
BA29
BA66
BA8
BA4
9.6 ± 0.29 a
8.4 ± 0.73 a
9.4 ± 0.33 ab
7.4 ± 1.08
8.70
9.5 ± 0.21 a
7.6 ± 1.04 a
7.5 ± 1.00 c
7.5 ± 1.14
8.03
9.3 ± 0.36 a
7.8 ± 0.84 a
9.7 ± 0.19 abd
6.5 ± 1.14
8.33
5.3 ± 1.05 b
3.9 ± 0.98 b
5.9 ± 1.50 ce
7.4 ± 1.13
5.63
7.5 ± 0.63 b
3.2 ± 1.09 b
8.2 ± 1.07 bcde
5.2 ± 1.39
6.03
Italic values indicate the averages.
a
Values on the Table are the square root-transformed mean ± SE percentages of Mp incidence (see Section 2). The two extreme values of 10.0 and 3.2 in the table
correspond to 100.0% and 9.2%, respectively.
b
Statistics performed by a non-parametric analysis of variance (Kruskall–Wallis test, p < 0.05) on a per experiment basis; H value was not significant in experiment ‘D’.
Means with same letters do not significantly differ by the Student–Newman–Keuls test (p < 0.10).
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Fig. 4. Summary of results from biocontrol experiments performed to validate the screening of Ts isolates. The average and standard error bars represent data from all four
experiments combined (see Table 3 for results from individual experiments).
In order to validate the association observed between in vitro
and field data, a correlation–regression analysis was performed.
Results only for those amounts of total protein that showed a larger contrast between classes in terms of inhibitory effects on Mpbasidiospore germination (Fig. 5) are shown in Table 4. Despite
both media tested showing differences between contrasting biocontrol classes (Fig. 5), ANOVA of the regression showed statistical
significance (p < 0.10) only for those data-pairs in which supernatant proteins were secreted in medium with glucose (Table 4).
Mp severity and Ts sporulation parameters showed a significant
correlation with Mp-basidiospore germination for both protein
amounts tested, whereas Mp incidence did so only for 10 lg of total protein (Table 4).
4. Discussion
The establishment of a sufficiently reliable strategy for identifying superior biological control isolates must consider the local biotic and abiotic conditions where the BCA will be applied (Howell,
2003). An assessment of local T. stromaticum (Ts) germplasm was
conducted in the most important cocoa-producing region of Brazil,
the tropical southeastern Bahia State, with isolates characterized
genetically and phenotypically (De Souza et al., 2006; Carvalho,
2006). Ts sporulation and Mp incidence and severity (Fig. 1) were
reliable biological parameters for assessment of the Ts genotype–
environment interaction and were useful in establishing biological
control capabilities (Fig. 2, Table 2). Ts sporulation can be considered a measure of both the antagonistic capacity and environmental adaptability of the tested isolates, since it represents the
completion of a life cycle at the expense of the mycoparasitized
host. However, not all brooms colonized by Ts (a characteristic assessed by visual inspection of sporulation) became Mp-free,
although most tend to be (Bastos, 2000; Hjorth et al., 2003). Since
the remaining incidence of Mp in the brooms (Fig 1b) was a direct
way to assess the final antagonistic results of Ts isolates, this
parameter was considered to be more reliable as a basis to rank
the 63 Ts isolates tested (Fig. 2). Although, the lack of assessable
basidiocarp production in any experiment prevented a further indepth description of Ts isolates biocontrol capabilities, it is logic
to assume that only those brooms in which Mp remained alive
are the ones with potential to produce basidiospores.
Based on a separate rank per screening experiment, a significant
variation within and between experiments for the same set of isolates was observed with regard to Ts–Mp antagonism (Fig. 2). These
overall contrasting results suggest that the Ts response to the environment (Fig. 1c) is likely to be isolate-specific. The genetic variation of these isolates has already been established (De Souza et al.,
2006) and the teleomorphs of Ts have been found in the collection
area (Bezerra et al., 2003). Therefore, it is likely that such a variability within Ts populations provides enough opportunity for the
occurrence of distinct Ts genotypes with specific responses to the
environment (Costa et al., 2006), so that a change in their relative
biocontrol potentials would not be unexpected. The differences in
results between experiments also suggest that, in terms of survival
inside brooms, Mp can cope better with its mycoparasite when
weather conditions are more like those in experiment 2 (Figs. 1c
and 2).
The extent to which Ts spore production and biocontrol effects
are inversely related can be seen from the negative correlation between these parameters in both experiments (Table 2, Fig. 3). This
concurs with previous work showing that higher levels of Ts sporulation tend to yield lower levels of Mp incidences after field trials
(Costa et al., 2006; Hjorth et al., 2003). In addition, the level of variation observed from the correlation–regression analysis (Fig. 3)
suggests that the magnitude of this association varies according
to isolate-specific interactions with the environment. From a
screening perspective, Ts field-sporulation data could provide
information earlier in the research process, perhaps serving as
pre-screening method for larger collections of isolates. However,
since the ‘high Ts sporulation/low Mp incidence’ association was
not strictly observed for several isolates (Fig. 3), the assessment
of both parameters simultaneously provides a more precise characterization of the isolates, without too much greater labor
intensity.
The results from the screening experiments were further explored by four subsequent validation experiments that included
the same set of five Ts isolates, selected from both genetic groups
and with contrasting biocontrol phenotypes. The tendency for
varying results in Mp incidences among and within isolates (Table
3 and Fig. 2) confirmed the strong influence of a changing environment from one experiment to another (e.g. see Fig. 1c). Nevertheless, an analysis of the combined results from all four experiments,
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L.L. Loguercio et al. / Biological Control 51 (2009) 130–139
totaling >1.5 years in the field (Fig. 4), strongly suggests that the
isolates from GI tend to be more effective BCAs than GII isolates,
even when considering a wider range of environments. Only in certain conditions, such as those of experiment C (Table 3), the GII-
Fig. 5. Inhibition of Mp basidiospores germination by total protein secreted by Ts
isolates representing the contrasting biocontrol classes from experiment 1 (‘high’
and ‘low’). The error bars correspond to five replicates, i.e. five Ts representatives
randomly chosen among the 21 isolates of a class. The protein secreted in the
supernatants was obtained from cultures grown in TLE medium with two types of
carbon sources (top and bottom graphs) for 6 days. Differences in Mp germination
for increasing amounts of protein were statistically significant by ANOVA (p < 0.05)
only within the high class series, in both carbon sources (not shown). Probability
values (p) from t tests comparing high and low classes pairwise, within each protein
amount, are shown above error bars. This experiment was repeated once with
proteins extracted from repeated cultures for the isolates and showed similar
results.
isolate BA29 showed a better performance than others from its
group, not being significantly different than the GI isolates tested.
Although this confirmed previous non-systematic observations
(Pomella, unpublished data), the number of isolates tested here
is rather small for a more general conclusion. These results also
suggest that the overall conditions in which the screening experiment 1 was performed was exceptionally favorable to the antagonistic interaction Ts–Mp. The reference isolate TVC, for instance,
showed a Mp incidence of 33.3% (Fig. 2), its best performance when
compared to the screening experiment 2 (Mp incidence of 75.0%)
and to all four validation experiments, whose average Mp incidences for TVC ranged from 91.2% in experiment A to 53.8% in
experiment D (Table 3).
A more detailed discussion about the screening/validation results is needed at this point. As stated above, the genetic and phenotypic variability among Ts isolates within a collection (Fig. 2)
allowed the identification of Ts isolates with a better potential as
a BCA (Table 2, Fig. 4). However, the magnitude of environmental
influence in field trials suggests that an individual analysis of any
given new Ts isolate may be misleading from one environment to
another, if other reference isolates (‘controls’) are not simultaneously available for comparison. Class- or group-based analyses
such as those performed in the screening (ranking and classification of isolates) and validation experiments (systematic long-term
evaluation of the same set of isolates) seem to be required for
effective characterisation of Ts phenotypes. Additional work indicates that assessment of isolates individually may only be possible
if the responses to the variation in microclimatic factors are monitored, so that isolate-specific environmental requirements for better biocontrol results in the field can be gauged (Loguercio et al.,
2009).
Although advantages of using the reference isolate TVC as a BCA
to reduce Mp-basidiocarp production were reported both on and
above ground (Costa et al., 2006), conditions for the antagonism
Ts–Mp are generally more suitable at the leaf-litter environment
in cacao-growing areas of Bahia (Bastos, 2000; Santos, 2005). This
helps to explain the overall poor performance of the TVC in our
experiments (Fig. 2; Table 3). Further support to this is added by
the current recommendation for Tricovab (TVC) use by CEPLAC,
i.e. four applications upon canopy-removed infected brooms
placed on the ground, every 30 days on the period of higher humidity (Costa et al., 2006). With the objective of screening for efficient
‘‘biological broom pruners” to reduce costs of disease management
(Pomella et al., 2007), our experiments focused on brooms placed
above ground, simulating those infected brooms located on the
branches and twigs of the cacao tree. Under these circumstances,
the lack of significance observed for TVC in relation to the control
treatment in various different conditions (Table 3) indicates this
isolate is not a good option for use directly on the cacao canopy,
Table 4
Analysis of correlationa between the field-related parameters and the inhibition of Mp-basidiospore germination by two amounts of total protein secreted in the culture
supernatants (SN) of Ts isolates.
Ts field-related parametersb
Carbon sources of Ts culture mediac
Glucose
Mp-dried mycelia
5 lg SN prot.
R
Mp incidence
Mp severity
Ts sporulation
10 lg SN prot.
p
0.50
0.59
0.56
0.145
0.071
0.089
R
5 lg SN prot.
p
0.61
0.72
0.65
0.059
0.019
0.040
R
10 lg SN prot.
p
0.16
0.14
0.11
0.665
0.703
0.761
R
p
0,40
0,35
0,42
0.255
0.327
0.221
a
The correlation coefficients (R) between the parameters were estimated by the square-root of the linear regression coefficient (R2) obtained from plotted data pairs. The
significance probability for each pairwise analysis (p) was calculated by ANOVA of the regression.
b
Corresponded to the values for the Ts isolates obtained from experiment no. 1.
c
TLE (also see Fig. 5).
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at least under the conditions of a low number of applications as
suggested by this study. Nevertheless, application strategies in
the Ts–Mp-cacao system that combine different isolates with distinct canopy-microclimate responses (Loguercio et al., 2009) certainly warrant further investigation. Our results clearly suggest
that it may be possible to find suitable isolates that can appropriately antagonize Mp specifically during periods of the year with
lower levels of humidity (this work; Loguercio et al., 2009).
Field evaluations usually require sufficiently large experimental
areas, a relatively long time to collect the data, and particularly
favorable climatic conditions for readily discriminatory results
(Figs. 1c and 2). Depending on the number of isolates to be
screened, achieving these requirements may not be feasible. Establishing a first-tier screening strategy with less time and costs, and
with a high probability of identifying good biocontrol activities
would, therefore, be highly advantageous. The predominant mycoparasitism between Ts and Mp (Bastos, 1996; Samuels et al., 2000)
suggests that the protein fraction present in Ts culture supernatants may properly indicate superior biological control isolates,
as many of the secreted enzymes of a mycoparasite show hydrolytic activities against the host’s cell-wall components (Benitez
et al., 2004; Steyaert et al., 2003; Kubicek et al., 2001; De Marco
et al., 2000; De Marco and Felix, 2002). Our results were compelling in suggesting that inhibition of Mp-basidiospore germination
by total proteins from Ts culture supernatants can work as a fast
in vitro method for preliminarily discriminating between ‘good’
and ‘bad’ antagonists (Fig. 5, Table 4). It is relevant to mention,
though, that such a ‘pre-field’ screening approach could only be
deemed as possible because the in vitro data was correlated to results of a field trial (experiment 1) with very favorable conditions
for the Ts–Mp antagonism. Nevertheless, the generally low R coefficients obtained (Table 4) and the existence of few outliers (isolates from a biocontrol class that did not show the corresponding
levels of inhibition of basidiospore germination—data not shown)
suggest that experimental variance can be quite high. Despite that
the use of more isolates (data-pairs) might have reduced the experimental variation, relying only upon this in vitro procedure would
probably be insufficient for a completely effective identification
of better biocontrol isolates (Howell, 2003). On the other hand,
when screening a large collection of unknown isolates, this approach would help decreasing the number of isolates with biological control potential to be further tested in the field (Rajkumar
et al., 2005; Knudsen et al., 1997). Interestingly, the results from
glucose medium showed a better power of discrimination than
those from Mp dried-mycelia medium (Fig. 5, Table 4) which had
supposedly triggered secretion of mycoparasitism-related enzymes. A possible explanation for such a phenomenon might be related to the timing of protein secretion in culture (e.g. Chet et al.,
1998), which is a question being currently addressed. Alternatively, a possible effect of other metabolites of a non-protein nature
(Bastos, 2006) that might have been co-precipitated from supernatants cannot be ruled out.
The identification of superior Ts BCAs in the witches’ broom
context of tropical southeastern Bahia (Brazil) has proved to be a
complex task, with a diverse array of factors and variables to consider. The necessity of including field trials in this research was
stressed here, as such an approach reproduces the real conditions
of biological control applications, accounting in a simultaneous
and integrated manner for the uncontrolled environmental variables that interfere with the system (Howell, 2003). More precise
and consistent interpretations of isolates behavior in the field
could be achieved by a systematic evaluation of local changes in
meteorological factors (Santos, 2005; Loguercio et al., 2009). In
addition, attempts to produce spores from group I isolates on a
large scale by using the same strategy employed for Tricovab
(group II), i.e. fermentation on rice grains (Niella, 2005; Pomella
et al., 2007), were not successful (Medeiros, unpublished data),
thereby directing part of our current research efforts into circumventing this problem. We hope these findings can aid in the development of efficient, environmentally sustainable and cost-effective
strategies for cacao disease management, besides being possibly
useful in other crop systems for identification of superior BCAs
involving similar antagonistic interactions.
Acknowledgments
The authors are grateful to Mr. Marcus Montargil, Agnaldo Guimarães and Mrs. Lívia Santana dos Santos for great technical assistance in the experiments, to Dr. Luiz Roberto M. Pinto for statistical
advices, and to Dr. Robert Hill for critical review of this manuscript.
The research was funded by MARS-Almirante Cacau and PADCTCNPq (Brazil). A.C. de Carvalho was supported by fellowships from
CNPq and FAPESB (Brazil).
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