Special Section

.c"
:--
PSYCHOLO(j!Co\L
~ -"', =-0.-"-0."-
__0
~-"--;;;'
SC1E:-'-CE
Special Section
WHEN
THE
ANTillOTE
Ironic
IS
Mental
Control
Daniel
M.
Uni\Oersiry
Abstract-The
both
,he
own
mental
theory
most
states
process
(u
produce
u de.l'ired
lIre
ing
.\.re.l.s.
the very
gain
urgem-y.
control
thut
thus
olle'.\"
Processes
Wegner
of Virginia
,
improvemem
he or she
third
o~er
monitoring
rhut
except
,-\Irhough
the
or other
those
Ian
mentuL
process.
load.
An indi\'idual
dur-
of
rhe Inoni-
operator.
mental
The
theory
our
desires
-"lystem
producing
to
's attempts
the Ilnl..oanred
third
one
our
probably
has the
trouble.
At
time.
It seems
abstain
ing.
from
And
might
perfectly
by which
summon.
it stands
mentally
remedy
the
C:1nes.
after
~imple
dr:ci-"lion
wildly
out
our
problem
:lll.
by
our
ro
mental
malai:>e
nero 1994)
into
indicates
st:1ned
with
even
a white
bear
Trying
not
3uch
thoughtS
how
be tnle-that
any
own
undoing.
Under
may
not
fail
only
precisely
can make
to
think
person
to achieve
the
alcohol
innocently
in som.:
out
most
desired
undesired
funny
engaged
m~e
us
\n what
way.
tor
of anvthing
other
~oves.
°
mm. d
The
ironv
~xactlv
m:lk.:s
ci!!are'nes
what
may ~I~o
the seed:> ot
m~nt~l
ItS
c~ntrol
b~t C".m lromC:llIy
to be happy
us anxious.
our
next
to be J progr:lm
tr:'I.ng
not
dn~
;~
ot ~e.t-
the mo-"lt undesirabl~
and ,mok~
the monitoring
process.
~d
unimpaired.
thi~ i:> only
tar more
~tfective
c:lpacity
it consume:>.
tivitv
Ho~ever.
time
,t:lnS.
alcohol
efficiency-the
operating
in
,
"
v
se~h,
Memal
to D:lniel :\1. Wegner. -;De;:=enllJt
'~ddress correspondence
.0"
V""90'..'I' Ps:cholog.,
b nngtomlnunw
-°
d
Gilmer
H:lli.
University
of Vlrgln!:l.
Ch:lrlottes~.Ile.
A --.),
e m:ll .This
theorv
its ability
control
Copyright
that
and
tor
how-
thoughts
of
When
the
cues.
into. consciou.'ine$s
1
again
!
me~
to think
.:igarette
thoughtS
out
is that
in providing
it incre=~
of
the need~d
the :lCcessibility
of
In the case of the smoke-ender.
all becom.:
;IS th~ o~r.lting
problem.
given
Th.:
operating
the Iu.~ury
the tonn
may
the
produced
or other
slight
or dis[r:1ction:>.
impJinn.:nt
be overt:lk~n
\vtth
is
se,n3I-
by the monuor.
:>~S3.
of proce~~tng
by the
monl~~r-
the prooduc~
cea:>es. but work:>
~~ ted
conte n [s .
has been tested in several
proces~
or the processmog
overwhelms
contentS
highlighted
proce:;-"1 is he:1lthy
against
are:lS of mental
of ItS
1[S~lf to
control.
and
.
VOL
148
process
succeed.
to keep
.:onsciousness
then not only
ciga-
e,~~nd:>
of the
an3es-in
proce:>s
likely
interplay
:>0 it usually
to till
to produce
about
~[eanwhil.:.
them
and :l.'ihtrays
intoxication.
moni-
the cyclic
thoughts.
mental
when memalload
pressure.
for
time.
control.
a small
unit
environmental
however.
A3 long
and
is
s~hes
well
thl: pe~on
Ovl:r
than the monitor
to coumerimentional
might
it bring.~
and tobacco
b;
-"10. tor
the person
of an o~rating
proc~~~-Jnd
of mental
opfor
~rson
to :>leep. the
unconsciously
and
thoughts.
and
the
in turn.
that are smoke-free.
a :>moke.
mind-.
when
for example.
:>I::lfChes
of the monitor.
for the failure
ing process
[email protected].
~~ch
in tits
pro-
to stop thinking
:>trategy
memories
than
monirorino~
;1.'i a f~edback
in the tonn
proce~s
the
that is
when
process.
i~ trying
into thought~
en~ounters
by
to create
the intended
state
of mind.
0
o.
for Instance.
the monuor
looks tor
Thi:>
re-"ltart-"l th~ oper.lting
1989).
TryIng
ob-"les:>ed with
m~nitor
and
view.
process
:>tate of
of fatigue
-"lmoking.
effort
bv :>canninlZ
t W~gner.
i:; jus~
an ironic
distrdctors
together
who
distrdctors.
person
the memal
we do manage
in this
intended
tor
monitoring
person
monitoring
ci2arettes
search
.:ontJin:>
?f ~ind.
th;
the
about
gen~r:1lldea
3tate of mind.
3eems
.u~
ever.
for
,proc~:>.::>
in other ..vords.
states
th~
I'::ld
control
operating
or for signs
The
conscious
lookinlZ
not to think
de:;ire
to be rel:L~~d .:an m:lke
can
But
(.'ollrrol (\~ eg-Th.
backfire.
IS
control.::m
~xplicit
control
condition3.
Des-
that \.Tc:-.lte-"lit
that the more
at mental
cert:lin
us sad. uying
of
it.
It turns
to
the
look
in the hopt:-"I of quitting
launch
to
..~a.-. an antldot~
of IIlt'IItul
is
overanxIous
A\."Cordmg
that it is difficult
thi~ is one.:>
attempt
considerable
thought
the use of memal
about
happen.
to
m~ght hop.:
with
function
The
perversion
of
and un
interruptible.
The
men[:1j
.:omrol
by se:IfChing
a thought.
two pr~esses
control.
that a _person tryln~
pe~on
mental
the to-be-suppressed
thought.
In the case of uying
tor looks
for :>i\!ns of waketuln.::>s.
The
cruel
and
silZnOllin"
a failure
-=
In the case of thought :>uppression.
mental
d~nk-
this
interruptible
content.,
rette3
about
that
the :lfChitecture
intentionaL
might
to go to sleep.
mental
to
C:ln "om~"m~~.
pro(.°I!Sst'S
observation
when
we
~ontrol
in our po~er.
mInd,
0,
This.
proce-"ls
to suppress
tI~e
thoughts.
poi-"lon
on irIJni(.'
the
to think
what
problem
less imended
etfortful.
the
consistent
this
trying
In a lot ot
w.:11 trom
\~ho teels
absol~tely
our
the very
conducted
work
cre:lte
are
content,
~xample.
is trying
can
not to t~mk
a ~rson
sad
control
or .:omrol-turning
R~search
that w:
instance.
that
avoiding
to
and
of
is accomplished.
effonful.
rh3n the
~uggestS
whatever
control
conscious.
-,
max~m~.
Jt two
or that J depre.o;sed
thoughtS
try
we achieve
Mental
ortates
~-
by trying
to reason
r:lther
it :>ee~-"I :0 g~t peopl~
for
psychological
THEORY
because
of tWO processes-an
.'
I.
1
P
I D Is,.ourse
un o./ "110u.
-.0 In)
-"I~rve-"l ~ver:'on~
begin
to rela.~.
processes
happen
interaction
to thc persu:l...ion thOlI.
hi:> conVIction
sensible.
might
myself
my,;clf
~topped
but
of course.
30 ourselves.
alcohol
too.
try
have
-"lound of truth.
and
of ironic
can
ro
O1bsolulely in our power,
Desc:lnes
should
:>ome level.
thoughtS.
accustom
.
-Rene
Descarte:>
alw3Ys to conquer
there is nolhing
the very
to overcome,
PROCESS
(..ess
is unconscious.
~r.lting thatproces.,
promotes
and in ~ener:ll.
create
so hard
IRONIC
rhe Inonitorin,~
uperatin~
ofrhe
precipitate
m:l.~im wns to endeavor
our own thoughts.
unwittingly
,..ilL
process
to remedy,
of the world.
may
is working
operating
colltellrs
mental
~Iv
POISON:
(.'onrenrs rhut si,l,'naL cl jaiL-
is least desirecL
may
intended
an intentional
vf Inindl,
to actn'ure
can supersede
of mind
mental
rhev, ~vere
just
time
on mind
state
.\'tate
functions
distra(..ion.
effects
tnentaL
1t1,ld,\" rhut
ro control
Inl!IItaL
and (In ironic
.\'eurr.'h jor
cmrrrf,1
ofatre!npts
.\°earclt jcJr
IJjolnind)
rhe de.lired
usualLv
tor.s
.\.ate
I!ffecrs
"""0 processe,\":
effiJrrjul
autotnari(..
ro produce
prfICI!SSI!.l° "fIIlI!IIral
de.lired
(ICCnle frflm
c:on.l°(.iou.l'.
un(.'onscious.
process
lifirll/ric
Ilnd rhe leust
THE
@ 1997 .~eric:ln
Psychologic:ll
S.xiety
S. NO, 3. ~IAY
1997
, ,
PSYCHOLOGiCAL
i-~;.,',--
SCiE;'-;CE
:::;;
Daniel M. Wegner
the gene.ral P~d!ction has been substantiated repeatedly. Intended
~.ou~~t ~~ppre~slon under mental toad creates exaggerated cognitive
accessibility ot the suppressed IhOU2ht (We2ner & Erber 199"). intended concentratIon under load Incre:lSesthe ;lCcessibility of distractors (Wegner. 1997: Zukier & Hag.e~..1978); intended mood conttol
under load leads to greate~ accesslb~llty of thoughts relevant to the
unwanted mood. and to self-repons ot mood opposite the one intended
(Wegner. Erber. & Z:1nako~. 1993): intended relaxation under load
promotes arou~al (Wegner. Broome. & Blumberg. 19971: intended
sleep under load produces w:lkefulness (Ansfield. Wegner. & Bowser.
1996): intended forgetting under load yields remembering (;\Ila~"r:le.
Bodenhausen. Milne. & Ford. in press): intended immobiliz:ltion of a
handheld pendulum under load incre:lSes movement in the counterintentionai direction: and intended :lvoidance of ov.:rshooting :l golf putt
under load induces just such overs hots (Wegner. Ansfield. & Pilloff.
1997).
These discoveries of ironic effects of mental control \!ive the decided impression of slapstick-(Jf human toibles that th';art our best
intentions in ways r:mging from comic to tragic. The faCt that these
ironic errors do not al~ay; happen, however. ~uggeststhat such tind-
"
ducing mental contents that are not panic related. The findine that
people with panic disorder are especially prone to attacks whe~ they
q rlow
1987) '
..
h h.
Irv to relax (Adler K ~~,. ke & By.
IS consistent Wit t IS
possibility.
Perhaps a variety of conditions may be accompanied by the pronenes.'i to ironic effect'l predicted by such a self-loading ironic mechanism. Evidence in support of this idea comes from studies finding hil!h
levels of cognitive accessibility for problem-relevant thou2hts i~ se~er.ll disorders. Stroop interference ,tudies :lnd ,imilar ;"ises~ment'i
have found magnified :lccessibility or anxiety-related thoughts in
anxiety disorder:\ (Logan & Goetsch, 1993). of depre~sion-related
thoughts in depression (Gotlib & McCann. 1984). and of food- and
body-related thoughL'i in e".lting di);Orders(Cooper & Fairburn. 1992).
Attempts to ~xplain ,uch :lclivation have tocu~ed on the possibility
that people come to rehe:JI'.ie,uch thoughts repeatedly, but there is
little evidence for this (Williams. Mathews. & Macleod. 1996). It
makes sense instead that people who have these problems might be
trying to conttol them mentally. and that in so doing. they are ~n~
hancing the aCtivity of ironic monitoring processes that bring these
issues intrUsively back to mind (W~gner & Zanakos. 1994).
ings signal potential pathways toward the effective conttol of mind.
To begin with. they indicate that mental control must be :lpproached
with C:lre (if the antidote is to be curative. it mu.'it be uscl under
TREA ThIENT
Il\IIPLICA
.
TIONS
conditions that
t I do
h not
ld :1llow
be it to turn
d hinto the poison)
_I
I -..'. C~tt:1inlv
..How
could such psychopathol02ies be treated.! Bevond the reducm
Wh
ent-101!con
h .ro s ou
not
exerte w en ment... 0
IS present.
.,
d.. d I '
d
...non
In cogmnve load or stress su!!2ested bv the theory's most !!eneral
en t e In tVI ua IS un er stress or IS oth~rwlse dIstracted. the provIsion. there :lre several other possible :lvenues. The use ot para~l-too-common co.nsequence of mental conttol will be IronICe.rror. It
doxical therapies (e.g.. Shoh:lm-Salomon & Ro~enthal. 1987) might
ISworth remembe~ng. then. tha~:lttempts to manage ,;~ss. :lvold nm.:
help to revise or rescind a client's commitment to mental control in
pr.ess~re.and engineer our ~nvlronments t~. reduce their load on our the first place. and thereby put the brakes on ironic etfects. Advice
thinking :lre not mere luxun~~ th~~make lite ~.L'il~ror more pleasu.r- suggesting that people think their unwanted thoughts. dwell on their
:lble. but m:lY well be necesslttes It we hope to :lchleve my success In worries. concentrate on thoU2hts or food while thev diet. or the like.
m~ntal conttol.
m:lY undo the problem by u~doing the control. This strategy could
A recognition of the d:lnger of mental load is p:1rticul:lrly apropos sometimes be difficult. though. as m:lny clients could bring ye:lrs of
tor the self-control efforts or individuals whose depres.,;.:dmood. phar- praCtice and striving toward mental conttol with them to therapy, md
macologically induced mental load. or stressful life circumstance so tind the recommendation that they drop their quest particularly
might ~nsure that my attempt at mental conttol would precipitate hard to embrace, New means tor inducing people to relinquish their
immediate ironic failure. But the danger also holds in m:my C:lSeS :lttempts at mental control could be useful in this reg:lrd.
when the :lppropriate operating process is a difficult one that might be
A related \vay in which this theory suggests p~ychother.lpeutic
~:L'iiiy disrupted by ~ven mod~r.lte distr.lctions. Some forms of ment:ll : possibiliti~s i~ through re~.:arch on ironic proc~~s.:~in ,.:~recy. As it
control are just so difticult that mo~t people simply do not have the happen~. keeping one., problem~ ,ecret from others involves the use
I mental capacity to p.:rtorm th.:m. The suggestion to :lvoid ment:1l or mental control. and this mental control itself C:ln cre:lte ironies.
control under load. then. extends to the related ide:l that one should
People who keep secret.. in the laboratory or in everyday lite comselect one.s mental control effons c:lrefully. '.picking one.s tights.' to
monly become preoccupied with them. because the exercise of secret
bypass those that :lre simply beyond one's :1bility. It m:lY be child's
keeping introduces automatic monitoring of the ~cret thoughts. beplay to stop thinking of a traffic ticket one received e:lrlier in the day. haviors. or emotions that C:1nyield ironic errors under mental load
I
i
I
I
fo.r example. w~ere:lS it could be bey~n~ one's abilit). to k~p thoughts (e.g:. Lane ~ W'e~ner. ~995). Psychopathological. th~u.ghts .:lnd ~ot :l loved one s recent death out ot mind.
havlors are otten hIdden trom other people. ;md the indIvidual s desIre
Ultimately. though. it seems that people do choose to engage in to maintain such secrecy can thus :lct to perpctuate the occurrence of
mental control when they should not. and it is instrUctive to co~ider
the very thoughts and behaviors that "JIebeing hidden. Th.:rapies that
the lik.:ly outcome of this choice. Elsewhere. I (Wegner. 1994) have encourage the disclosure of personal thoughts or memories to the
,uggested that such ill-:1dvised projects could cre:lte psychopathology therapii;t or to others more generally might gain th~ir effectiveness. in
through .I.elf-loading ironic .I~s(ems,cycles of ~x:1c:rbalion in which
part. by rele:lSing the individual trom ironic processes that otherwise
th.: person.s failing mental control strategy le:1ds to :l decrement in are stimulated by the cloak of secrecy (Wegner & LIne. 1995),
mental capacity. which then yields continued tailure or m.:nul conAnother tack to therapy suggested by this theory involves :1ttempts
troi. It i.s easy to ima~ine how :1,person who tri.:s :0 :lvoid ,:1p~ic I to enhanc: ~heeffici:ncy of the oper.lting proce~s invok~d in p~ic.u:lttack. tor Instance. might over nme and re?",atcl att:lcks SpIral Into l Iar cases ot mental \;ontrol. Wnen peopl: choo~e .poor str.1tegl~ tor
such preoccupation with panic that the m~nulload of thinking :1bout mental co~trol. or ~hen they hav~ had ll~e p~tl.ce ~d so pertortn
the problem itself undermines :my operating processes :1lmcl :It prothem haltIngly. theIr chances ot producing ITOnlC effects become
I
149
VOL 8. NO.3. MAY 1997
"...
"'."iIWI,"
PSr.CHOLOGICAL SCIE~CE
Ironic Men[al Con[rol
greater.
~
I[
..,
could
be
automanzlng
th
th
em
e
true
themselves.
that
therapeutic
certain
'd
ann
ores
I
-
re2imens
contro
I
peop
The ability
be something
I
menta
e
d
eslre
.
h
ar
h
w
to stop smoking
that is acquired
aimed
-
srrucrurin2
and
Id
k
h .
rec nlques cou
serve ro ma e
c:n
r
tlrst
ey
I
e
to
host on whatever
may
1982). There
IS I
po ' s.
ecu
It
as a thc:rapy
.'1
:;eems
~ucceed
\l.hc:n
such
control
&.
Bowser.
R.
([99(11.
Ironic
&.
F",rj)um.
words
in
CG.
p:l1ienlS
(I~_).
with
.::sling
Selective
disorden
~tfecls
of
sleep
urgency.
.
processln~
;md
or
ui~el5.
e:llln~.
Bnl;th
weigh!.
JII~rnal
:Ind
.h:ipe
C/ini-
"f
ibilily:lnd depression:,o\ne":lmi-
n:IIion of ~gnilive.:Ind :lffcctive f~tol5. J"urnal "f P,n'J"ali/:,' anti S'JCiaiPs:-'4" .1:7-+-,9.
!.;me.J.D,. & Wegner.
D,.\1.(1995). The cognitiveconsequences
of '=y.
J"urnal 'If
P"rsIJ"ali/:,'and S",'ial Pt,'chl'I,,'1.'"/59.~7-~3.
wg:m.
A.C.
& GlJels.:h.
V.L.
(IWJ).
Allemion
to .:.'tem:ll
thle:l!
"ues
ill anxiety
,Iale'.
Clinical Pn','h,,/,,'1" R"\'i~,,.,IJ. 5.11-559,
rh
ear.
D..\1..
cal Ps:-'chn/IJt'.,
31. 363-365.
S Ible ..
c
implications
might
Wegner.
Gotlib. I.H.. & McC:Inn.C.D. (19&01.).
Consuua ~c
W:1.'iedible and ~Imply tall ro mention the thmgs that
practice
\1J..
re!:lted
£reat
are hundreds of instances in daily life when practice helps with minor
-..,-.Ir'J/'J~.\".
forms
of mental conrro~-as
wh~n peo~l~ learn t~ compil~enr
the
were
nor-~o
'. . nd ,...1
M.E..
Belra,.i'JurRe,t~arclrand TI.erap" 3~ 5"1-531
., .'
.-,
Cooper.
ect
or ro diet. tor example.
with practice (Schachrer.
Ansfield.
en-
rh'
a
t
rh
e
..OC"
IroniC
for the development
pr
e:;:;
th
e
of psychorherapy.
orv
.:1.'\.
h
.s
ral
eve
Macr:le.
of
Yet more are
C.:-I..
=ollection:
BoIJenhOlu,=
G.
v..
im.:ntion:ll
The
~liJne.
A.B,.
toreerrinl!
&
ofFord.
R.L
'te~typlC:IJ
(in
presSI.memones.
On
the
IegU!:I1ion
J"urnal
"f
P,nIJnali/:,"anti SiJCiaiP.-:-"Cho/a~.".
--
suggested by Shoharn and Rohrbaugh (this issue). The most difficult
part of applying this theory to ther.lpy. it turns out. is determining
Schachter.S. (!98:). ReciWv15m:lnd",If-.:=
,-.h"h,~isl.]7, .l3~.
which way to go. Is a particular case of mental control one that is so
ho peless that it-:maIy.ss.
should be abandoned. and therapeutic ~tfOI1Sshould be
Shoham-Si1Jomon.
Y.. &., Rosenlh:l\. R. ([~87). P:1r:IdoxiC:IJ
i.mcrventions: A mc\:l.
J"urnal "f Consullln'1
anti ChlllCaiPn,,'h,,/o~'. -,$. lZ-:8.
."
aimed
at
helping
the
client
to
get
ca:;e one in which mental control
off
this
merry-go-round?
Or
is
this
might be achieved if ir were done in
just the right way or with enough trequency'! These questions deserve
further research. as there must be a wav to discern !!eneral rules that
"
,.'.
..~
could help In making these decIsions In mdIvlduai ca:;es and even
across broad syndromes.
people
do attempt
succeed wondert'ully
rn the me;mrime. ir :;eems certain that when
to conrrol
their minds.
at ~ome times they will
and make themselves
happy that they have this
W':2ncr.
-anti
D,M.
Ih~
(19~9\.
ps:-'Chol,,~.v
\VlIII~
'If
""an
m~nlal
and
,,(her
c"nl"".
Wegner. D,.\1. (1994\. Ironic proc=
of .moking md Obesity,Aln~rican Ps.\"-
UI"'.anl,,ti
:-Iew
Yortc:
(h"uyhls:
Viking.
Suppr'sslon.
"",teSSlan.
"f menl:li control. Ps:-'Chlllo~icai
R~vir\v. 10/.
34-52.
W.:gncr. D.i\1: (1'197\. Why lhe mind w:lndm. In J.~..C~h.:n.& J.\V. S"hooler (Eds.).
S,.,"'r(fI'.appnJlJ,.h,..(n"'H/.tCI"IU"~SSlpp.:9:1--,I;)).Hall...bI...:-IJ:ErIb-olum.
Wel:nc:r.D.."'.. An'ili.:ld. ~1..& Pillolf. D. I 1'197).TIr~phil anti Ill, p'"duillm: I"",i".. "f
-'hOl11r c:oI"nJLL;npubli,;/ledm:lnuocnpr.Univ.:",iIY01 Virgini:L Ch:u-loltesvillc:.
W.:gn.:r. D.~1,.Broome. A.. & B[umbe~. SJ. (1997). !ronic ''If,,ctS of trying to n:t:sx
undc:r'Ino.', 8ehari".,r R"t..arch anti TIr'mp.v. 3$, 11-:1.
fine human ability.'. Ar other times. thev will fail. and descend into an
ironic ~elf-defearing cycle of ~elf-heJp gonc: awry,
W.:gner.
&. Erber.R.
hyper:ICcessibility
of ,upptess.:dthoughts.J'lur"alD.M..
ofP,n"nah,,'
anti(IW2).
Stx-/olThe
Ptvchlll'Jl(v.
63, 903-91:.
W':1!ner.D,.M..Erber.~.. & ~os.
S. \ IW3;. Ironic processc:s
in thc:m.:nl:l\ conlrol of
,
'"
-, In p:Irt by.,auona
I I nAcknowledgments--Thls
re:;e:lrch was $Upport=
'
_I He:l Ith G r:lnt ,v
' IH '91 " 7
,lllute
0t.'".v,ent",
.neb:1ker
-mOOti mu mOOti-n:laled
thought.Journal -if Pen"'la/i/:,' and S"",ol Ps:-'ch'J/o~.V.
6$.
1093-110.1.
-.
W.:gner. D..\1.. Ed
& LIne.
£" J.D. \[99,), From secrecy10psychop:l1holo~. [n J.W. P.:n.
I .,
. I" aI In.,.tpp. -'~,.,~. W:IShIngton. DC .
( .). ..",,'11/'". "S"",su",.
and
Am.:ric:m Psy"hologiC:IJ
.\.soci:l110n.
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Zuki.:r: H.. & H:lgen.l. \V. (197~\; Thc oJev~lop~enr ~~ '.:iecrive :utenuon under dislr:lCtIng condulons. ChIld D".~I"p("enl. ..9. g ,~,_.
YOLo8. NO.3. MAY 1997