TES 18.1 - Earth Science Teachers` Association

Transcrição

ISSN 0957-8005
Teaching
Earth ·Sciences
CONFERENCE REPORT
Volume 18, Number I, 1993
Journal of the Earth Science Teachers' Association
Volume 18 No. I (1993)
Teaching Earth Sciences
EditoriallTreasury Notes
2
CARDIFF CONFERENCE
The Role of Ocean Drilling in Studies of Global Climate Change
Robert B. Kidd
3
I.T. IN EARTH SCIENCE - A flexible IT Learning Unit of
particular relevance to GCSE and GCE Syllabuses
Nicholas P. Roe
8
Running an earth science INSET coursefor primary teachers
Sue Pryor
11
The Empirical Inductive Tradition and Some of its
Implications for Earth Science Teaching
Frank Fisher
12
lan Thomas and Kay Hughes
17
D. Hugh Griffiths and Sandy Morell
20
Building Stones as a Geological Resource
J W Perkins
20
Videos in fieldwork and the classroom
Denis Bates
21
Reconstructing ancient environments
Dyfed Spacewatch and Dyfed Daearth
Triassic marginal deposits in the Vale of Glamorgan: field exercises in
facies interpretation and comparison
Geraint Owen
24
Cardiff Conference Report
Keith Mose/ey
26
Obituary - Professor Geoffrey Brown
28
Earth and Space Science - Missing Link or Lost Cause? John G. Sharp
29
RIGS in Wales - your country needs youl
Nick Pearce
31
The Ups and Downs of A-level Geology Entries
1971 - 1991: A numerical picture
Ben Jones & Chris King
33
Geoscience Education and Training in Higher Education
35
The Dudley Rock and Fossil Show/Letter to the Editor
37
Open University television programmes in 1993
38
News
39
Reviews
40
New Members
43
Tips & Techniques
44
Cover picture:
The }OIOES Resolution In the Panama Canal In 1986, moving
towards the Pacific Ocean. In 1993 she will pass through again,
back to the Atlantic.
Teaching Earth Sciences: vol. 78, pt. 7 (7993)
EDITORIAL
For my sins (and specifically for my luck in the draw for the
Estwing hammer - see page 37) Denis has asked me to pen this
editorial. I hope that I may stir a few responses (the usual plea
from the editors!) to my comments on fieldwork.
1993 h'as started with the sad news of the deaths of two senior
educators. Derek Ager, emeritus professor of the
Univer.sity of Wales and former head of the Swansea Geology
Depar1l1lent, was known to many by his lectures and books. I
well rE!member first looking at The Nature of the Stratigraphical
Recoro/ and thinking "a book on stratigraphy that I actually
enjo)(eJ:I reading!" If anything my only criticism was that, as
Tolkie~ said in the preface to the second edition of the Lord of
the Ri!"J$, it wasn't long enough. (I note that a new edition is
shortl)f to be published - see the News section.) Derek would
have b~n known by name to many school pupils through his
articl~ in New Scientist. His infectious enthusiasm for the
eartti~ ,ciences will be sorely missed.
geosci~nce
The d~ of Geoff Brown, professor and head of the geology
depa~,
- ent at the Open University, during an eruption in a
ian volcano that he was attempting to monitor, made
Col
front; .age news in many of the newspapers. (See page 28).
This,ii(,gether with the news that Queen's University, Belfast
have istttled out of court (but without admitting liability) with
a stu~+nt seriously injured on an independent mapping exercise, hts brought safety in the field back into everyday coffee
discus~ions, at least for your editor and co-editor. At a time
whei'Inances for field work by the Universities are being
con . , ously cut, we are now being told that we should,
perh , be prOViding individuals to act purely as safety minders. I( is is so at a level where all concerned are legally adults,
what*e the implications for institutions providing education
for yojJnger people? How many of you have had the feeling
that ",ost of your class switch off their personal survival
,
instincts when lead in a group? How many of you have 'lost'
members of your group (if only for a short, but extremely
fraught, time) because they have failed to obey instructions
and wandered off? Despite my best efforts I know that this has
happened to me. Has anyone any suitable advice (apart, perhaps, from stop taking people out into the field)? For most
people part of the joy of Earth Science is fieldwork. Unfortunately fieldwork can never be totally safe, Oust like everything
else in life) but we need to ensure that the pUblic and the
courts appreciate its educational value. Let us hope that
generations to come can still enjoy the pleasures of looking
through a steamed up handlens at a dripping wet rock specimen, without having to stand under a shower in the changing
rooms.
A personal story of fieldwork problems to finish. Armed with
my new hammer I went to help a colleague collect liassic
fossils from a clay pit near Cheltenham. The hammer is now
SUitably covered in mud, but was not required as the clay was
extremely soft and it had been raining for weeks beforehand.
The clay was just in the right state to adhere to everything boots rapidly doubled in size, hands and ,coats took on that
grey look. The problem came when my colleague walked
across a slope and found himself stuck in the mud. He had sunk
to the top of his wellingtons and was still going down. Fortunately it was close to a point where an old wire and plank fence
had been moved to allow extraction and we were able to
manoeuvre the fence on to the slope and use it as a surface to
pull him (minus wellingtons) out. Though we all laughed about
it afterwards (and he nas a good story to tell about buying a
new pair of wellingtons whilst covered in mud) the safety
implications are clear. Without the fortunate positioning of
the old fence, and sufficient muscle power to move it, we
might not have been laughing. Are there other stories out
there?
t
~
TRt!ASURY NOTES
l
I
I. CQ~ENANTS.
t
endless task of chasing defaulters by writing such pleasant
reminders!!!
Neil ,.foster has volunteered to become Covenants
Secr~...........Welcome Neil!
Memtlrs are probably aware that tax paid by them on subscrip~ns can be reclaimed by ESTA now that we are a
Regi~~red Charity.
'i
It is+ite painless. All you need to do is complete the
encl~d covenant form and sign to say that you pay income
tax cuill promise to pay your subSCriptions at the current rate
for foUr years. ESTA will do the rest.
•,
We urge all members to sign their covenants and send them to
our Covenants Secretary: Neil Foster, 33 Roath Rd, Portishead,
Avon;f'S20 9AW.
2. ME1-1BERSHIP NUMBERS I.
Tota~membership has increased to 850. Welcome to the 105
new friembers who joined in 1992, more than replacing those
who dj"opped out! Almost 300 pay the painless way, by direct
debit,!and more would be welcome. Sheila continues the
3. MEMBERSHIP NUMBERS 2.
Members may have noticed that on their address label there is
a membership number. Please quote it when renewing subscriptions and when ordering at Members' prices from Geo
Supplies and ESTA Promotions. Special deals have been
negotiated for ESTA members attending the International
Conference in Southampton (April 20-24) and the British
Association For The Advancement of Science meeting at
Keele (August 29 - September 3). Your number will be useful!
4. JOURNAL BACK ISSUES.
Price Erosion! Most back issues of Teaching Earth Sdences
from 1989, Geology Teaching from 1976 and the annual Geology
from 1969 are available. The new reduced prices range from
£2.00 for single copies to a special offer of 50 different copies
for £25.00. SAE to the Treasurer for details.
John Reynolds, Treasurer
Sheila Rogers, Membership Secretary
I
~l
TeaC~ng Earth Sciences: vol.
'1'~
-1
>'"-"
78, pt. 7 (7993)
2
The Role of Ocean Drilling in Studies of Global Climate Change
Robert B, Kidd
International co-operation in the Deep Sea Drilling Project
revolutionised the geologist's view of the Earth's dynamic
processes, Its successor, the Ocean Drilling Program, is
collecting high resolution records of changes in these processes over time scales of tens to hundreds of thousands of
years. Palaeoceanographic research has now evolved to
the point where conceptual and mathematical models of
long-term changes in the climate/ocean system can be
tested as input to the current debate on global warming.
Introduction
Scientific ocean drilling has been carried out in the deep sea for
over two decades. This international collaborative effort by
the marine geological community has radically changed the
earth scientist's view of Planet Earth and his understanding of
global processes. Indeed it could be argued that the advances
made by this community have revolutionised the teaching of
geology as a diScipline in both universities and schools. The
sediments and rocks of the deep ocean floor contain the most
complete record obtainable of the Earth's environmental
changes over the past 200 million years. But only in the last
five to seven years have we had the technology and data bases
necessary to begin to investigate the causes of global change, in
particular changes of climate. Advances in drilling techniques
and in drilling technology have provided ways of examining the
detailed record of the past 3 million years: that is, through the
onset and the cycles of advance and retreat of the Northern
Hemisphere glaciations. Marine geologiSts are thus undertaking studies of drilled sediment sequences that are directly
relevant to the current debate on the causes and consequences of global warming.
This review traces the development of scientific ocean drilling
and highlights some of its major results. Because of the very
nature of research in the remote, often hostile, environment
of the deep oceans, all of the advances made in this exploration have necessarily been preceded by advances in marine
technology. The engineering technology reqUired to mount
deep ocean drilling still surpasses that utilised in the commercial offshore drilling industry. Many of the most striking results
of the drilling have related to the longer term structural and
tectonic history of the ocean basins or to exploration for
resources, rather than to geologically recent environmental
aspects. They have, however, prOVided the groundwork for
our present understanding of global climate change. The
international effort in scientific ocean drilling has shifted during
the past five years from the explorative phase to one in which
the emphasis is on understanding of global processes. In the
latter part of the paper I will concentrate on recent findings
relating to climate research and on planning for future drilling.
The Ocean Drilling Program
The Ocean Drilling Program (ODP) began operations in 1985
and has to date completed over five years of drilling through
the North Atlantic Ocean, the Eastern Pacific, Antarctica, the
Indian Ocean and into the Western Pacific. Each drilling cruise
is targeted at a particular region and is manned by an international team of up to 26 scientists. They are supported on each
Teaching Earth Sciences: vol, 18, pt, 1 (1993)
cruise by a team of technicians, a ship's crew and a drilling
crew under the control of the Science Operator, Texas A & M
University.
ODP is a United States National Science Foundation project
by the jOIDES Organisation Ooint Oceanographic
Institutions for Deep Earth Sampling), a consortium of ten
American institutions along with funding agencies from other
countries. The Program's budget runs at around US$44
mill~on annually. The United Kingdom, through the Natural
EnVironmental Research Council, pays US$2.9 million per
annum to maintain full membership, as do France, japan and
Ge~any. Canada and Australia share single member status
while a small group of European countries share a membership
und,er the E~F banner. British scientists and drilling industry
engineers sail on almost all of the cruises of ODP's unique
drillship, the "jOIDES Resolution", maintaining British involvement in this cutting edge research. At least once per year the
scientific tea,:" aboard ship is led by a British co-chief scientist;
and the UK IS represented on all of the adviSOry panels that
make up ~~ jO,lDES planning structure. In addition to shipboard partlclp~tl?n~ a la~ge community of scientists in geology
and related dlsclphnes In each of the member countries is
active in shorebased studies of the drilled sample materials.
Three American ~ore repositories archive the samples and
annually make available thousands of sub-samples to this international community for analysis. The Cardiff Marine
~eosciences group wi~ UWCC's Department of Geology is
Involved at all levels In the British participation. A recent
ex~cutive decision by JOIDES will bring the Scientific Planning
Office for the organisation to Cardiff for the period 1995-96.
This will be the first time the jOIDES office has located outside
the 10 American institutions.
ove~se~n
Scientific Ocean Drilling
What is ocean drilling? How does it differ from commercial
offshore drilling? The differences lie largely in the depths of
water in which operations take place. Over 70% of the Earth's
surf~ce lies, beneath over 4 km of seawater. The major
physlographlc change on the planet is not a mountain chain but
the break of slope separating the world's continental shelves
which are generally covered by around a hundred metres of
water, from the ,deep oceanic terrains that are generally below
some fo~r or five km of water. Commercial hydrocarbon
exploration has merely extended land drilling onto the fringing
continental shelf areas that have become flooded since the last
glacial ~aximum. M~st operations, both exploraton and
production, are from rig platforms standing on or tethered to
the seafloor. The deepest production wells that have extend,ed over the shelf edge onto the upper continental slope
are In less ~an I km of water. Exploration beyond these
depths requires a dynamically positioned drillship. This drilling
technology was pioneered over 20 years ago by ODP's predecessor the Deep Sea Drilling Project (DSDP) and the early
jOIDES organisation.
Until the late sixties most of what was known of the geology of
the ocean basins came from marine geophYSical surveys. Echo
s?undin~ and seismic reflection profiling gave a two-dimenSional picture of the hundreds of metres-thick sedimentary
3
rock sequences that are built up on basaltic igneous basement.
Core samplers deployed on wires from research vessels were
capable of recovering representative material from the upper
one to ten metres of soft sediments. Dredge samplers were
able to recover rocks from steep-sided unsedimented topographic features but the representativeness of these samples
was always in question.
the drillstring. no area of deep ocean was beyond its drilling
capabilities. The Deep Sea Drilling Project began in the late
sixties and became the most successful marine geological
research programme ever undertaken.
The original jOIDES consortium of ten American institutions
set up the Deep Sea Drilling Project to apply conventional oil
industry wireline rotary drilling to the scientific exploration of
the ocean basins. One of the their number. Scripps Institution
of Oceanography. became the Science Operator and this
institution then sub-contracted the design and operation of a
dynamically positioned drilling vessel to one of the late Howard
Hughes' companies. Global Marine Inc. When DSDP's ship.
the "Glomar Challenger". began operations in 1968. it was
Figure I. The 'Glomar Challenger'.
absolutely revolutionary. It was one of the first research
vessels to use satellite navigation to position itself in the ocean
but more importantly it had the capability to maintain position
in relation to locations on the deep seafloor. An acoustic
beacon was sunk to the ocean floor and receivers in the ship's
hull locked on to its cone of sound. By simply triangulating the
slight differences in arrival times across the baseline of the
ship's hull. the ship's computer would operate its engines and
thrusters to effect forward and aft or Sideways motion. to
keep the vessel over the beacon. Once dynamically positioned
the drillstring would be made up. Individual 9 metre lengths of
drillpipe would be lifted from an automatic racker and raised
into the stack over the rig-floor where they would be coupled
to the previous stand and lowered through the ship's central
moonpool towards the seafloor. The drilling operations that
commenced after spud-in were typical of the oilfield technology of the time. Rotary cone drillbits advanced the hole and
water or mud pumped down the drillstring kept the hole
clean. taking a slurry up the sides of the drillhole on to the
seafloor above. Cores were taken by lowering a core barrel
inside the drillstring on a wireline. latching it into the drillbit
and drilling ahead. This was followed by unlatching and core
recovery. The major differences with oilfield downhole operations were: (I) that there was no closed system or return
of the slurry to the platform. so jOIDES has always to be
extremely careful in its survey and choice of sites and their
eventual plugging with mud to prevent pollution; and (2) that
cores were taken much more frequendy because no rock
chips could be examined from the drill slurry to establish the
rock sequences being penetrated. It was these core samples
that revolutionised geology as a science and it became the
norm to continuously core all drillholes. The "Glomar Challenger" could hold position to less that I00 metres over a
beacon up to 8000 metres below the ship. It could continue
drilling in all but the most extreme weather conditions. Apart
from the ice-prone high latitudes and areas of bare
unsedimented rock that prevented spud-in and stabilisation of
Figure 2. Dynamic positioning and rotary wireline coring during
DSDP operations.
DSDP Scientific Achievements
The most immediate impact of deep sea drilling came with its
tests of the hypothesiS of sea floor spreading that had been
exciting marine geophYSicists through the I960·s. Magnetic.
gravity and heat flow surveys of the mid-ocean ridges. the
continuous mountain chains that run down the central parts of
the major ocean basins. had suggested that these were the
sites of new ocean crust formation. the crust becoming older
away from the ridges. Since dredged rock samples were
invariably weathered and altered and thus considered unreliable for dating. it was not until the "Glomar Challenger"
drilled through the sediments and dated igneous basement on
a number of mid-ocean ridge flanks that seafloor spreading
became an accepted theory. Its corollary. that seafloor was
being consumed at the volcanically active and earthquakeprone continental margins took many more years of testing
with drillholes. and the competing claims of this subduction
concept, against expanding earth ideas. exercised geologiSts
for some time. Some of the other major achievements of the
Deep Sea Drilling Project are outlined in Table I.
DSDP established a new discipline in earth science:
Palaeoceanography. the study of past oceans: their composition. physical condition. circulation and history. For the first
time the geolOgist was able to read the sedimentary record
right back to the earliest deposits remaining on unsubducted
oceanic crust. These deposits are jurassic in age so the record
could be tapped for at least the last 200 million years. Reconstructions of the distributions of sediment types in former
ocean basins became possible. From these reconstructions
4
Table I. DSDP Scientific Achievements
Confinnation of sea floor spreading
Documentation of rates of continental drift
Recognition of the effects of subsidence of the plates
Detection of ocean circulation changes
Regional discoveries (e.g. the Mediterranean desiccation
5 million years ago)
Recognition of periods of oceanwide anoxia
Discovery of deep ocean gas clathrates
Extension of the record of global climate variability
we were able to trace the major global oceanographic trend:
from a world circulation dominated in the Mesozoic by a
circum-equatorial system of surface currents, to one dominated by a circum-Antarctic system for both surface and
bottom water masses, which has existed from the late Tertiary to the present. Global climate change on time scales of
millions of years has irretrievably followed these changes in
the oceans, as continents have migrated in response to seafloor
spreading.
The last item listed in Table I came later in the DSDP phase
and it is the most germane to the subject of this contribution.
Marine geologists studying cores sampled from the upper 10
metres or so of soft pelagic sediment in the deep ocean, had
been reconstructing extremely detailed continuous records of
the past half a million years. They were integrating the results
of lithological, micropalaeontological, palaeomagnetic and isotopic studies. Cores from temperate and high latitudes, when
split longitudinally, reveal down core compositional changes in
lithology that reflect glacial to interglacial climate changes.
Variations in microfossil assemblages mirror this banding,
because plankton migrated with temperature changes in the
surface water masses. The microfossils also provide a means
of dating the various levels in the cores and this is is further
refined by tracking magnetic reversals down core. The reversals are themselves calibrated against absolute radiometric
dating. Studies of down core oxygen isotope variability in
microfossils, based on the pioneering works of Emiliani (1964)
and Shackleton and Opdyke (1973), provide a quantitative
technique through which to estimate both sea surface temperatures and the volume of ice on the continents through the
Pleistocene glacial/interglacial stages (Shackleton 1987).
The application of spectral analysis to logs of carbonate variation and oxygen isotope values showed the presence of
Milankovich orbital frequencies at 100,000 years (eccentricity
of the earth's orbit), 41,000 years (tilt of the earth's axiS) and
23,000 and 19,000 years (precession of the eqUinoxes). Recognition of these frequencies in the sediment sequences is
taken to confinn that variations in orbital geometry, and their
consequent effects on input of solar radiation, are the underlying causes of climate change on time scales of tens of thousands of years. Technical developments near the end of the
DSDP phase of drilling allowed marine scientists the opportunity to extend these hiJd1 resolution integrated records of
stratigraphy increaSingly further back in time.
In normal rotary drilling operations the cores recovered
aboard "Glomar Challenger' were generally disturbed over
the upper one to two hundred metres of section, because the
sediments remained unlithified at these levels and thus, were
susceptible to the rotation and washing of the drilling process.
Soupy to soft, disturbed sediments, although in the right time
sequence, were wholely unsuitable for high resolution analyses as described above. The DSDP engineers eventually
solved this problem by developing the hydraulic piston corer
(HPC), a core barrel lowered by wireline to the drillbit in the
nonnal way but shot out into the soft sediments ahead and
recovered before the drillstring was advanced down hole. The
mechanism uses the head of water within the drillstring which
is pressured until shearpins fail, releasing the core barrel.
High quality cored sequences were recovered by DSDP in
1983 in a transect of drillsites from south of the Azores to
west of Britain. The sites were chosen because earlier conventional piston coring at these locations had already established a Milankovich chronology through three glacial/interglacial cycles, and the influence of its orbital controls was known
to vary latitudinally. We were able to show that the first
glaciations to affect the North Atlantic began 2.4 million years
ago and that the orbital controls also varied through time.
More important perhaps was the recognition that the
Milankovich frequencies read from the cores merely changed
their intensity at 2.4 million years, leaVing the cause of the
onset of glaciation to later speculation. However, core materials were now becoming available to construct, through high
resolution palaeoceanographic studies, an idea of climate before the onset of northern hemisphere glaciation. The two
million years or so of the Pleistocene glaciations represent an
abnonnal period in the Earth's four and a half billion year
history. Current debate on global warming suggests that the
effects of Man's activities on the ozone layer might upset the
glacial controls: what were the controls on climate when there
were no northern ice sheets?
Conferences on scientific ocean drilling: 1981 and 1987
In 1981 an international conference on scientific ocean drilling
(COSOD-I) was organised to review the spectacular advances that were being made by JOIDES, through DSDP, and
to detennine how ocean drilling could be organised to tackle
the most pressing scientific problems that DSDP had unearthed. The main targets identified by COSOD-I are outlined in Table 2 and, even before the advances made by HPC
coring in the North Atlantic, it was recognised that we needed
to conduct high resolution studies of continuous sediment
sequences in order to understand the long tenn changes in the
Earth's biosphere, cryosphere and magnetosphere that must
control global climate change. The technical requirements of
a programme to tackle all of the prime targets of COSOD-I
were prodigious:
- deep drilling on continental margins to over 2 km below the
seafloor;
- hard rock drilling directly into young ocean crust on midocean ridges where there are no overlying sediments to
constrain the drillstring on spud-in; and,
- high latitude drilling in the Arctic and Antarctic regions
where ice cover controls both global water mass circulation
and, ultimately, world-wide climate change.
Table 2. Scientific objectives outlined by the 1981
COSOD·I Conference
Origin and evolution of oceanic crust
Tectonic evolution of passive and active margins
Origin and evolution of marine sedimentary sequences
Causes of long term changes in the atmosphere, oceans,
cryosphere, biosphere and magnetic field
That conference concluded that a new phase of drilling was
required but one employing a new vessel with state-of-the-art
engineering and scientific equipment. So was born the Ocean
Drilling Program (ODP).
JOIDES, with continuing involvement of its foreign partners,
leased a dynamically-positioned exploration drillship, "BPSEDCO 471", and converted it for scientific ocean drilling. as
5
the 'lOIDES Resolution". Principal among the characteristics
of the new ship in terms of climate change objectives were: its
ice-strengthened hull; its more powerful positioning thrusters;
its heave compensation system (which allows it to continue
operations in 30ft seas); its more mechanised (and safer) rigfloor pipe-handling system and its seven-storey laboratory
module containing the most advanced core analysis equipment
assembled anywhere (on land or sea) for high resolution
studies. ODP's base of operations, including a new core
repository, switched to Texas A & M University.
Advances in marine science came so rapidly on the heels of the
new technological capabilities that in 1987, early in the ODP
phase, a second conference was organised, COSOD-2, to
instigate a change in philosophy for the international effort. It
was recognised that we were now well beyond the exploratory phase and could now formulate models that could be
tested by ocean drilling.
The "Global Environmental Change Working Group", led by
John Imbrie of Lamont-Doherty Geological Observatory, New
York, outlined the climate parameters that are detectable
through time in drilled sequences (Table 3).
Table 3. Information from drilled sequences
Atmosphere: composition and Wind Field
Land Surfaces
Distribution and Volume of Ice
Sea Level
Water Masses: Chemical Composition
Density Structure
Circulation (shallow and deep)
Position of Oceanic Fronts
From previous ocean drilling at over 600 locations in the
equatorial to temperate regions, and from an even greater
number of conventionally piston cored sites that extended
into polar regions, we could identify the major parameters of
climate response (Table 4). Whereas the first two of these
were tectonic, changing on frequencies of millions of years, the
third was the orbital response on frequencies of thousands of
years. Each has effects that can be investigated in cored
sequences (Table S). Sea level and water mass changes are
important effects of both frequencies.
Table 4. Climate System responds to:
Plate Movements - Mountain Building
Plate Movements - Ocean Basin Size
Plate Movements - Gateways
Changes in VolcanidHrdrothermal Fluxes
Variations in the Earth s Orbit
Table 5. Climate Change on Two Frequencies
Tectonics (Few million years or more)
Sea Level
Geothermal Regimes
Global Winds
Chemical Balance
Water Mass Circulation
Orbital (20-400 thousand years)
Seasonal/Latitudinal
(+ Sea Level, Circulation)
The COSOD-2 Global Environmental Change Working Group
set its targets for ODP (Table 6) to be accomplished over the
period of its first ten years and on into the projected extension
of the programme that is beginning to be discussed by the
international partners.
Table 6. COSOD-2: Global environmental change
drilling requirements
Global array of drilling transects in key areas to test ocean/
climate models, emphasiS on gateways
Sea level change on continental margins and atolls
High latitude drilling. especially Arctic
ODP Successes Relating to Climate Change
After six years of operations. ODP has made Significant advances in the areas of research set it by COSOD-I and has
begun to tackle the more focussed reqUirements of the
COSOD-2 Working Groups. Of the 34 cruises completed to
the end of 1990. six have drilled in high latitudes. five were
transects of sites in tropical regions to test ocean/climate
models. and two have studied sea level change on continental
margins.
Drilling in the NOlWegian and Labrador Seas (Legs 104 & IOS)
confirmed the initial development of the North American and
European ice sheets at 2.S million years and showed that ice
cover on Greenland began around 3.2 million years ago. At
the present day. Greenland and some small mountain glaciers
are the only northern hemisphere ice sheets. Most of the
glacial ice on the planet, a volume equivalent to a 30 metre rise
in sea level. is held in the two major ice sheets of Antarctica.
Drilling in the Weddell Sea (Leg 113) showed that the West
Antarctic ice sheet developed about 6-8 million years ago
through a period of large fluctuations in the extent of southern
glaciation. Much more stable conditions have existed there
since the Pliocene: that is the last 3 million years. Drilling in
Prydz Bay (Leg I 19), on the other hand. brought the surprising
result that the development of ice in East Antarctica occurred
much earlier. pOSSibly as far back as 42 million years ago. The
new evidence has caused much re-examination of previous
interpretations of the evolution of global climate and has
provided high quality core materials to study spectral frequency changes.
A major feature of atmospheric circulation in the tropiCS is the
monsoonal circulation of the eastern equatoi-ial Atlantic and
the northern Indian Ocean. The elevation of the Himalayas
and the high albedo of its snow cover causes a marked
difference in seasonal heating of the Asian continent versus the
Indian Ocean. This contrast results in a marked seasonal cycle
with very strong southwesterly winds during the summer
months and northeasterlies in winter. The complete reversal
of winds has a profound effect on the circulation and productivity of the northern Indian Ocean. One of the tropical
transects (Leg 117) was designed to investigate the variability
of the Indian Ocean monsoon through time: whether it could
be related to orbital cyclicity; whether its intensity changed as
the Himalayas were uplifted; and how the offshore upwelling.
that causes extreme biological productivity and the deposition
of organically-rich sediments. varies in response to the
monsoonal system. The drilling acqUired a unique record of
monsoonal upwelling and wind transported dust input that
extends back over 10 million years. The frequencies of
monsoonal variability are indeed orbital and a major change in
intensity occurred in the early Miocene. a period of major
uplift in the Himalayas.
6
The recognition of the effects of changing topography stimulated one branch of the community to re-examine all of the
spectral marine records that have been collected to date for
comparison with best estimates of rates of mountain-buildihg
worldwide. Ruddiman and Kutsbach (1990) have suggested
that the most extensive glaciations of Europe and North
America that began around 0.9 million years ago. were linked
to uplifts of Tibet and the Sierra Nevada that modified the
circulation of westerly winds in the upper atmosphere.
The Future
A number of the requirements of the COSOD-2 Global
Environmental Change Working Group are still to be fulfilled
(see Table 6). ODP's primary goals have been to move from a
knowledge of what has happened to the climate/ocean system
to an understanding of how it happened. We are only part of
the way there on this quest; but we begin to understand the
sensitivity of the c1imate-ocean system to perturbation. Much
of the most important core material is still being analysed in
shore-based laboratories (the Cardiff groups itself is presently
analysing samples from the Indian Ocean and Japan Sea).
Over the last two years. "JOIDES Resolution" drilled
palaeoceanographic transects of sites across areas of the
northern and central Pacific and drilled the margins of a series
of Pacific atolls and guyots to trace sea level history. In 1994 it
moves into the Atlantic to drill arrays of sites across key
oceanographiC gateways to the Arctic and Mediterranean and
to examine sea level changes on Atlantic continental margins.
Interspersed with these drilling legs will be the competing
science objectives of other exciting COSOD-2 themes. including studies of the structure and composition of the oceanic
crust and the first penetration of the MOHO into the upper
mantle; and studies of fluid circulation in the lithosphere at
subduction zones and mid-ocean ridges.
Climate modellers do not yet have sufficient data bases on
ocean history to produce models sensitive enough to predict
the consequences of Man's perturbations to the system. Advances in modelling techniques make ODP uniquely wellplaced. over the next decade. to apply the results of its
recently focussed programme of drilling transects to solving
key questions about the fundamental controls on global environmental change. More than any other aspect of scientific
ocean drilling. palaeoceanographic research has evolved to the
point where global climate/ocean models can be tested.
References
Emiliani. C. 1964. Bulletin Geol. Soc. of America 75. 129.
Ruddiman. W. F. & Kutsbach. J. E. 1990. Journal Geophysical
Research 95.
Shackleton. N. J. 1987. Quaternary Science Reviews 6. 183.
Shackleton. N. J. & Opdyke. N. D. 1973. Quaternary Research
3.39.
Robert B Kidd
Department of Geology
University of Wales College of Cardiff
CARDIFF CFI 3YE
Prepare for a career in the
MINERALS INDUSTRY
The environmentally-acceptable production and use of mineral resources is essential for the sustainable
growth of every economy. Graduates of the following honours degree courses are sought by international
and U. K. companies producing gold, platinum, base metals, coal, oil, natural gas, construction materials
and the many other mineral commodities. Other career opportunities exist with financial institutions,
equipment suppliers and contractors/consultants.
Minerals Engineering (BEng) - UCCA Code J120
Mining Engineering (BEng/MEng) - UCCA Code JI00
Environmental Engineering and Resource Management (BEng) - UCCA Code H250
For further details please contact The Admissions Tutor, Department of Mineral Resources
Engineering, University of Nottingham, University Park, Nottingham, NG7 2RD.
Telephone: (0602) 514081
UNIVERSITY OF NOTTINGHAM
7
I.T. IN EARTH SCIENCE - Fieldwork along the coast of Glamorgan, South
Wales: A Flexible IT Learning Unit of particular relevance to GCSE and GCE
Syllabuses
Nicholas P Roe
Introduction
Fieldwork is an integral part of Earth Science courses at all
levels and along the coastline of South Wales can be seen
some outstanding geology. As a teacher of Earth Science I
decided that a package of teaching materials could be produced which would help in the teaching of such topics and
which would encourage students to gain a wider knowledge
and a greater enjoyment out of visits to such areas.
The introduction of IT into our schools has meant that some
concepts and examples of field geology which in the past were
difficult to explain have. through the medium of video film and
computerised graphics. opened up a new and hopefully exiting
avenue along which students can travel.
The field locations of Barry and South ern down on the coast of
South Wales (Figure I) provide some of the best geology to be
seen in Wales. At Southerndown the spectacularly high cliffs of
near horizontal strata enable earth scientists to study the
rocks of this area in great detail. The rocks are Jurassic in age
formed some 200 million years ago. while just to the west at
Ogmore-By-Sea slightly older T riassic rocks and Carboniferous strata can be studied. Further east along the coast towards
Cardiff the scenery at Barry is less impressive: however the
three headlands and bays that produce the indented coastline
of the area are useful in explaining the processes of coastal
erosion. and are also very good locations at which to carry out
simple geological mapping exercises as rock boundaries can be
easily defined and followed. Here Jurassic age beds outcrop at
Cold Knap while the more prominent headlands at Barry are
composed of rocks some 150 million years older and are
Carboniferous in age.
Figure I. Location map of South Wales showing the fieldwork sites covered by the fieldwork package.
STRUCTURE OF THE SELF STUDY UNIT
The study unit comprises a video film together with two
computer programs.
Video film
This 30 minute video takes the viewer on a geological trail
from the heritage coastline near Bridgend to the beaches of
Barry to the west of Cardiff. At each of the five field locations
the viewer is shown the rocks and structures that can be seen.
and are given a description and explanation of how ther were
formed millions of years ago and how they are stil being
altered by present day processes of weathering and erosion.
These computer programs have been designed and written in
such a way as to teach students about the Earth Science of the
two areas. The programs cover the general geology. the types
of rocks that can be seen together with the structural features
that are present. They also deal with features of physical
geography and the processes that produced them. These
topics are covered using clear. well anotated graphics together
with a clear concise text.
Additional computer program
Computer programs
linked to this study unit is a further program which explains
how to take and record field measurements which are an
integral part of any Earth Science fieldwork. The CAL package
entitled Fieldwork Measurement Techniques is available from
Audio Visual Publications (AVP)in Chepstow.
I - Southerndown Fieldwork. 2 - Barry Fieldwork
Age and Subject SUitability of the Unit is outlined below.
8
SCIENCE KEY STAGE 3 (December 1991 syllabus)
AT3. Materials and Properties.
Pupils should investigate, by observation, experiment and
fieldwork, the properties and formation of igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary rocks and link these to major features
and changes on the earths surface.
Modular Science Scheme - WJEC, GCSE syllabus 1992
ES I. Earth Materials and their relationships.
Sub topic ES.I - Sedimentary Processes.
ES.2 - Origin of Sedimentary rocks.
ES.3 - Rock relationships.
ES 1.2 Suggested activities - Fieldwork to visit exposures to
interpret the relative dates of geological events.
ES 1.3 A field study of local rocks.
ES2. The Dynamic Earth and Geological Time.
Sub topic ES2.1 - Energy and Forces (folds and faults)
ES2.2 - Plate Tectonics (local eVidence)
ES2.3 - Ancient Environments.
C I. Using Natural Resources.
Sub topiC C 1.2 - Rock Textures.
Suggested activities - examine and classify hand specimens of
rock samples.
GEOGRAPHY KEY STAGE 4 (WJEC syllabus 1991)
AT3. Physical Geography
Statements of Attainment covered by the Unit: 4b ,5d, 6e, 7c,
9c.
The PhYSical Environment - A study of the physical landscape,
involVing the recognition, description and explanation of specified landforms that are typical of scenery found in Wales.
GEOLOGY GCSE (WJEC syllabus 1992)
Themes - BI - Surface Processes.
B2 - Erosion.
84, 5, 6, 7 - Sediments and Geological Environ
ments.
C5 - Structural Deformation.
El - Map Interpretation.
F I - Fossils and Geological Time.
Plus I 5% of total marks - Fieldwork and Laboratory work.
fieldwork throughout Britain. The locations may be specific to
a stretch of coasdine between Cardiff and Bridgend, but the
unit helps describe and explain the basics of many aspects of
earth science from the deposition of sedimentary rocks during
past geolOgical periods, their subsequent changes as a result of
earth movements and their alteration due to present day
erosion and weathering.
The three computer programs that accompany the film have
been written in such a way as to help explain how the features
seen have been produced and subsequently altered.
Another aspect of fieldwork is that of recording data and here
again I.T. can be put to good use with the Fieldwork Measurement Techniques program which explains what to measure
and how to measure it. The basic tools of compass, clinometer
and tape measure are covered and the user is gUided through
a series of screens which explains the use of the equipment.
With the introduction of the National Curriculum many schools
are no longer teaching GCSE geology due mainly to the
physical constraints of time available on the timetable; however Earth science is still an integral part of many GCSE syllabi,
in particular the Modular Science schemes. This type of unit
would be of use not only to pupils, but also staff who, although
trained science teachers, might be teaching earth science for
the first time.
Further information on the Flexible Learning Package can be
obtained from the author :-
Nick Roe M.Sc.,
Geology/Geography Department,
Maesteg Comprehensive School,
Llangynwyd,
Nr Bridgend,
Mid Glamorgan.
It is planned to publish the package through Mid Glamorgan
County Council and it should be available in the Spring of
1993.
Copies of the computer program titled 'Fieldwork Measurement
Techniques' written by Nick Roe can be purchased from:
AVP Umited, School Hill Centre, Chepstow, Gwent, NP6 5PH.
~6~~~ ~@~~~@~ ~~~~IDW®~~
6
0~~~ 0m~~®~~~~ 0~m~~ mmu~
GCE ADVANCED LEVEL GEOGRAPHY (WJEC syllabus 1992)
Module I - Landforms and Landform Processes.
Geological controls and Weathering and Marine Proc
esses
GCE ADVANCED LEVEL GEOLOGY (WJEC syllabus 1992)
Units -
Sedimentary Petrology.
Earth Movements and Structural Geology.
Historical Geology.
Palaeontology.
Little or no video film specific to earth science has been
produced which is suitable for use with school pupils and yet it
is a very powerful and adaptable medium. Although the package discussed here is of field geology in South Wales, it would
be equally useful for use in teaching school children about
~m~ ~~ID~® ~~~li.I
6~ID
@®li.I~ffi~~~ 6~~~~~~ID ~~6~~~~~ ID~~@~
®~
~t:I~ @®6~n a~~ ®~ ~~6li.1®~~6~
9
Sr-rUDIES
ON r-rHE ISLE O~-' ARRAN IN 1993
~~IELI)
The Loch Ranza Field Centre has an enviable
reputation as one of the finest field studies centres
in the British Isles. Magnificently located on the
Isle of Arran, and with remarkably easy access
from all parts of Britain, Loch Ranza is able to
cater for the needs of students of all ages.
Carefully structured courses - mainly in Geology,
Geography or Biology - meet the requirements of
all examination boards for GCSE and A level
courses, as well as more general field work.
INCLUDED IN OUR PRICES
..
.
..
. ..
. ....
..
.
. ..... .
. .... .
121· Expert tuition by qualified staff
121
121
Use of flefdequlpment
.... .
. ..
.• • ·I4C6lT1fort~bl~.accornrnodatloll
The courses are all conducted by experienced and
knowledgeable centre staff, all of whom are
honours graduates with a detailed knowledge of
their subjects, the local environment and first aid
techniques. Safety is of paramount importance at
Loch Ranza. Field work programmes are adjusted
daily in response to weather information received
on our own Meteosat Weather Satellite system.
. . <IZI
. . . .121
.
..-:-:.>
.":- . . . . . . . ".. .
Excellent, fOU-board Infals
.
....
..
. .
Transport ()hArran as required
·,oryourc()urse
PLUS
The magnificent surroundings
Courses run from Saturday evening through to
Friday morning (6 nights), offering 5 full days of
tuition. Comfortable full-board accommodation is
provided at the centre, with games and recreation
room available for leisure time. Inexpensive travel
arrangements to Arran are available from all areas
of Britain.
.of the Isle of Arrari!
•
•
•
•
There are no minimum numbers.
6 night courses cost £125 +VAT.
We offer a free place ratio of 1:15 for teachers.
Additional adults pay just 50% for the whole stay.
/fyour school or college would like to consider afield course at Loch Ranza in 1993,
please contact us at the address below for further details.
Stuart Blake, General Manager,
Loch Ranza Field Centre, Lochranza, Isle of Arran, Scotland. Tel: 077 083 637.
Running an earth science INSET course for primary teachers
Sue Pryor
This is a brief description of how we ran the Friday INSET
course for primary teachers at the 1992 ESTA conference in
Cardiff. We hope this may be of use to anyone involved in
running similar courses in the future.
Aims
Our main aim was to meet the needs of primary teachers, with
little or no background knowledge, in the teaching of the earth
science component of the National Curriculum (Science and
Geography). We felt we could do this by:
·developing teachers' background knowledge to a sufficient
level to teach earth science at Key Stages I and 2, in a
simple teacher-friendly way.
·offering teachers ideas for pupils' hands-on earth science
activities (giving them the opportunity to try them for
themselves).
·giving teachers help and advice on obtaining useful materials
and resources for teaching earth science.
·running a bilingual course to cater for teachers in both English
and Welsh medium schools.
Course Structure and Content
Morning Session:
During the morning we concentrated on developing teachers'
own knowledge and understanding through three short lectures and two practical sessions. Topics covered included:
The rock cycle
Development of soil
Weathering and erosion
Earth Structure
Classification of rocks
Fossil preservation
The "greenhouse" effect and global warming
The atmosphere
Catering for a bilingual group
During the morning parallel lectures in English and Welsh
were held. Both groups of teachers came together to participate in bilingual practical sessions and afternoon workshop.
Teachers' comments of the course
Story of Rocla (lecture): "Very interesting - aimed at the right
level to give a good start in this area".
"Very useful indeed as a basis for all the activities on rocks given that I didn't know a great deal beforehand. I particularly
enjoyed the slides. I liked the amount of information given enough but not too much to get bogged down with!"
Atmosphere, Energy and Man (lecture): "Would have liked
more time spent on this area quite interesting".
"The cloud part I found difficult to understand. The "greenhouse" effect section was very interesting - I think I understand it now!"
Activity Workshop: "Really enjoyed all of it - can't wait to try
some in school."
"Interesting and worthwhile. Practical things we can put into
operation in the classroom."
Course Notes: "A great help not to have to take notes during
lectures."
The course in general: "Very useful to have hands-on
experience and have the opportunity to talk to other teachers
concerning this aspect of the N.C."
"A hearty thanks for haVing everything through the medium of
Welsh."
INSET ORGANISERS
Afternoon Session
In the afternoon we gave teachers the opportunity to try a
number of pupil activities in a workshop of hands-on classbased activities matched to areas of the National Curriculum
(Activities taken from Exploring Earth Science - resource book
for primary teachers). Loan materials, available to local schools
from the National Museum of Wales Schools' Service, were
displayed, along with a variety of pupil reference books and
other published materials. Topics covered included:
.
Rocks
Fossils
Soil
Weathering and erosion
Fossil fuels
Rocks and their uses
Teachers were also given the opportunity to visit exhibitors'
stands during the afternoon tea break.
Sue Pryor & Charles Harris
Department of Geology
University of Wales College of Cardiff
Geraint Price
National Museum of Wales Schools Service
Cardiff
Carole Creary & Hick Revell
Northamptonshire Education Authority
11
The Empirical Inductive Tradition and Some of its Implications for Earth
Science Teaching
Frank Fisher
Any distinctiveness of 'Earth science' lies only in the nature of
the particular problems which are addressed by Earth scientists and to some of the specialised methods which they use;
not in the fundamental scientific principles which are applied in
solving those problems. The knowledge, understanding and
process which is brought to bear in seeking solutions is that
which would commonly be assigned to biology, chemistry or
physics. It is the utilisation and interdependence of this
fundamental knowledge and process which establishes (say)
'geology' in the network of related experience which is
Science, rather than any particular subject of the geological
enquiry. That is. the knowledge and skills which are required
to solve geological problems are those which are an established part of other major sciences and thus should be recognisable in all school science courses. Calling it Geology does
not automatically qualify it as a science. locking it into that
conceptual and methodological framework will.
For historical reasons. core scientific concepts have not
usually been developed in. or through. an 'Earth science'
context in the school curriculum. or even extended in their
scope in order to give students a more complete or balanced
understanding of science. Thus it is the application. extension
and restructuring of established school science in order to
subsume. and thus meet, the Earth science requirements of
the National Curriculum which should be of major interest to
us.
Therefore. I believe that the case made for the Earth sciences
as part of a National Curriculum in the period 1988-90. and
the ensuing debate, would have been more productive and
intellectually sound if the starting point had been based upon
that which is at the established core of school science and how
this might be extended and applied to a greater range of
problems. The case was well made for the value of an
education which included the Earth sciences and nearly all
would consider the issues and problems to be relevant and
worthwhile for all young people. but any case for a 'slice of the
curriculum cake' for the Earth sciences which was founded on
distinctive content grounds would always be flawed. If
detailed curriculum proposals had been advanced. at an early
stage of the consultation procedure, which had demonstrated
the role of the Earth sciences as part of a holistic science
education and which were based on the extension. enrichment and application of what was already established. then the
Earth sciences dimension would now develop and grow where
it belongs. WITHIN biology. chemistry and physics strands.
Much of my own professional work is spent in supporting and
developing the teaching of the Earth sciences and I would wish
to avoid seeming in any way negative but I am not convinced
that any aspect of this area of the natural sciences does not, at
a fundamental level. belong to biology, chemistry or physics.
When students are presented with observational experience
which leads to scientific problems which have an Earth science
focus this inevitably requires them to draw on the wider
conceptual framework and to select and synthesise elements
from any or all of the three core sciences.
Much of the teaching material which is now being launched
onto a hungry and sometimes. desperate market. gives sup-
port to the notion that the only way of organising the curriculum is by means of subject discipline content based modules.
That is: the Earth science 'bits' will form a module. and thus be
taught as a discreet unit, and if necessary. get the geographers
to teach it!! This is a consequence of the lack of appropriate
curriculum development and must envelop the worst of all
worlds because:
a) The Earth sciences are multidimensional subjects and thus
do not fit logically or strategically in anyone strand of the
National Science Curriculum. Certainly it should never
have been seen as a single strand.
b) If integration based on a conceptual framework and the
prinCiples of continuity and progression are to mean anything then 'bit part' teachers will find it very difficult to
maintain an essential overview. and thus their ability to
recognise, understand and exploit links and interfaces with
other areas of science. will be very low.
c) The multidisciplinary nature of the subject area means that
it can only advance in parallel with other areas of knowledge, experience and skill. Conversely. as it is so useful in
demonstrating applications. in prOViding interesting and
useful extensions and in generating a greater sense of
coherence to courses. it makes no sense to deliver it all in
one package.
Geology and its Place in National Curriculum
Science
A major issue which 'muddied the water' (because of content
boundaries being preserved around the Earth sciences). was
that of ownership. The original proposition that certain
aspects of Earth science should have been covered in both
science and geography was clearly unrealistic and has been
partially resolved in the revised versions of the National
Curriculum. However. this rationalisation seems again to have
been carried out largely on the grounds of overlap of content
rather than any consideration of the structure of two quite
distinct diSciplines. For example. the reasons for the inclusion
of geology. in their own area of the school curriculum. by
school science and geography teachers should be quite
different and student learning should diverge in quite distinctive directions. What is important for curriculum planners is
the recognition of this distinctiveness and to acknowledge the
validity and need for both departments to use some common
starting points in their work.
That area of information which is relevant for both science and
geography. and is called geology. might be relatively large but
the overlap in the teaching and learning activities and processes need only be very small indeed because of the divergence in purpose and method. Only the act of recognising and
recording the occurrence of Earth features. materials or phenomena is identical in both cases.
What is very disappointing is that earlier errors have not been
rectified. In the Non-Statutory Guidance for Science E5 3.6
(DES 1989) it states "The earth science component may be
12
taught in curriculum areas other than science, notably geography. Schools are free to organise the way this component is
covered." Three years later there is, apparently, still the
misguided belief that Earth science in geography and Earth
science as an integral part of science are interchangeable.
Geology for the Geographer
The principal concern will be for a knowledge of geological
structures and the nature of the rock types which make up
those structures. Knowledge of rock formations within a
region provides one of the essential starting points for the
geographer in as much that data will provide an input to a
geographical process which then goes on to develop an
understanding of:
a) the distribution and availability of important natural
resources; the industry which is centred around those
resources and the economic web which is supported by
the industry, or,
b) that the structures largely determine topography and
landform which influence rainfall, soil types, and temperature, so again, directly or indirectly, determining the activities of people.
Geographers do have a stake in geology but this will have an
essentially service role in their work and thus only need be
descriptive and theoretical. In geography, geology is used as a
means to an end rather than a focus for study in itself and such
descriptions are most efficiently delivered in a didactic way or
from some form of data base. We must assume, of course that
the geographical process is going on at another level where
geological, meteorological or oceanographic information is
treated as data or otherwise taken as read in the solving of
geographical problems.
For example, knOWing where the boundary between an upper
pervious rock and a lower impervious rock occurs will help
explain the distribution of springs in a region and thus where
ancient settlements could have been founded. For this purpose one only needs to know what impervious means to grasp
that water, having reached this point, is forced to travel
sideways until it appears on the land surface at some point
where the boundary is exposed. For the geographer it is the
pattern of distribution of the springs, explained by the occurrence of the boundary which is important, not, certainly at
school level, the physics of water under pressure and a detailed understanding of the natures of the two rock types and
their origin.
Similarly, most pupils will receive, as part of their geographical
education, details about the localities of coalfields in the British
Isles but from there the use to which that information is put is
essentially geographical. It may be related to the occurrence of
other raw materials, to centres of energy generation or to the
industrial infrastructure. That is, the occurrence of the coal
and its locality is used as part of a geographical process and for
that purpose only a brief outline of its origin may be required;
the coal, its chemistry, origin, formation and occurrence are
taken, per se, and the learning process is then 'forward' in
considering what happens to the coal in human hands.
Geology for the Scientist
Scientists also have an interest in natural features of the Earth
but the scientist uses information, (ideally collected by direct
observation at the Site), for a different set of purposes.
Using the coal example: a science teacher will encourage close
examination of specimens to promote the observational experience from which profitable questions will grow. These might
focus on its composition, origin, energy content and materials
which may be extracted from it. Exploring these aspects will
take pupils into the areas of palaeo-climates, anaerobic
decomposition, continental drift. cyclical deposition, the effect
of heat and pressure on organic material, calorimetry,
distillation and palaeo-botany. These would involve a range of
concepts which span the whole breadth of the physical and
biological sciences and could generate enough investigative
work which would fill two hours a week for half a school term
and take pupils to a stage where they could predict the
occurrence of coal reserves and test their hypotheses in the
field.
Learning through the medium of a Science Process -based
Methodology would begin by looking at real coal, recording a
number of observations from which the investigative process
proceeds by speculation, information gathering through experiment, communication and evaluation. This methodology
takes therupil'backwards' in a way in which coal becomes a
source 0 clues used in the development of a network of
related theories and models, each of which contributes to an
understanding of the nature and history of the Earth. That is,
coal is studied in a manner which searches for understanding
of its origin, formation and chemistry, its chronology relative
to other events such as tectonic activity, of biological evolution and erosional and depositional processes.
Returning to the spring water: the fact that the water has been
found and utilised by people would be taken as read by
scientists. Their 'backwards process' might involve questions
such as: Where does all the water come from initially?
How does it get from ocean to land?
Why does it pass through some rocks and not others and
how quickly?
What does it dissolve en route and which substances are
desirable and how do we avoid those which are not?
The answers to these questions then become starting points for
the geographer when they consider some of the human and
environmental implications. Geography continues where Science leaves off and undertakes to solve a quite separate group
of problems which are, of course, equally valid in educational
terms. However, the geographical process may also be
defined in ways which are very similar to that of science and
thus present an equally valid and worthwhile set of learning
experiences for pupils. It may therefore not be helpful to
define subject distinctiveness in terms of 'process'; a fact
which also helps to confuse thinking about the issue of
overlap. Because of the similarity in 'process' many geographers would define their subject as a science; but then, how
different is the modern historical process which also aims to
solve problems using a hypothetico-deductive methodology?
Holistic Science and the Role of the Teacher
Clusters and patterns of related ideas and experiences become vital in completing the picture which we call science (the
whole being greater than the sum of the parts). The total
scheme of work might be regarded as a jig-saw puzzle where it
is only possible to comprehend the picture when sufficient
pieces have been connected together. At the start, pupils
don't have the picture on the box lid as a guide so each piece
must be looked at in such a way as to see a continuity of line or
colour and so make the connection. Our job, as teachers, is to
ensure that pupils receive the pieces in a convenient and
logical order so that they can place them together to build a
13
small part of the picture and to recognise that the 'assembly
stage' is where our help is most needed. It is also vital that no
significant pieces are missing otherwise the picture will, inevitably, make less sense.
The 'pieces' can be presented, at random, by any teacher who
is one page ahead in the textbook; teaching 'by numbers',
which leaves pupils with an accumulation of loose pieces, has
been all too common. It is holistic science teaching, where the
teacher does have the box lid and knows exactly what each
piece contributes to the whole and how the picture can best
be constructed, which is in very short supply.
Professor J.J.Thompson, during his Secondary Science Curriculum Review lecture at the ASE 1989 Conference, used the
analogy of a brick wall where the elements within a topic may
have one of two roles:
As 'bricks' - distinct units which have a recognisable integrity and boundary, or,
2 As 'cement' - aspects which serve to hold units together
such that each makes greater sense as part of the whole
picture.
The 'Earth science' dimension has much to offer in the role of
either 'bricks' or 'cement' in such a model but it requires a
more philosophical and complete understanding of science,
with elements of divergent thinking, flair or even eccentricity
to recognise the potential of these roles. This style of thought
and approach to science teaching creates schemes of work
which make the difference between a mere training in science
and an education in science which establishes a self-sustaining
involvement with the subject.
When we consider interfaces between themes or topics in
our work schemes we are looking for what we might usefully
exploit as the 'cement' which will form the links and connections. Furthermore, the proportion of 'cement' to 'bricks' in
the medium for delivering particular sections of a course is an
interesting and important issue. Many of us, in our own school
science, will have only had 'bricks' and they remained in a
random pile at that! Perhaps a truly integrated course uses
small bricks and a lot of cement! However for us to recognise
the advantages for a 'biological brick' to be laid next to a
'geological brick' means we know the substance of the cement
which will go between them and, most important, we know
what the finished wall will look like.
HaVing more complex curriculum structures can give problems in identifying the optimum sequence for learning activities
and thus which 'bricks' to place in the lower courses. Also,
once committed to this approach for a proportion of a course
it is then vital to ensure that all other requirements of the
National Curriculum find a logical and useful place elsewhere.
Experience has shown that the first few areas are relatively
easy to compile but it becomes increasingly difficult to find a
structural rationale for those elements which remain to be
placed - but that is the way most jig-saws seem to be!
Methods Old and New
Until relatively recently the method through which the geological sciences advanced was essentially by induction. That is,
large numbers of individual and separate investigations were
carried out as particular sites were meticulously recorded and
catalogued. Museums and libraries are full of these accounts
with maps and accompanying specimens.
information gathered at one site could be related to that
gathered at others and so to a more general knowledge of
regional, or even larger scale, features. The method was to
observe and classify rocks and fossils and to interpret them in
a way which would describe and define very specific past
events, for example a period of volcanic activity in that region
or the presence of a group of organisms within a specific rock
layer.
This method, by which many generalisations have become
established can, in itself, lead the unaware into some very
suspect science. On numerous occasions I have heard teachers say to students, "we observe this ...... therefore we conclude that. .... , without there being any realisation that they
had fallen into the error of using descriptions as an input to a
'key' which miraculously converts them into conclusions and
so bypasses the most important part of the scientific process.
That is, by not saying:
"we observe this ... why is it like this ... what predictions might
we make and how can we test our ideas~": they had omitted
the investigative and evaluative stages, without which it is
hardly Science. (The role and importance of these stages in the
scientific process was made explicit in Science 5-16 A Statement of Policy and can now be identified in the Programmes of
Study for Attainment Target I of the National Curriculum).
In the inductive sense, a particular observation would need to
be compared with descriptive records made at similar situations elsewhere in order to recognise consistency and so test
that the criteria by which the generalisations were made are
still valid in the light of the new information. Eventually we are
able to use these generalisations as gUidelines for framing
questions which will lead to understanding the observations
made of specific objects or phenomena: the process which
we call deduction.
Of course the 'keys' have usually been established, refined and
tested over a long period and by many workers but nevertheless, information collected first hand from a range of observations, should lead to students making generalisations (their
own 'key'), which they can then go on to apply in an enqUiry
based process. Because of this rational progression, the questions are seen by the pupils as their own and this sense of
'ownership' will, in itself. generate greater motivation and
satisfaction. If we ask pupils. "Why are you doing this investigation~" they may then reply : "To find an answer to my
question !"
As part of an education in science it is important to spend
some time reinventing the wheel, just to enable an understanding of how wheels came about! Therefore. there is a vital
part of our teaching during which we give pupils the opportunity to establish generalisations from their own experience
such that they then have confidence in a method which uses
their own concepts as a basis for making predictions and
defining hypotheses in deductive, problem solving activities.
That is, pupils build up a collection of 'tools' (conceptual
generalisations) anyone of which they can utilise when called
upon to make a prediction or formulate a hypothesis. It may
also be said that if pupils are expected to answer questions
which they. themselves. can not formulate and rationalise then
they are not yet ready for that problem solving situation; they
have not yet got sufficient tools (in terms of skills. concepts
and experiences) to confidently recognise and tackle that
problem. This is particularly common with geology where the
typical sites for fieldwork have been far too complex. resulting
in pupils being given the accepted interpretation (by means of
a 'field lecture' and without any sign of 'Process'), because
they were unable to define and understand possible reasons
for speculation about that which they were observing.
This painstaking work progressively led to the recognition that
14
Inductive Stage
PARTICULAR INFORMATION
~
GENERALISATION
~
CONCEPT
Deductive Stage
CONCEPT
~
APPLIED WHEN INVESTIGATING THE PARTICULAR
Once concepts are established we can then move quickly to
the deductive stage when the concepts are utilised in problem
solving activities. That is, the concept forms the basi~ of
predictions which will be refined into hypoth~ses an~ so Into
enquiry and, hopefully answers to those questIons whIch stem
from first-hand observation and speculation. Without curiosity it surely can't be Science!
In the early I 960s the problem was that, although most of the
known geological events were recorded and described by
their effect, there was not the understanding of how and why
such events took place. Without this there was not the means
to predict, from first principles, the circumstances of any
event. That is, the inductive process had not taken geology to
the point where there were concepts or theories established
which attempted to explain events on a global scale. All that
could be done was to connect the separate fragments to give
as complete a picture as possible and then extrapolate to fill in
the rest.
The main problem was that of accessibility and the means to
survey the Earth's features on a sufficiently large scale. Most of
the Earth's surface being covered by oceans meant that not
until the I 950s was there the means by which heat flow,
gravity and magnetic experiments could be conducted in these
areas. Oceanographic surveys enabled oceanic rocks and deep
water sediments to be examined for the first time. These
aspects of research came together to give what we now know
as the Theory of Plate Tectonics.
Once established, Plate Tectonics was immediately used as a
means to make predictions and as a framework on which the
backlog of information could take shape. As it is gr~unded in
fundamental scientific principles, we are able to use it as a tool
in a deductive process so that now, when any particular
investigation is carried out the results are evaluated and
rationalised using the Theory as a generalised global concept.
Also the methods used throughout the investigation will be
shaped by working hypotheses drawn from the Theory.
This only started to happen from the mid I 960s and only then
could it be said that geology showed substantial consistency
with other major branches of science, and this fact is of major
significance for us as teachers and educational planners as we
try to understand how to move the Earth sciences forward.
Since the introduction of the Nuffield Science teaching schemes,
in about 1965, a central aim of science teaching has been to
establish such general concepts as early as possi~le in a c~u~se
of study. For example, in the area of phYSICS, a unifyIng
particulate theory of matter is developed which pupils can
then use to explain the behaviour of solids, liquids and gases
under a variety of conditions. In chemiStry the reactivity series
is established at an early stage and then used constantly when
predicting chemical reactions, s.imilarly the periodic ~Ie enables us to predict the propertIes of elements. In bIology we
introduce the concept of food chains in general so that when
pupils are faced with the problem of understanding a habitat
then that concept can be applied and hypotheses tested.
It is hard to find examples in the science education literature,
which make clear any geolOgical concepts which would have
an eqUivalent role to the examples given above. That is,
concepts which become predictive tools in the hands of our
students which enable them to form hypotheses based upon
new observational experience and which are testable. For
these we have to rely on those prOVided by the biologist,
chemist or physicist, such as; species adaptation, melting
points or induced magnetism, although a case could be made
for 'superposition' or certain aspects of 'uniformitarianism' as
being uniquely geological concepts at a school level.
The trend among the best science teachers for the past 25
years has been to establish a framework of such concepts at an
early stage; to reinforce the confidence which pupils have in
them and to prOVide the opportunity for the concepts to be
utilised as part of the 'Process' when individual and wide
ranging investigations are carried out. Without a major creative effort to ensure that the Earth sciences will also be
developed in schools using deductive processes then there is
not going to be the compatibility and consistency with other
areas of science which would ensure high quality science
courses. (Whether much of what is done under the headings
of biology, chemistry and physics qualifies as high quality
science is a topic which also needs urgent consideration.
However, for historical reasons, not all aspects of school
science are developing from the same point at this time of
change and this is posing a problem when we have the chance
to make fresh, unprejudiced decisions which are free from
historical precedent.)
What was desperately reqUired is the eqUivalent of (but
regrettably non existent) "Nuffield Geology" if only to break
the mould and prOVide fresh, positive exemplars which can
stimulate and guide the essential creativity and inventiveness in
course planning. It is the content fabric which needs the
intellectual and creative brain power, not the graphic art to
which publishers seem to be resorting in an attempt to put
bright new, attractive clothes on old models. However, no
one can blame the publishers if there are teachers who believe
that this is how it should be done! Substantial work needs to
be carried out which will lead to teaching strategies where
geological understanding will grow, deductively, from fundamental scientific concepts as an integral part of Science. It is
thus vital that, before any more schemes of work or curricular
materials are published, someone who understands Sdence
should undertake to identify and make clear how the Earth
sciences relate to other areas of science and thus construct a
fresh and more appropriate framework within which the
widened curriculum may develop.
Once established, such hypothetico-deductive methods would
encourage our students to use a new and more productive
framework when they wonder about rock specimens which
they collected during their last holiday, and I don't mean to ask
silly questions like: "what is the rock called?""
John A Fisher
Lecturer in Science Education
University of Bath
Claverton Down
BATH BAil 7AY
15
CAMBRIDGE Earth Sciences
Understanding the Earth
A Continent Revealed
A New Synthesis
The European Geotraverse
Edited by DEREK BLUNDELL, ROY FREEMAN
and STEPHAN MUELLER
Edited by G. C. BROWN, C. J. HAWKESWORTH
and R. C. L. WILSON
This exciting and unique undergraduate reader is an
indispensable guide to the recent rapid evolution of
knowledge and the exciting discoveries about the
processes that drive and shape the Earth.
£70.00 net
£24.95 net
HB
PB
0521 370205
0521 427401
563 pp.
1992
A Continent Revealed presents the findings of the
European Geotraverse - a unique study of the
tectonic evolution of the continent of Europe and
the first comprehensive cross section of the
continentallithosphere.
£35.00 net
£15.95 net
Boxed Set
PB
0521419239
0 521 42948 X
288 pp.
1992
Planet Earth
Cosmology, Geology, and the Evolution of Life
and Environment
An Introduction to Global Geophysics
CESARE EMILlANI
This book explains why we have such a vast array of
environments across the cosmos and on our own
planet, and also a stunning diversity of plant and
animal life on Earth.
£55.00 net
£19.95 net
HB
PB
0521401232
0521409497
The Solid Earth
736 pp.
1992
C. M. R. FOWLER
(... a superb, dearly laid out text. It covers a broad
range of applied geophysics ... Fowler also usefully
New Scientist
directs students to further reading.'
£42.50 net
£19.95 net
HB
PB
0521 370256
0521 385903
490 pp.
1990
Introduction to Mineral Sciences
Analysis of Geological Structures
ANDREW PUTNIS
N. J. PRICE and J. W. COSGROVE
This textbook provides a knowledge of structural
geology emphasising mechanical principles.
This text provides an introduction to modern
mineralogy for undergraduate students, it is highly
illustrated throughout.
£60.00 net
£22.95 net
HB
PB
0521419220
0 521 42947 1
479 pp.
1992
£75.00 net
£25.00 net
HB
PB
0521 26581 9
0521 319587
500 pp.
1990
Fractals and Chaos in Geology and
Geophysics
World Geomorphology
DONALD L. TURCOTTE
This book conveys an understanding of the earth's
major relief features and presents a subdivision of the
earth's surface in provinces with similar geological
and geomorphological history.
This book introduces the fundamental concepts of
fractal geometry and chaotic dynamics and relates
them to a variety of geological and geophysical
problems.
£29.95 net
HB
0521412706
236 pp.
1992
E. M. BRIDGES
£37.50 net
£14.95 net
HB
PB
0521 383439
0521 289653
288 pp.
1990
Guide to the Sun
Watching the World's Weather
KENNETH PHILLlPS
w. BURROUGHS
What makes the sun shine? What are solar flares?
How is solar energy used for everyday purposes?
Answers to these and other related questions are
given in this book.
(... optimistic, attractive and well-illustrated'
New Scientist
(... a significant contribution to popularising a
Physics World
central part of our science.'
£19.95 net
HB
0521 39483 X
400 pp.
1992
£17.95 net
HB
0521343429
228 pp.
For further information please contact Science Publicity at the address below.
To order any Cambridge book please phone 0223 325782 or fax 0223 315052.
CAMBRIDGE
UNIVERSITY PRESS
The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2
2RU
1991
Reconstructing ancient environments
lan Thomas and Kay Hughes
The main aim of the National Stone Centre is to tell the "Story
of Stone" in the United Kingdom, its formation, industrial
history, uses and related environmental issues. These topics
are the subject of the indoor exhibition. However, the site
was specially chosen from almost a hundred locations in the
Southern Pennines on the basis of its proximity to working
quarries, potential visitors and most significantly its prime
position as a ~eological Site of Special Scientific Interest. The
50 acre (2Oha) Centre is situated at the south-eastern corner
of the Carboniferous limestone of the Derbyshire Dome.
Flanking the site to the east, the hills are capped by Millstone
Grit (Namurian sandstones) overlying a thick sequence of
mudstones.
How is it possible to convince visitors that six former quarries
on the edge of the Peak District, 78 miles inland from Skegness,
200 metres above the sea, on a cold winters day, were once
almost as pleasant as the azure seas of the Bounty Chocolate
Bar adverts? - that is apart from the odd local volcano and
basking shark, which would of course have added to the
excitement.
To make matters more challenging, school and bus timetables
etc. often mean that groups are only able to spend 45 minutes
walking over this dramatic area - seen for the very first time,
and often in complete contrast to their school surroundings in
Milton Keynes or Merseyside. How can one communicate
difficult concepts to students of varied age and ability? Incidentally it is perhaps surprising that the origin of the group gives
almost no clue to the aptitude of the students - public or
private sector, rural, suburban or inner city school - of far
more importance appears to be the enthusiasm of the staff and
the level of pre-briefing given.
The site can be used at any level from pre-school to PhD thesis
study and of course for general interpretation by the pUblic.
Indeed degree theses on other parts of the limestone outcrop
have indicated that careful research can establish water depth
(from microfossil assemblages), water temperatures, current
direction and turbulence and even what ate what (brachiopods
have been found elsewhere with shark's teeth marks!). For
example, the palaeoecology of outcrops 30m from the Discovery Building exposed in a new road construction can be
deduced as follows. Well preserved articulated crinoid stems,
echinoid (sea urchin) plates and spines can be seen on bedding
planes suggesting slow moving currents. Immediately below is
a much more random series of coarsely grained beds of shelly
debris indicating more turbulent currents with brachiopods in
position of growth or inverted and only small sections of
crinoid stems, below which are fine grained (calcilutite) black
beds of bituminous limestone with gigantoproductids often
having contrasting white calcite shells. An adjacent loose
block usefully demonstrates three types of fossil preservation:
"original" shells (mineralogically replaced by later calcite),
moulds and casts. The occurrence of solitary corals, very large
brachiopods (sometimes up to 30cm across), and the occasional shark's tooth (a Icm tooth from the site is displayed in
the exhibition) is sufficiently convincing evidence for most
visitors to accept that there were indeed once tropical seas in
this part of Derbyshire. [Although there is always the pupil
who assures the rest of the class that sharks and corals are
abundant at Blackpool!] Furthermore, most will accept on
trust that magnetic evidence in the rocks indicates that the
area was just south of the Equator.
In passing, the beds can be seen to be faulted (and displacement measured) and two of the faults have been widened by
Air photograph of the site, showing two of the six quarries.
17
Group in the "Old" or "Reef Mound" quarry.
water (probably hydrothermal) then infilled with clay and vein
minerals. The beds here generally dip to the west, whereas in
moving to the next quarry, the black marker horizons can be
traced to the horizontal and then have an easterly dip, hence a
small anticline can be traced.
How has it been possible for the environment to change so
radically? - within five miles of the site, apart from the evidence
of tropical seas, there are beds laid down in Mississippi style
deltas, forested swamps similar to the Florida Everglades,
deserts just as arid as the Atacama and glaciers on the scale of
Greenland. The key is of course Plate Tectonics and geolOgical time - here cross references are made to the postage
stamp (crust) on the football (earth) and earth cross-sections
to be seen in the exhibition, and to comparative rates of
modem plate movements (Europe and America parting company at the rate at which our fingernails grow). Incidentally, it
is interesting to note that even Key Stage 2 pupils are often
well aware of the mechanics of Plate Tectonics, which even 25
years ago were of interest to a small cluster of senior academics.
Now is the time to draw a few of these threads together.
Interpretative panels on the trail all illustrate a common crosssection (see below) overprinted with "You are here" arrows.
But the concept of a "cross-section" in itself may be difficult
How it all began
LAGOON
(North East Quarry)
Tropical Sea Level
SEA LILY MEADOW
/
.
--~,~~~----~~~~~--~~~~~~----
-.---.._-.~---_-~
_ __
(Old Quarry)
----G2z
SUrla<7P .o'to=n~GE
C?
Teaching Earth Sciences: vol. 78. pt. 7 (7993)
-
(ScTees of shell fragments)
'- '-.
~ "''''; ~ Deep Muddy Water
"~
Quarried Surfaces
".
"" ~,
"" "---"",""'"
m
.
.
\ ' IX
'_
\
\
'
\
18
for some to appreciate (imagine that a massive diamond saw
has been used to take a slice out of the landscape). In some
parts of the site the limestone is found in recognisable layers beds which would have been laid down in the beautiful shallow
turquoise lagoons 2-4 metres deep complete with basking
sharks; these stretched northwards 20 miles to Castleton and
way to the east for 40 miles into lincolnshire. In other areas
"multi-storey blocks of fossils" held together by an algal "jelly"
form reef mounds (in the most recent terminology they are
"carbonate mud mounds"). They are not a structural framework of a modem reef, such as that formed by corals - corals
had not developed massive colonies here at this time. Beyond
the reef to the south, formed by surf battering the reef, lie
great wedges of shelly screes thinning into the deeper waters.
Such screes fringe many modem reefs. Further south again
were deep water rather more muddy seas as far away as
exotic Loughborough. Trails over the three quarries to the
southeast of the site then reinforce this scenario.
Other concepts are introduced. Pupils are often confused
looking into one particular quarry when told that the beds
were formed on the floor of tropical lagoon. The difficulty is
that they tend to think that the quarry itself was the lagoon!
So it is necessary to introduce the description by saying that
rocks here were originally deposited in layers of limey mud
which like concrete solidified and cracked. They were tilted
by earth movements, faulted and covered up by newer rocks
over millions of years. Only in the last hundred years or so has
quarrying eaten into the hill, stripping off first of all the soil
(about 0.5 metres thick) and then the first 25 metres or so of
the earth's crust so that we have a three dimensional view of
what remains. This particular quarry is absolutely ideal for
gaining an appreciation of the basics of field geology: bedding
and bedding planes, joints, faults, taking dips and strikes,
mineralisation and folding.
At the main crinoid outcrop, the interpretative panel explains
that, despite the fact that these creatures have roots, a stem
and wafting fronds like seaweed, they were animals, not plants.
We often draw the analogy of "starfish on stalks", and point
out that they still exist, although they are now much less
prolific than in the Carboniferous and Silurian periods. Why
should they be so well-preserved here in such long unbroken
lengths? Elsewhere they are usually only found as single
ossicles. Careful observation of the exposure offers clues position vis-a-vis a reef, thin leaves of black organic material,
possible indications of the early stages of karst development
(bearing in mind that crinoids and many of the carbonateforming animals were filter feeders, relying upon plankton).
Finally, a tour would be incomplete without a mention of the
spiny brachiopod with a long latin name (the Permian equivalent, Horridonia horrida is much more frightening, if only in
name!). The purpose of the spines can give rise to much lighthearted debate, but usefully illustrates how appearances can
be deceptive and of the need to consider the ecological
context when explaining anatomy (turbulent waters with abundant plankton - hence the need for a holdfast to the sea floor).
All of the features can be seen from the public trails or in the
exhibition; special access is allowed to other "non-public"
areas by means of indemnity passes for those wearing hard
hats - not only for protection but to separately identify them
from general visitors.
The Centre at Wirksworth, near Matlock, has already become
the most visited geological site in the country. Last year 250
groups (under 5's to over 80 year olds) from as far away as
Crawley and Bradford toured the site.
In addition to palaeoecology, there are many other features
and issues to explore: lime kilns, lead mines, uses of stone,
pollution, toxicity, chemical reactions, safety in mines/social
conditions, the physics of moving loads, forces, colonisation of
rock floors etc.
lan A. Thomas: Director
Kay Hughes: Educationllnterpretation Manager
The National Stone Centre
WIRKSWORTH
Derbyshire DE4 4FR
Tel.0629-824833
B.Sc. Honours Degree in
EARTH SCIENCE
Geology and Physical Geography combine
in a study of the Earth's environments and
resources.
The modular degree scheme offers each
student a broad spectrum of options in
Earth Science and other complementary
and contrasting subjects, giving the
flexibility to structure a degree course of
their choice.
Further details from:Neil Bowden, Earth Science,
Liverpool John Moores University,
Byrom Street, Liverpool L3 3AF.
.
~~LiverpOOI John Moores University
\~f
19
Dyfed Spacewatch and Dyfed Daearth
D. Hugh Griffiths and Sandy Morell
On the Saturday morning of the conference, there was an
opportunity for conference members to revise and update
their knowledge of the Universe and also to view two initiatives
aimed at Space and Environmental Education. At Spacewatch,
members were able to enter a mobile planetarium and were
given a guided tour of the heavens. A preview of the Daearth
exhibition demonstrated how environmental education is being aided by one local authority.
Dyfed Spacewatch and Daearth are major initiatives launched
by Dyfed LEA to enhance the teaching of Space and Environmental Education throughout the County at Key Stages I, 2 and
3. They have been developed by the County science team
under the leadership of Dr David Norbury, Dyfed's Senior
Advisor.
Spacewatch consists of a portable "Starlab" planetarium, able
to accommodate up to 30 pupils at a time, together with 29
interactive activities stationed around it. It was launched by
Professor John Thomas FRS, President of the Royal Institution
and an ex-pupil of a Dyfed school. It has been fully operational
for two years and is based at each of the County's secondary
schools in turn.
Daearth is in the developmental stage and consists of between
30 and 40 "hands on" activities relating to the cross-curricular
theme of Environmental Education. Included in the activities
are a number which are designed to help teachers to deliver
the Earth Science content of the National Curriculum. It will
be operated in the same way as Spacewatch using secondary
school halls as the venue.
At each centre, access to the display is shared between the
secondary school pupils and pupils from the surrounding
primary schools. In the evening the display is used by parents
and members of the local community.
The underpinning philosophy of both initiatives is to prOVide
teachers and pupils with practical support. In both, an interactive approach aims to put excitement and enthusiasm into
science teaching and Environmental Education across the curriculum. They are also a valuable in-service training resource
and a tool for primary-secondary liaison. Primary and secondary teachers are supported by INSET to help teacher-users in
making the delivery to pupils themselves. In this way, it builds
teacher confidence in relatively difficult areas of the curriculum.
The activities themselves are linked closely to the requirements of the National Curriculum. Teachers are able to
choose which of the activities are most suitable for their pupils
dependent on the Key Stage and the work they are presently
involved in.
The initiatives are fully bilingual, with all instructions provided
in both English and Welsh. Spacewatch is available for commercial hire outside the county.
For further details, contact:
D. Hugh Grifflths (Spacewatch)
Sandy Morell (Daearth)
Dyfed Education Resource Centre
St Clears
Dyfed SA33 4BT.
Building Stones as a Geological Resource
J W Perkins
This field excursion examined a range of South Wales and other
British sedimentary stones which have been employed in the
nineteenth-century housing of Cardiff and district. Various
sedimentary structures were identified, weathering and durability demonstrated, and the relationship between stone beds
and their natural exposure and use in buildings explored.
In the second part of the excursion we moved on to examine
stone becoming only a skin, in slabbed materials of exotic
origins used to cover shop frontages. A great range of granite
types and features of metamorphic rocks was seen as well as
occasional "marbles" of polished sedimentary structures. The
importance of the ballast trade, back to the coal exporting
port of Cardiff, was also stressed, providing unusual materials
used in a range of situations in Cardiff bUildings.
The excursion followed routes I & 2 of the leader's book The
Building Stones of Cardiff, available at £3.50 including postage
from the Department for Continuing Education, 38 Park Place,
Cardiff CF I 3BB.
20
Videos in fieldwork and the classroom
Denis Bates
Video equipment, both for playing video tapes, and for
making tapes, is now virtually commonplace equipment in
secondary schools and tertiary establishments, and is quite
common in primary schools. Students and pupils are of
course familiar with television as an entertainment medium, as
well as in its teaching role. However, the use of a camcorder
(the small camera plus video recorder in a Single housing,
usually taking a miniature tape) for teaching purposes is still
comparatively rare, and many people are unaware of its
potential. The use of a domestic camcorder is described
here, both for recording fieldwork and for making short
teaching tapes for use in a number of ways:
a) a structured account of a field course,
b) teaching films, such as the morphology of a particular
group of fossils, or a hand specimen and thin section of a
rock.
While a teaching film can be made at leisure, and used for a
number of years, an account of a field course, designed to be
shown to the particular group of students which went on
that course, is of most value if shown as soon after the
course as possible. Live footage shot on the course can be
mixed with maps, diagrams, still photographs and views of
specimens, to give the students a record which will reinforce
and develop the information given in the field.
Equipment
The bare minimum of eqUipment consists of a camcorder,
basic video recorder (VCR), television set, connecting leads
and a microphone and sound mixer. Extra equipment
includes a tripod and an editing video recorder, and further
up the scale video mixing units and edit controllers which
give more professional effects and results. Some establishments may have eqUipment of this nature, perhaps for use in
the drama department: if so, put it to some really good use!
Perfectly acceptable results can be obtained using the cheapest of camcorders. In these all the functions are likely to be
performed automatically. However, it is frequently useful to
be able to control some functions manually: manual exposure and focus are the two most obvious. Automatic exposure can result in the camera making adjustments which can
be a nuisance. For example, if one moves the camera up
during a shot, to gradually bring in more of the sky, the
landscape will gradually darken, and detail may be lost
(especially in overcast conditions). By contrast a manual
exposure, set on the landscape, will retain detail.
Three cassette formats are widely available. Firstly, some
bulky cameras use the full size cassettes used in domestic
video recorders (VHS cassettes). These are not recommended for this purpose, unless a tame cameraman is
available to operate them. The other two formats (VHSC and Video-S, and their more expensive Hi-Fi equivalents,
SVHS-C and HiS) use quite small cassettes. The camcorders
are therefore quite compact, and the smallest in either format
is not much more bulky than an average single lens reflex
camera and can be slung around the neck. There is little to
choose between these two formats for most purposes,
especially if the tapes are to be copied when edited.
Light balance is also usually sensed automatically by the camera. Here there is no need to worry about manual override
in most circumstances: the camera handbook will give extra
advice on dealing with situations involving mixed light sources.
Most cameras use an automatic focussing system to hold the
centre of the view in focus. In most cases this is quite
adequate, and it relieves the operator of worry about sharpness. Occasionally, however, it may not be wanted: if the
shot has an unusual composition. Sometimes the system can
be fooled: this sometimes happens when shooting through a
window. When using the camera to take pictures of hand
specimens, maps and diagrams, or to record through a
microscope, it may be better to switch to manual and adjust
the focus while looking at a television monitor screen.
Most cameras have a variable shutter. This is best left on the
basic setting (about 1/60 sec.), unless shooting from a moving
vehicle, or shooting moving objects.
A zoom lens with macrofocus is prOVided on virtually all
camcorders. The zoom facility of course gives a continuous
range of focal lengths to the lens, expressed as a ratio (such as
6: I) for the ratio between the shortest and longest lengths
available (wide and telephoto effects respectively). In some
cameras the zoom range can be extended by electronic
means beyond that prOVided by the optics. In the macro
mode, the lens is usually capable of focussing on extremely
close objects, and magnifying them: the closeness is limited
by the lenshood, and, say, a Single crinoid ossicle on a
bedding plane can easily be made to fill the view.
PhotographiC close-up lenses and filters can also be added to
the lens to prOVide other effects, just as they can with a still
camera.
While not essential, a tripod is vital if a rock-steady picture is
wanted: otherwise there is bound to be some movement of
the subject within the view. If possible, a tripod with a fluid
head (not fluid effect) should be used, this giving smooth pans
and tilts, as well as locking for a static shot. However, even
a monopod, or a tripod with a ball and socket head, will aid
in steadying the camera.
All cameras feature a built-in microphone, which will pick up
all the sounds in the field of view. It will also pick up, although
not quite as clearly, anything spoken by the cameraman.
This gives reasonable results, but a separate microphone, say
clipped on the lapel, will be better. Similarly a separate
microphone attached to a speaker in the picture will give
stronger and clearer speech than the camera microphone
(see interviews on camera in profeSSional teleViSion). However, a live commentary can easily be replaced when editing
the film, so it can be used as a verbal notebook in many cases.
Finally, do not rely on a single battery. That supplied with my
camera, a Sony Video-S machine, only runs for some I 5-20
minutes (the battery life depending on the use of the power
zoom). For a day's field course, take at least two others. Sony,
for example, supply a battery with a longer life than the slim
one prOVided at the outset, giving about 30-40 minutes.
21
Simple editing can be carried out using very little equipment connection leads between the camcorder and the VCR for
sound and vision. a photographic copying stand on which to
mount the camcorder to film maps or titles. or to look down
a microscope. a simple sound mixer and a microphone.
The sound mixer enables the use of a microphone to add
a commentary and music. and to mix either or both of these
with the original sound track. or alternatively to replace the
original sound track completely with commentary and music.
Editing is very simple: the pause buttons are used to hold the
tape on both the camcorder and the VCR. and released
simultaneously to transfer the desired footage. While this
is running. the commentary must be added. talking live into
the microphone. While this is acceptable. the holding of
camcorders or ordinary VCR's on pause for longer than a few
minutes is not recommended; indeed most machines will
automatically resume tape transport after a set length of time.
When extra shots (titles. diagrams. etc.) are to be added. the
camcorder is of course focussed on the material. and the signal
transferred to the VCR directly. without being recorded on
the camcorder.
An editing VCR is a very useful alternative to the simple VCR.
It is deSigned to be held for long periods in the pause mode and the still picture on the screen is of better quality. It can
also be used to replace the sound track. or the picture. after
the initial transfer of the signal has taken place. Thus the
sound track can be re-recorded if a mistake is made. When
editing the "jog" and "shuttle" controls can be used to move
the tape to the precise point from which an edit can be made.
Lastly. it is possible to control the camcorder from the VCR
using a control lead between the two. This enables a single
press of a button to start both machines Simultaneously.
Much extra equipment is available on the amateur and
semi-professional markets. and can lead to more professional
effects. if not more professional results. Edit controllers will.
once the sequences to be used have been identified and
ordered. automatically assemble the shots in the correct
order on the VHS tape. Processors/enhancers will do weird
and wonderful things to the video signal. such as invert it to a
negative. alter the colour balance. and proVide a battery of
fade and dissolve modes between shots (it is debatable
whether they can in fact improve the original signal). With
adaptors. computer generated text and images can be transferred to the VCR (note that it is possible to point the
camcorder directly at a computer monitor. and record a
perfectly acceptable Signal).
Technique
So much for equipment. how about actual filmingl The subject
of whole courses! I can only advise study of professional
film making. whether in the cinema or on television. Imagine
yourself as director. cameraman and film editor. and ask how
was that part of the film put acrossl
Titles
Always title a film. and it is useful to film locality titles:
I) film a nameboard at a location.
2) film a name on a map.
3) film a hand written. typed or printed caption. either on
location or during editing.
4) use the titling feature built in to many camcorders. This
feature enables the machine to memorize. if rather crudely.
a picture. If that picture is of bold black letters on a white
background. then a caption is held. This can be recalled
onto the screen while filming, superimposed in usually a
choice of colours. made to scroll up or down the screen.
or to be called up in reverse (where the scene appears
within the letters. and the rest of the screen is in the
chosen colour). If a set of appropriate captions is made
beforehand. each can be "captured" by the camcorder
before that scene or section is shot.
Shooting hints
Though the camcorder will have the ability to zoom while
shooting. either manually or by motor drive. perhaps at variable speed. avoid zooming on almost all occasions. Instead.
use the zoom facility as necessary to aid composition of the
picture. and then leave it at that setting during the shot. For
example. it may be necessary to use the telephoto end of the
range to show detail on a cliff face. or to use the Wide-angle
setting in a confined space. Occasionally. a zoom in during
a shot will concentrate the viewer's attention on a detail of
the scene: but do not overdo this effect. In general. it is
better to shoot such a scene in more than one shot. moving
in for the detail. and perhaps changing the angle of view as well.
Where it is necessary to pan the camera, or to tilt up or
down. do so very slowly. and begin and end the shot with the
camera still - otherwise the viewer expects the next shot to
be in motion also. A tripod is especially useful here. with its
fluid head.
It is useful to include shots of students. not only for scale. but
to provide a human interest which will enable them to
identify with the film. Look out for "cutaway" shots of
unposed activities. or simply movement. whether of students
walking. or of travel in the minibus. These can be used to give
continuity to the film. and a bit of light relief between the
more intense parts.
Conclusions
So far. most experience has been gained in making videos of
field courses. It has proved possible to shoot as well as leading
a course. for example when students are engaged at each
exposure in recording observations in their notebooks. Ideally. of course. use a tame camerman. The resulting video is
then made in the next day or so. I have found it possible to
shoot about 40 minutes of video in the field. to use about 2030 minutes of this in the finished film. together with 10-20
minutes of other visuals: captions. maps. diagrams. hand specimens and thin sections etc. The commentary is also added
during this period. Total time spent in editing is usually about
3-4 hours. Students have been particularly appreciative of
these videos. as providing a comprehensive overview of the
course. and a chance to add to or correct their field notes.
In the classroom. experience so far has been mainly with the
camera as a live teaching aid. Here it can be used with a hand
specimen. or pointing down a microscope (experiment with
the zoom control on the camera to obtain the best effect).
The camera then records both the specimen. and the teacher's voice. This tape can later be edited. to make a programme. again with additional visual material. for revision use
by the class.
Make use of every opportunity to shoot material which may be
used later. For example. on holiday in the USA. I have filmed
the dramatic reconstruction of the Permian reef complex of
Texas. and dinosaur sculptures made of scrapped car parts
(both at the Smithsonian Institution in Washington. D.C.). and
museum displays of vertebrates in Denver. These have been
used in teaching. as 2-3 minute "shorts" to enliven a lecture.
22
Finally, try to make a film with a class or tutorial group. Ask
them to suggest a subject, research and script it, then take part
in the actual production. Not only do you, and they, learn
something about video production, but they also learn more
about the subject of the video:- geology. And remember,
practice counts.
Oenis Bates
Institute of Earth Studies
The University of Wales, Aberystwyth
Dyfed SY23 30B
WEST· MERCIA
INSURANCE· SERVICES
Immediate
cov'IIIIIIIIII'~mpetitive Rates
Travel Insurance
for Schools and Youth Groups
If you are making arrangements for Group Travel
To advertise in
this journal
within the UK or abroad contact us first for
your insurance requirements.
West Mercia Insurance Services, High Street,
Wombourne, Wolverhampton WV5 9DN
Tel: 0902892661. Fax: 0902894212
Telephone
Andy Dickinson
on 051-424-9358
Guide to· contributors for the
submission of articles
Intending authors are. advised to im'pectbac.kiuue$ of
Geology Te<Jching and TeochingE0rtttSciencessinceVolull1e
1.2 in order to rnakethemselvesJamilianYith the Journal's
house styleforpresentingarticljils.
oc
Forthose with typingandphot opyill8 facilities,three
copies of eachartideshouldbesubrnitted, including the
top copy.... Please use. double IinespacingiUldA4.sized
paper with about a one inch Jllargin onafl sides, . Ifyoudo
not have these facilities •. tbenone handwritten, .'egible
copywill. be accepted, again Oil A4 sized paper, dQuble
spaced and with wide. margirls. Ypushouldusebla.ckpen
for good. photocopying. •·.·SI• uninshoul~.be •. lIsed.throughout articles. but where this isill.prppriate, a cOO,(ersion
tablesh()Uld besuppli~d.longer~rticles.shouldcontain
a brief introduction .gr summary stating the aims Qfthe
article••.. Authors of· w0rkl:>o9ks 9rw0rksheets should
indicatetirne spent bypupilsandage.raJ\ge.qnty()n~copy
is ·requiredfo~ items.whichd9f\()tm~ed.r~~ing(letters.
bQok reviews, news,nor\c9nformlty.&eQCun,t\tc:.) Ifyou
have·access.to.aword.processQrorcompu«!r,th~·Editor
would welcome a copy on disc(for articles. after review).
Tables
These should beprovidedonseparatesh~ts.or paper,a
new sheet for each table.
Figures
Prepared artWorkshQuld be of high quality and drawn to
a size abgutSO% larger. than you require for printing.
having due regard to. page size and column widths. If you
are unable to provide your own letteringthenyou should
indude a tracing paper ()VerlayfQr each figure which bears
the r~uiredlettering. .Ifyou do not have drawing facilities.
dearly drawn rough diagrams will be accepted.
PhotO,ra",.,.
These should be black and white,or colour prints and of
suffiCient clarity for reproduction.
Copyright
There is no copyright on original· material published in
TeachingE.orthSciencesif itls required for use within the
classroom orlecturerooOl.Copyright material· repro.
ducedby permj~sionofotherpublications rests with the
originatir~publishers .. Perrnissionrnustbesoughtfrom
the.Eclit()rial.·.Boardto . reproduce original material
from Te(1chingE.orth. Sciences in.other· publications, and
appropriate ackno't¥ledgement given.
All ilrtlde$sut>mittedshould be original and should contain .theauthor(s), .fuU narne(s). andaddress(es). They
should be sent to the Editor, Denis Bates, Institute of
Earth Studies. University of Wales. Aberystwyth, Dyfed
SY233DB.
23
Triassic marginal deposits in the Vale of Glamorgan: field exercises in facies
interpretation and comparison
Geraint Owen
Marginal Triassic sequences in the Vale of Glamorgan
include deposits of streams, sheet floods and lake shores
in an arid environment. They rest un conformably on
Carboniferous limestone and are exposed at Barry and
Sully, on the coast south-west of Cardiff. Suggestions are
made for a variety of exercises which can be undertaken at
Barry, appropriate to a range of abilities or topics, and
for an exercise to compare the sequence at Barry with
the more unusual and difficult rocks exposed at Sully.
Introduction
The Vale of Glamorgan is an area of rolling hills between
Cardiff and Bridgend.
Its distinctive scenery reflects its
geology, which mostly comprises gently folded late T riassic
and early Jurassic rocks. These are superbly exposed along
the coast from Porthcawl, Ogmore-by Sea and South ern down
in the west, along the Glamorgan Heritage Coast to Barry,
Sully, Lavernock and Penarth in the east (Cope, 1971). The
Mesozoic strata accumulated on the edge of the Bristol Channel sedimentary basin and were depOSited unconformably on
an eroded surface of Palaeozoic rocks which had been
deformed during the Variscan Orogeny. Elevations in the
surface of the Palaeozoic rocks formed hills during the T riassic
and islands follOWing the Rhaetian transgression. Around
these hills and islands Triassic mudstones and Jurassic
offshore limestones and shales are replaced by locallydeveloped 'marginal facies', which include conglomerates,
breccias, sandstones and limestones.
The T riassic marginal facies were the focus of one field
workshop from the 1992 Cardiff Conference. Two localities
were visited (Figure I) - Bendrick Rock, Barry (ST I 34 671),
and Sully Island (ST 1691 6686). At both places an unconformity
is exposed between Carboniferous limestone and marginal
T riassic sequences. The localities are easily accessible and
one or both can be visited in an afternoon's field class from
Cardiff or Swansea.
Figure I
In addition to examining some of Cardiff's local geology, the
aim of the workshop was to consider aprroaches to
fieldwork at KS4, AlAS or undergraduate leve. Particular
concerns were to consider how one locality can be used for
teaching at a variety of levels and from various points of view,
and how to deal with more unusual or difficult sections.
Geological Background
The typical, basinal deposits of the later T riassic are red
mudstones of the Mercia Mudstone Group (,Keuper marl').
These accumulated in a large lake or sea of fluctuating level
under a hot arid climate (Waters & Lawrence, I 987). At the
edge of the basin and around the flanks of isolated hills of
Carboniferous limestone the red mudstones are replaced
laterally by marginal facies; which are described by Tucker
(1977, 1978), Waters & Lawrence (1987) and Leslie et al.
(1992). Tucker (1977, 1978)
recognised two facies
associations, representing continental deposits (allUVial fans
and plains) and lake shore-zone deposits.
The continental deposits are well sorted conglomerates and
sandstones (stream deposits), poorly sorted breccias (scree)
and thinly interbedded graded sandstones and mudstones
with ripples, desiccation cracks and evaporite nodules (sheet
flood and playa lake deposits). They are well exposed at
Bendrick Rock, where dinosaur footprints can usually be
found in the sheet flood facit!s (Tucker & Burchette, 1977).
The un conformity surface at Bendrick Rock is overlain by a
matrix-supported breccia interpreted by Tucker (1974) as
representing exfoliated boulders of Carboniferous limestone.
The lake shore-zone deposits include well sorted conglomerates and sandstones (beach deposits), fenestral and algal
carbonates and calcretes (periodically-exposed lake sediments)
and red mudstones with nodular dolomite and gypsum (sabkha
evaporites). They are well exposed on Sully Island.
24
Teaching Strategies
The sections at Bendrick Rock are more readily interpreted
than those at Sully Island and can be subjected to a variety of
field excercises at a range of levels. I have successfully visited
the locality with groups ranging in level from 6-year-olds,
searching for dinosaur footprints and interpreting rippled
surfaces and mud cracks, to final-year undergraduates.
The Triassic rocks are ideal for a logging excercise, or logs
could be provided (e.g. those in the BGS Memoir - Waters &
Lawrence, 1987) and students required to describe and
interpret each of the facies distinguished, and interpret
the paleoenvironment. The abundant sedimentary structures - symmetrical and asymmetrical ripples in plan and
cross-section, cross-bedding, desiccation cracks, downcutting erosional surfaces, evaporite nodules and footprints can be described, measured and interpreted to determine
the palaeo-environment and climate. Marker horizons,
such as the unconformity surface or conglomerate units,
can be used to determine the offsets on several small faults.
Footprints and trackways could be the subject of a
palaeobiology study to estimate dinosaur size, pace and gait.
Because of the relatively minor angular discordance at this
locality, the unconformity itself can easily be overlooked.
Students can be asked to log a section which crosses the
unconformity and to interpret the facies changes they see.
Their logs would pass from crinoidal limestones to
desiccated red mudstones and they should appreciate the
significance of such a facies change, investigate it more closely,
and uncover evidence that it is an unconformity.
specific ideas for field exercises for those who work in or
visit the region. More generally, however, the article has
attempted to show how one locality can be used for a variety
of exercises, suited to different needs in the curriculum and
different levels of ability, and how a locality exposing unusual
or difficult rocks need not be avoided, but can be made good
use of by comparing the rocks there to a preViously-determined model and to an adjacent, more readily understood
locality, thus broadening students' experience of the geolOgical record and challenging more advanced students' powers
of field interpretation.
Locality details
There is parking space (at ST 137 674) along the lane leading
to HMS Cambria, which is Sign-posted off the 84267 from
Barry to Sully. From there a public right-of-way skirts the
navy base and leads to the coast path at Bendrick Rock.
Parking for Sully Island is at Swan bridge (ST 167 674). The
walk across the tidal causeway is easy and a path leads over
the top of the island to its south-eastern corner.
Safety Note
These localities are safe prOVided that the usual safety code
for fieldwork at coastal localities is followed. The causeway
to Sully Island is covered either side of high tide, and no
attempt should be made to cross it on a rising tide. Tide
tables should be consulted before visiting Sully Island. If the
group is cut off, wait for the tide to fall again before
attempting to reach the mainland.
References
The un conformity itself can be the subject of an exercise: the
basal unit ofthe Triassic sequence is a matrix-supported and
laterally very heterogeneous breccia of angular limestone
chips in a red mudstone matrix. Students can be asked to
consider how the level might have accumulated, and should
be able to conclude that it cannot represent a normal waterlain deposit.
The interpretation of the breccias as
exfoliated boulders on a deeply weathered land surface
(Tucker, 1974) can be discussed and can lead to a wider
discussion of weathering processes and palaeoclimates, as at
the ESTA workshop.
A similar range of excercises could be attempted at Sully
Island, but here the rocks are more unusual and difficult to
interpret. They need not be avoided, however, but could
perhaps be included in the following manner. Prior to the
field class, students could investigate continental and lake
shore deposits of an arid environment, perhaps drawing up a
check-list for the deposits in each setting. They could be told
that their field class would take them to two localities, one
representing a continental setting and the other a lake shore.
At the first locality - Sully Island - they would be looking for
specific data to fit one of the two models, and might need to
recognise only one or two features to correctly interpret the
sequence, such as the dominance of carbonate lithologies,
sabkha textures or algal strucutres.
Before leaving the
locality some of the other features could be examined as a
group. The remainder of the session would be spent at Barry,
collecting data on continental deposits or undertaking one
or more of the excercises suggested above. This strategy
would avoid missing out a more challenging locality altogether, or leaving students floundering in the face of a difficult
sequence.
Summary
These localities represent the best examples in South Wales
of arid, continental deposits, and this article has provided
Cope, j C W, 1971, Mesozoic rocks of the southern part of
the Vale of Glamorgan: in Bassett, D A & Bassett, M G (eds.),
Geological excursions in South Wales and the Forest of Dean,
Geologists' Association South Wales Group, Cardiff p.114124.
Leslie, A B, Tucker M E & Spiro B, 1992, A sedimentological
and stable isotopic study of travertines and associated
sediments within Upper Triassic lacustrine limestones, South
Wales, UK: Sedimentology, 39, p. 613-629.
Tucker, M E, 1974, Exfoliated pebbles and sheeting in the
Triassic Nature, 252, p. 375-376.
Tucker, M E, 1977, The marginal Triassic deposits of South
Wales: continental facies and palaeogeography: Geological
Journal, 12, p. 169-188.
Tucker M E, 1978, T riassic lacustrine sediments from South
Wales: shore-zone clastics, evaporites and carbonates: in
Matter, A & Tucker M E (eds.), Modern and ancient lake
sediments, International Association of Sedimentologists Special Publication, v. 2, p. 205-224.
Tucker M E & Burchetter T P, 1977, T riassic dinosaur
footprints from South Wales: their context and preservation:
Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 22, p. 195208.
Waters, R A & Lawrence, Dj D, 1987, Geology of the
South Wales Coalfield, Part Ill, the country around Cardiff:
British Geological Survey Memoir, 263, third edition, xi + I 14 pp.
Geraint Owen
Department of Geography
University College of Swansea
Singleton Park
Swansea SA28PP
25
Cardiff Conference Report
Keith Moseley
This year's conference was close at hand so I had to go.
Unfortunately, work prevented me from attending the Friday
INSET Courses so I arrived in Cardiff late in the afternoon.
Navigating to the Hall of Residence should have been easy as
the traffic in Cardiff is fairly forgiving and, as provincial capitals
go, it is a compact city. Nevertheless, I had trouble finding the
road names and took a detour round an area resembling
Coronation Street. Along the way, I joined a queue of traffic
crawling behind a local eccentric pushing a supermarket trolley full of scrap along the middle of a road.
Having parked in Colum Road I walked round to the Victorian
redbrick building of Aberdare Hall, just across the road from
the concrete monster housing the Welsh Office. I entered a
dimly lit hallway and was greeted by a sign apologising for
internal water damage. Apparently a loft tank had decided to
perform a fluvial experiment with a stair well. The staff politely
informed me about the primitive plumbing and I was taken
along innumerable corridors and up several stairs until reaching my room. I went back to the car to get my bags and then
attempted to relocate my room. Twenty minutes and much
profanity later, I was again shown the way by a helpful student.
A ten minute struggle down the road with 25 kilograms of
equipment brought me to the Geology Department. I was
shown to a smart looking laboratory (complete with a coffee
dispensary... how thoughtful) where I assembled the Monmouth
School geophysics display. Some of the kit is quite sensitive
and I noticed some interference from unknown sources in the
building. Perhaps someone had installed an electric chair for
students whose assignments were late! Needless to say the
interference stopped on Sunday morning so something had
been turned off. Fortunately, I was able to screen out most of
the strange 'noise' affecting my seismometer demo by earthing
the oscilloscope. Several people took an interest in the display
but, being last to set up, I found myself behind a huge NEA
board.
A quick look round showed that several useful 'dealers' had
shown up as well as lots of people with interesting displays.
Nir Orion had brought his highly inventive Geology puzzles
from Israel and Sid Howells (Countryside Council for Wales)
had some stunning pictures of the Pembrokeshire coast, to
name but two.
Dinner was proceeded by a reception kindly prOVided by Shell
UK. Some of us decided to take our drinks straight to the
dining room before returning to the reception afterwards. As
usual, it was time to meet old friends and make new acquaintances. The 'old stagers' were encouraged by the numbers of
new faces appearing every year. A superb series of display
boards, depicting Welsh Geology, stood around the reception/bar area. (I wonder what they would look like in our
school library?) I had a rummage through the specimens at the
rockswap session. I am grateful to the person who brought the
pieces of marble fireplace because our KS3/4 pupils like to give
their specimens the acid bath treatment, resulting in a high
attrition rate.
The evening lecture was given by Professor Rob Kidd. I must
say that professors, like policeman, seem to look younger
every day! We were treated to a description of the Ocean
Drilling Programme with particular emphasis on palaeoclimatic
findings from deep sea cores. As an ex-Quaternary
palaeoclimatologist I was looking forward to this update. By
the end I realised that ten years as a school teacher had left me
rather out of touch!
Improved drilling techniques had allowed the G/omar Challenger and the Joides Resolution to obtain cores of considerable
age from all the major oceans of the world. Deep sediments
beneath the Mediterranean included no less than twelve separate evaporite events caused by tectonic closing off of the
basin. Sapropels and frozen methane were also present.
The resolution of climate changes has become breathtaking
and Professor Kidd suggested that annual cycles might soon be
distinguishable from cores dating back tens of millions of years.
Antarctic glaciations had commenced at least 42 million years
ago and elsewhere in world glacial/interglacial sediments were
detectable far beyond the traditional Quaternary-Pliocene
boundary some 2 million years ago. Suggested causes of long
term climate variation were plate tectonics (on a million year
scale) and Milankovitch variations in the Earth's orbital/spin
behaviour (on a 20,000 to 0.4 million year scale). This last
point seemed rather appropriate as Astronomy had been
selected as one of the conference themes this year.
The following morning began early with the groaning into life
of the hot water pipes in Aberdare Hall. like some mini San
Andreas Fault they were grinding past any stationary wall or
bit of furniture they came into contact with. One of the
washroom basins had spent all night happily pouring 2 litres of
scalding water per minute down a plug hole thanks to a leaking
tap. A rough estimate based on the specific heat capacity of
water and the cost of heating suggested that half a person's
conference fee had disappeared this way over the weekend!
Presumably there were other leaking taps as well.
Breakfast was excellent although several delegates had, by this
time, christened Aberdare 'Fawlty Towers'. We compared
notes. For some reason my room smelled of glue.... strange.
Outside the Geology Department entrance I encountered a
field party cramming themselves into a diminutive minibus of
oriental origin. They were going on an all day trip to the
Dolaucothi Gold Mines. Despite having to exist like sardines
on the long journey to Lampeter and back, they later reported
that the trip had been well w6rthwhile.
The Saturday morning programme was packed and inevitably I
had to miss some excellent talks and demonstrations. I opted
for a computer/video selection. The first session began with a
competent video of South Glamorgan fieldwork accompanied
by follow up materials for the BBC computer.
The next session was intriguingly titled 'How to Avoid the
Wedding Video Syndrome in Earth Science Film Making' and
was given by John Simmons of Geofilms. He explained how to
make home made videos look professional by avoiding zooms
and pans, using tripods and microphones, making sure that
sequences edit together sensibly and not using self conscious
26
or egotistical presenters. Sound advice was backed up by
examples of good and bad programme making. Some of the
dreadful stuff came from organisations who ought to know
better. In passing, he mentioned background noise from low
flying aircraft, which is something of a problem in Wales
because the RAF treat it as a theme park!
The last slot was a useful 'hands on session' using the
Stereographic Darts Program from UWC Cardiff. This gave us
all chance to try out our skill with dips, strikes and stereographic
polar plots. The screen pointer was toggled with the keyboard
(a mouse driven version might be a logical improvement) but
the program is inexpensive and runs on decent computers
(PC's). I think I'll buy a copy.
oiled by the end of the evening and carried on into the small
hours at one of the city's night spots. I was treated to some
uninhibited opinions about the Secretary of State for Education from one influential ESTA member, mass singing (compulsory in Wales along with rugby) and the Sight of a certain
gentleman from, lets say 'up north', staring at a loo door in
something of a catatonic state... much to the amusement of his
colleague.
Sunday brought us to the final sessions of the conference. The
INSET meeting tackled the ever increasingly complex area of
post 16 education while other groups visited T echniquest (an
interactive science learning centre), the Mammoth Exhibition
at the National Museum and watched Earth Science videos.
A dash back to Aberdare to get changed and a packed lunch in
the car park preceded the afternoon trip to the Severn Estuary
at Rumney between Cardiff and Newport. Charlie Harris
showed us the various Post-Glacial sediment layers and explained their archaeological significance as well as their geological characteristics. Our endurance was severely tested by
an incredible smell (which I colourfully described as 'pig dung
sandWich') wafting across the site.
I have to confess that I missed the AGM!Plenary Session haVing
decided to get my exhibit packed away. However, other
delegates had eVidently been given food for thought, although
conceding that they were rapidly becoming lost by the pace of
educational change. Like myself, they had observed that some
ESTA Council members actually seem to thrive on the 'cut and
thrust' of debate and reform. It's just as well because someone's got to represent our interests.
Numerous bones, some of horse, were found in grey clays of
the Wentlooge Formation which predated Roman times. In
various places we could see peats, with bits of wood, exposed
beneath the clay. The river defences lay about a kilometre out
from the present shore during the Roman period (they finally
breached after centuries of neglect in Medieval times) and old
field ditches could still be seen in the estuarine muds. Charlie
explained that dark gritty Romano-British pottery shards accumulated at the heads of these ditches when the tide came in
and we collected a few specimens for ourselves. We then
visited the site of the Cardiff Bay Barrage Scheme and saw a
road tunnel being constructed in tricky unconsolidated sediment. The solution was to build it with sediment still inside and
dig the stuff out afterwards!
I drove away from Cardiff with a sense of satisfaction. This had
been a highly successful conference and thanks must be given
to Prof Mike Brooks, Zoe Moore, the sponsors and all the staff
at Cardiff who made our stay enjoyable and productive. About
230 delegates had attended. Perhaps we will see even more of
you next year?
Another Shell reception was followed by a lecture on Modem
Astronomy by Professor Mike Disney. Despite overhearing
grumbles about this not being a 'proper Geology lecture' (a
narrow minded attitude I cannot agree With), the attendance
was high. Mike was both informative and entertaining throughout and must have won the doubters over by expressing his
fascination with his wife's Open University course materials in
Earth Science. We were shown how astronomy has reached
an exciting phase with numerous multinational projects (conducted by 700 astronomers in Britain and 10,000 world Wide)
underway. The William Herschel Telescope at La Palma and
the Anglo-Australian! UK Schmidt Telescopes in Australia
provide coverage, through dark (i.e., no b---dy street lamps)
and relatively untu rbu lent air, of both hemispheres of sky. Prof
Disney is particularly interested in uncharted faint galaxies
which may account for a lot of the matter in the universe that
has hitherto evaded detection.
We were also shown some of the excellent images obtained
from the Hubble Space Telescope which belie the notion that
the mirror curvature inaccuracies make it unusable. Single
stars as seen from Earth turn out to be dozens close together
and Pluto's moon Charon has been clearly seen for the first
time with the HST. Althou~ Einstein and Hawkins have
contributed greatly to our understanding of the universe, Prof
Disney particularly paid tribute to the numerous unsung technical people that made the important discoveries really possible.
The Conference Dinner was held at the Aberconway Refectory. Despite the lack of real beer there was still plenty of
Shell's 'hospitality' to use up. Certain characters were well
Dr. Keith Moseley
Head Of Geology
Monmouth School
Monmouth
Gwent NP5 3XP
Connect in Cornwall: England's
Variscan Orogenyscape
Join our famous exploration
adventures in Earth Sciences
discovering a basement
whose contorted age
stretches back to the
Ordovician - and which has
weathered over endless
time into an incredible and
diverse variety of terrains.
each inhabited by its own
range of organic life - from
lichen to our ancestors.
Relaxed multi-perception
insight of Cornwall and it's
magical array of unique
landscapes.
Break free - and walk
through time.
Colour Brochures from:
Adventureline
North Trefula Farm
Redruth, Comwall TR 16 SET
DVENTURELlN
27
Professor Geoffrey Brown
Geoff Brown, head of Earth Sciences at the Open University
and one of Britain's most distinguished scientists, was killed in
a volcanic eruption on Thursday January 14th, while working
in the crater of Galeras volcano in southern Colombia.
for the undergraduate training of the eqUivalent of about 1,000
full-time students.
Professor Brown, who was 47, was a world expert on volcanoes. He was taking part in a workshop meeting intended to
establish a geophysical and geochemical monitoring programme
at the volcano, one of the most active in South America.
The strong research profile in isotope geochemistry, volcanology, remote sensing, and other sub-disciplines of geoscience
led to the University Grants Council review of Earth Science
departments identifying the OU department as one of the top
seven in the UK. Unlike the other six, because it was not
funded by the Council, the OU received no extra funding.
When the scientific party entered the crater, no major eruption had taken place since July 16th, 1992, and there was no
seismic or other evidence to suggest renewed activity. By
tragic misfortune, the party's visit coincided with a fresh
eruption, perhaps triggered by recent exceptionally heavy
rainfall.
Support was sought from the OU and external sources to
expand the department. Their success bore fruit and the new
wing. named the Wolfson Laboratories in recognition of funding from the Foundation, was officially opened by Michael
Howard, the Secretary of State for the Environment, on
February Ist.
Because of its level of activity and proximity to the town of
Pasto just five miles away, Galeras was identified as one of the
world's critical volcanoes requiring special monitoring. Geoffs
expertise was called upon to establish a network of measuring
stations for local scientists to monitor. The method involves
using a sensitive gravity meter to detect changes in subsurface
denSity, such as might be associated with upward movement of
molten rock (magma) and volcanic gas within the volcano
before eruption.
For the past four years Geoff chaired the University's Research Committee, playing a crucial role in the recent research selectivity exercise which will be used to set future
research funding for universities. He was gratified that his
department. and many other areas of the University, were
rated highly by the review.
Geoff contributed to over 70 research papers, supervised 12
full-time PhD students, and worked with eight Research Fellows. Throughout his research career, he maintained his
interest in granites, but his focus became increasingly more
applied. He extended his early work on the origin of granites,
embracing their potential as a source of geothermal energy,
and investigating associated metalliferous mineral deposits.
ESTA members may remember his lecture on Geothermal
Energy at the Egham conference in September 1990, printed in
TES 16(1). He also turned to the study of active volcanoes.
He and his colleagues developed new microgravity monitoring
methods to elucidate the sub-surface movements of magma.
This work is unique in the UK and has attracted interest in the
international scientific community and the media. A thriving
Volcano Geophysics Group at the Open University with several research fellows and students is following up this and
related lines of volcanic research, working on active volcanoes
in the USA, Costa Rica, Mexico and Iceland. Three Europewide research projects funded by the EC and co-ordinated by
Geoff at the OU are being undertaken to assess the potential
hazards caused by catastrophic slope failure on the eastern
slopes of Mount Etna.
Geoff began his career as a lecturer at Liverpool University,
following his PhD at Manchester. He joined the OU in 1973 as
a part-time tutor, maintaining teaching contact with students
up to his death, despite haVing a heavy burden of 'central'
teaching activities, research and administrative work.
By 1977 Geoff was lecturer in Earth Sciences based at Walton
Hall. In 1982 he was appointed Professor of Earth Sciences
and in 1983 became head of the department that is responsible
Geoff was a prolific and gifted teacher. and wrote numerous
OU correspondence teaching texts and co-authored a well
known text on geophysics and geochemistry (The Inaccessible
Earth with Alan Mussett) and another on The Field Description of
Igneous Rocks (with Richard Thorpe, who died in 1991). He
was a talented performer on OU TV programmes, and in 1986
presented the results of his volcano monitoring on a Horizon
programme The Magma Chamber. In this programme he
referred to his vision that one day it might be possible to
predict eruptions and so save lives.
His energy and enthusiasm was boundless and infectious. He
could see the big picture. yet he always had an eye for the
smaller details. He had an impressive grasp of the ramifications of the OU management structure and the implications
for the institution and the Department of the new funding
arrangements for higher education. Despite all his activities
and responsibilities, he kept himself extremely well informed
of his colleagues' aspirations and achievements in research and
teaching.
Geoff was a family man with three grown-up daughters. His
wife Evelyn is a geologist and OU staff tutor in science in
Nottingham. She is known to ESTA members as Joan Brown,
Editor of Teaching Earth Sdences 1987-89. The Open University and the geological community have lost a dedicated scientist, claimed by the very processes he sought to understand.
His family and colleagues will miss his humour, impartiality and
wisdom.
Chrls Wilson and Dee Edwards
Department of Earth Sciences
The Open University
Walton Hall
Milton Keynes
28
Earth and Space Science - Missing Link or Lost Cause?
John G. Sharp
With the dust now settling after the implementation of the
new 4AT Order for science (August 1992), a significant but
not yet fully realized improvement over its 17AT predecessor,
concerns over its presentation and SUitability must still loom
large in the minds of many primary teachers. One such
concern of interest to me, which draws attention to wider
issues in science teaching, deals with the location and continued struggle for recognition of the Earth and Space Science
component, the very keystones of many popular and highly
successful classroom topics. Earth and Space Science, better
known as 'Out of this World' or 'Beneath Our Feet', has
always thrived in our primary schools, even before the 1988
Education Reform Act, capitalizing fully on children's natural
interest and curiosity in this field and sense of awe and wonder
at what it has to offer. At the same time, it has required
teachers to explore different ways of dealing with some of the
more abstract concepts involved. Geological time and astroMarch
nomical distance, to name only but two, have never been
easy, and questions like "If the Earth's floating in space, what's
holding it up?" leave you reeling! Yet in National Curriculum
terms, Earth and Space Science still finds itself out on a limb,
its contents strewn throughout the 1991 Order, as they were
in the 1989 Order, despite appearances or 'labels' to the
contrary, failing scandalously to have achieved Attainment
Target status in the last round of consultation and review (if
success and failure can be measured in this way), thus left
floundering on the fringes of general acceptability and vulnerable to neglect. Because of its scattered and fragmented
appearance (Figure I), it is not often appreciated that at Key
Stages I and 2 almost one-third of the reduced number of
Statements of Attainment continue to be either directly or
indirectly applicable to Earth and Space Science matters,
adding to its importance (Table I).
1989
May""
••
Oecember
1. Set.nlme lovlIUgatlon
.... 5. Human Influences on the Earth
1991
1. Sclentlflc Investigation
8. Types and Uses of Matertals
2. Uf. end LMno Proces..s
• 7. MakJng New Materials
• •• I. Earth and Atmosphere
·10.F.....
:<::::::::::::::. ..
3. Ear1h and EnvIronmant
• 11. Electricity II1d Magnetism
1 2. IT and Mlcroelectronlcs
- 13. Enorgy
14. SoLfld end Music
• 1 5. Using LIght and EM Radlotlon
... 16. Th, Earth In Space
4. Materials and their Behaviour
_
~
__
--------..
••
2. Uta and living Processes
3. Matorlals and Ihelr PropMies
... Physical Processes
5. Energy end lis Enacts
• 1 7. The Nature of Sdence
A T12 contains InformatIOn applicable 10 all other AT's
• RoIatIYe content 0/ SeA appIlceble
to Ear1h and Spoct ScIence
- . MovemenlolAT
- - -
Part movemant 0/ AT
Figure I. Mopping E.orth and Space Science in the Notional Curriculum, 1989-1991.
1989 Order
1991 Proposals
1991 Order
No. of SoA
158
66
58
Related to
Earth and Space
59
26
18
%
37
39
31
Table I. Statement of Attainment analysiS between Science Orders highlighting the importance of the E.orth and Space Science
component at Key Stage I and 2.
But how could something which has given us everything from
the Big Bang to the Greenhouse Effect be so casually overlooked? The answer to this deliberately provocative attack
lies not in its indisputable value for prOViding us with an
understanding of the world in which we live and depend upon
for our very existence and economic well-being, nor for its
overwhelming contributions to the development of scientific
ideas as cl whole, but in the very nature of the subject itself, our
29
preoccupation with inflexible, 'reductionist' classification
schemes and our own perception of what school science is.
For Earth and Space Science, in its broadest and loosest sense,
which is how it should be viewed at primary level, draws its
content from many varied disciplines including geology, geography, environmental studies, meteorology, oceanography and
astronomy as well as chemistry, physics and biology. It is
integrated, practical, applied and 'holistic' almost by definition.
But far from being its greatest strength, this combination of
attributes has proved to be its greatest weakness. It would
not be unfair to generalize and say that at secondary level,
never quite finding its niche, Earth and Space Science (inappropriately referred to simply as 'geology') has always struggled to
retain its identity, balanced dangerously and precariously between departments, usually science and geography, no-one
prepared to accept full responsibility for its delivery and
therefore defend its status, pOSSibly explaining its apparent
decline there in recent years despite the efforts of many
enthusiastic individuals. Consequently, it has never been in a
position to 'challenge' our educationally traditional and familiar 'three science' system, which we might be forgiven in
thinking has helped shape the new Order, a shape which surely
few could defend as suitable to satiSfy the needs and demands
of teachers working at all levels within it. With this in mind, it
is both interesting and instructive to note that during the
review process, had the scientific content of the Programmes
of Study applicable to Earth and Space Science actually been
drawn together at some point, together with, dare I even
suggest it, the best from geography, instead of just reshuffling
the Attainment Targets, a very different picture might have
emerged, one which could have benefltted school science and
science teaching enormously, particularly at Key Stages I and
2. Some readers might recall the unceremonious and shaky
dismissal of AT3: Earth and Environment from the May 1991
proposals. Such a step could have gone some way to provide
primary teachers with a broad and balanced body of material
readily adaptable for use in the classroom (Table 2), bringing
with it immediate benefits in terms of Simpler planning and
helping to ease many of the statutory obligations that they
now have to fulfil. Instead, the token gesture of Earth and
Space Science elements, unsatisfactorily out of place and character in AT3: Materials and their Properties and AT4:Physical
Processes, as well as in AT2: life and living Processes (Figure
I), leaves teachers with the 'hunt strands down' approach
which is now all too familiar.
So where does Earth and Space Science go from here? As a
confirmed supported and advocate of National Curriculum
science in our primary schools, I, like many others, welcome
the new Order and the advantages that it brings with it. Its
presentation, however, I would suggest, merely reflects our
culturally traditional view of science and does little to promote
arguably its most valuable asset, the Earth and Space Science
component, or do much to prOVide primary teachers with a
more suitable, user friendly format, ultimately improving the
quality of their work and that of their children. Perhaps in
future 'editions', of which there will hopefully be several, some
thought might be given to altering the contextual framework
of the document, particularly for use in the primary sector.
Perhaps Earth and Space Science could play a useful and
leading role in this process? I certainly believe it could, but
only time will tell, something it has certainly never been short
of!
John G Sharp
Environmental and Scientific Studies Section
RoUe Faculty of Education
University of Plymouth
Douglas Avenue
EXMOUTH
Devon EX8 2A T
Beneath Our Feet (Geology)
geological time, evolution,extinction, the fossil record, structure of the Earth, rocks and minerals, crustal
plate boundaries, earthquakes, volcanoes, gravity and magnetism
The Changing Surface of the Earth (Physical and Human Geography)
geomorphology, surface processes, weathering and erosion, river systems, soils, relationship between
land use,buildings and human activity
The World Around Us (Environmental Studies)
location of economic activity, mining and quarrying, human impact on the landscape, environmental
planning (protection, reclamation, restoration), natural and manufactured resources, renewable and nonrenewable resources, fuels, global energy sources, pollution (including Greenhouse Effect, ozone
depletion and acid-rain), ecology (matter and cycles), fresh water supply and demand
The Weather (Meteorology)
influence and impact of the weather, local British and global weather patterns (including seasons), site
conditions (buildings, slopes), weather and climate, atmospheriC phenomena (rainbows)
Seas and Oceans (Oceanography)
location of seas and oceans, states of water, dissolving and evaporation, the water cycle
Stars and Planets (Astronomy)
the Earth-Moon-Sun system, day and night, seasons, the Solar System, the night sky, shadows
Table 2. The best ofEarch and Space Science complied from the science and geography Programmes of Study at Key Stage I and
2. Problems arise when trying to categorize subject matter under various headings.
30
RIGS in Wales - your country needs you!
Nick Pearce
This is the first of three articles describing the identification and conservation of Regionally Important Geological!
geomorphological Sites, or RIGS. Further articles will de~1
with the position in England (by English Nature) and In
Scotland (by Scottish National Heritage).
Through its Geological Conservation Review (GCR), the then
Nature Conservancy Council (NCC) selected some 2000
geological and geomorphological sites of national and inte~na
tional significance in England, Scotland and Wales, to be given
statutory protection as Sites of Special Scientific Interest
(SSSls). IneVitably, many sites narrowl~ failed t~ meet ~he
criteria laid down for selection as GCR Sites, despite shOWing
some excellent geological or geomorphological features, and
these form part of the 20,000 or so sites recorded by the
National Scheme for Geological Site Documentation (NSGSD).
In Earth Science Conservation in Great Britain: a strategy, published in 1990, the NCC laid out its policy for the protection of
earth science sites in Britain. This naturally included their
obligations to SSSls, but also proposed the formation of lo.cal
earth science conservation groups to select and define
Regionally Important GeologicaVgeomorphological Sites (RIGS).
These schemes were seen as complementing the national SSSI
coverage.
Heritage
Wales has a remarkable geological heritage. The three Lower
Palaeozoic Systems (Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian) are named
from Wales, and· I 3 of the Lower Palaeozoic Stages are named
from Welsh localities. There are some 420 notified and
proposed SSSls in Wales which will benefit from statutory
protection, and there are many hundreds of other sites throughout the country visited regularly by students and amateur and
professional geologists. With geol0ID: no~. in~luded in the
National Curriculum, the number of site VISits In Wales can
only increase and these sites need some form of protection.
Sites selected as RIGS by local groups are recorded and
documented, describing the exact location and nature of the
geological features. This information is then passed to local
planning authorities, who can offe~ sites. s~me protection
through their inclusion in local planning poliCies.
Progress so far
After the publication of Earth Science Conservation in Great
Britain: a strategy, Mike Harley at NCC took charge of the
promotion of RIGS nationally, and many RIGS groups sprung
up. In many cases these are organi~ed through the local,
county-based Wildlife Trusts, and consist of members of local
museums, local authority representatives, teachers and amateur and professional geologists. It was at this stage. ~at
Duncan Hawley, with the assistance of the Brecknock Wildlife
Teaching Earth Sciences: vol, 18, pt, 1 (1993)
Trust, formed the Powys RIGS group. This group is now well
established and has selected a large number of sites in
Brecknock, now moving north through Radnorshire and eventually Montgomeryshire. By 1991, in Pembrokeshire, Sid
Howells, a field-based geologist working for the Countryside
Council for Wales (CCW), had started compiling sites for
consideration by a possible Dyfed RIGS group, although this is
still at a very early stage.
Agencies
In 1991, the NCC was divided into three new country conservation agencies, English Nature, Scottish National Heritage
and the Countryside Council for Wales. With Mike Harley
now at English Nature and no geologist in Wales to promote
RIGS, the formation of new RIGS groups in Wales waned.
With the expansion to a full team of earth scientists in CCW
by mid-I 992, the opportunity arose to actively promote RIGS
groups in Wales.
Problems
One problem that I foresee in Wales, which may make the
establishment of some RIGS groups difficult, is the distribution
of population in relation to the size of the counties (Figu~e ~).
If, as in England, RIGS groups grow through the county Wildlife
trusts, five groups can be enVisaged: North Wales (covering
Gwynedd and Clwyd), Dyfed, Powys (which is based on the
Brecknock W. T. and covers the areas of the Montgomeryshire
W. T. and the Radnorshire W. T.), Glamorgan and Gwent.
Some of these areas may have many hundreds of potential
RIGS within them. Despite this, however, there is currently a
growing interest in forming a RIGS group in the largest of
these areas, North Wales. To some extent, Scotland is in a
similar position, with an unevenly distributed population, one
or two established RIGS groups, and several interested parties
considering possibilities elsewhere.
Help required
Nonetheless we still need willing helpers to form or assist with
embryonic or established RIGS groups throughout Wales. If
you are interested in preserving the geological heritage of
Wales for the future, and would like to help with, or even
organise, a RIGS group in your area please contact me at the
Countryside Council for Wales in Bangor (0248-370444), or
hassle your local wildlife trust.
Nick Pearce
Senior Geologist
The Countryside Council for Wales
Plas Pen rhos
Bangor LL57 lLQ
31
COLWYN
ABERCONWY
- CLWYD
MEIRIONNYDD
MONTGOMERYSHIRE
CEREDIGION
POWYS
DYFED
PRESELI
PEMBROKESHIRE
BRECKNOCK
DINEFWR
CARMARTHEN
Grid
North
30km
Figure I.
32
The Ups and Downs of A-level Geology Entries 1971 - 1991: A numerical
picture
Ben Jones & Chris King
The Overall Pattern of A-level Geology Entries
Earth Science? The follOWing analyses can perhaps begin to
prOVide some answers to these questions.
Students study Earth Science at 16+ and 18+ by taking GCSEs
in such subjects as Geology. Astronomy or Meteorology or by
taking GCE Advanced level Geology. By studying the data
relating to Advanced level Geology entries we can expect to
see a pattern which reflects the position in Earth Science at
16+ as well.
The overall pattern of Geology Advanced level entries in
England and Wales over the past 20 years is shown in Figure I.
5.--------------------------
O. 7 . - - - - - - - - - - - - r~
:
0.5
Q)
g>0.4
+-'
~O-
Male
c
Q)
o
-'t'-
Female
n.
* Total
4·
l-=-~eology as % total
0.6
ID 0.3
0.2
0.1
OL-~~~~~~~~~~~~~
en
-03
c
ro
en
1971
1975
1979
1983
1987
1991 Year
Figure 2. Advanced level Geology entries as percentage of total
entry; E.ngland and Wales 1971-1991
:J
o
£2
f-
Advanced level Geology entry analysed by centre type
Figure 3 plots the Geology entries according to the type of
centre from which they were made. (Note: Private candidates
entries are excluded as they constituted an insignificant group.
ing and entries from sixth form colleges were only reported
separately from 1977 onwards, before that they were included
OL---------~~----------------------~
1971
1975
1979
1983
1987
1991 in the other figures.)
..
. .
Year
2,000.----:------------------,
Figure I. Advanced level Geology entries by gender; E.ngland
and Wales 1971-1991
This indicates that the numbers rose from around two thousand five hundred in the early I 970s to a peak approaching
four thousand in 1983 before falling away to the 1988 total of
2585 before beginning to rise again gradually. It also shows
that, although the entry has been dominated by boys, the
proportion of entries from girls is increasing; in 1971 this was
21 per cent, in 1991, it had risen to 31 per cent.
These raw data can be rather misleading unless compared with
demographic changes and, perhaps more importantly, with
figures for the total entry in all Advanced level subjects for the
same period. During the time when Advanced level Geology
entries were increasing between 1971 and 1983, the total
number of Advanced level entries in the country was also
increasing, so the percentage of the total stayed the same at
around 0.6 per cent, as shown in Figure 2. However. from
1983, whilst the total numbers of entries continued to increase, Geology entries fell and now constitute only 0.4 per
cent of the total.
What has caused this decline and what lessons can be learned
about the future for both Advanced level Geology and 16+
1,500
1,000
500
O~~~~~~~~~~~~
1971
1975
1979
-+- Grammar
-* Secondary Modern
1983
1987
1991 Year
~ Independent
• 6th Form College
~.- Comprehensive"~
Further Education
Figure 3.
Advanced level Geology entries by centre type;
E.ngland and Wales 1971-1991
33
Figure 3 clearly shows the rapid rise in entries from sixth form
colleges from 1980 to 1983, reflecting the trend during those
years towards sixth form college education. The graph also
shows the general decline in entries from other types of
centre from 1982. The most significant feature of the graph is
the marked decline in entries from comprehensive schools
since 1984. Although the comprehensive share of total Geology entries dropped by I I per cent between 1983 and 1991,
this represented a halving of centres from that sector from
nearly 2000 to less than 1000, and it is this factor that has
contributed most to the overall decline of Advanced level
Geology entries seen in Figures I and 2.
How will Geology education post-16 change in the
future?
The unfortunate decline in Advanced level Geology entries is
likely to reflect a similar decline in entries of 16+ Earth Science
examinations, such as GCSE Geology, GCSE Astronomy and
GCSE Meteorology. However, the decline also probably
mirrors an overall decline in all minority SUbjects: many schools'
response to falling roles has been to reduce the numbers of
subjects taught in sixth forms, and subjects with small numbers
of students, including Earth Science related subjects, are particularly vulnerable.
What are the levels of Geology entries likely to be in the
coming years? All these figures give cause for cautious optimism since the decline in entries seemed to "bottom out" in
1988. There are also several other causes for optimism.
have an important part to play to ensure that this happens in
our own establishments or feeder schools. This is worthwhile
because we have a high goal; good Earth Science from 5 to 16;
good Earth Science at post-I 6 and an Earth Science-literate
community of the future.
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank the GCE Boards of England and Wales
for prOViding the data on which this article is based.
Ben Jones
The Research Unit
The Northern Examinations and Assessment Board
Manchester MI5 6EX
Chrls King
Altrincham Grammar School for Boys
Altrincham
Cheshire WAI4 lRS
Footnote:
The 1992 A-Ievel geology entry figures available from some
boards, but as yet unpublished, have continued to show a modest
increase in numbers.
(a) Through the National Curriculum, all pupils will receive
some grounding in Earth Science and be exposed to its
relevance and interest; they may well want to follow that
interest at post-I 6 level.
(b) The data plotted above show that there are probably many
schools where Advanced level Geology used to be taught;
most of these will still have a geology speCialist capable of
contributing to good Earth Science teaching lower down
the school and also of offering Advanced level Geology or
Earth Science.
(c) New A-level syllabuses in Geology and Earth Science are
being developed which will be more relevant, practical and
interesting to student and teacher alike.
(d) Modular A-levels and modular science A-levels are being
developed which are likely to have Earth Science options
or Earth Science in the core.
(e) A likely consequence of LMS (Local Management for
Schools) will be that many schools will want to show
themselves to be offering more than their neighbours. Part
of this increased offering may be an enhanced post-16
curriculum where new or 'revived' A-levels may play their
part.
(f) Demographic trends. Figures from the Office of Population, Census and Surveys indicate that the prOjected size of
the 18-year-old cohort in England will continue to diminish
until 1995 after which it is expected to increase steadily
until at least well into the next century. The rise in the 16year-old cohort is, of course, expected to start two years
earlier in 1994.
This optimism is only likely to be realised in terms of increased
interest in post-I 6 courses in Earth Science if pupils enjoy their
learning of National Curriculum Earth Science lower down the
school. All Geology and Earth Science teachers, therefore,
5 Cowgatehead, Grassmarket, Edinburgh, EHI 1JY
Tel. 031-220-1344
34
Geoscience Education and Training in Higher Education
A discussion document with this title has just been issued by
the Geological Society of London, and provides a comprehensive summary of the current position in Earth Science teaching
at both school and university level. The report was compiled
by a working party set up by the Geological Society, ESTA
being represented by Chris King.
The aim of the working party was to "review the structure and
content of UK single honours geology/earth science honours
courses". Objectives were:
to establish the extent and scope of current undergraduate
course provision;
to review important developments within the education
system including changes in pre-16 and 16-19 curricula and
the development of four year degree courses;
to identify key issues which the geoscience community
needs to address;
to provide general recommendations that will help focus
future debate in geoscience education and training, and
gUide the professional body in the development of an
education strategy and policy.
In 1990-1, there were 2340 students enrolled in the then
university sector, and 931 in the polytechnics and colleges.
This was an increase of 5% on the 1989 low point. Between
1986 and 1990 the total output of geoscience graduates
declined by I I%, paralleling demographic trends. However,
enrolments since 1990 show a substantial increase in numbers.
1990 figures show that of the output of both single honours
and combined honours graduates 30% entered the geological
profession, 23% progressed to a higher degree and 15% entered non-geolOgical employment (of the remainder 17% did
not seek employment or were "unsettled", 5% went into
further study, and the destination of the rest was "unknown").
The proportion of female students is low, about I:3.5 in the
universities and 1:5 in the polytechnics.
years or so, but increaSingly subjects such as hydrology, environmental geology, computing, remote sensing and planetary
geology are being taught. Almost all courses assume no
previous knowledge of geology.
Practical work occupies a large part of class contact time:
50%. Fieldwork is also important, with students spendIng on average about 60-90 days in the field, both on structur~d courses and independent project work. The Geological
~oclety h~ supporte~ ~e view that a minimum of 105 days
~Ieldwork IS a. prerequIsite for graduates intending to progress
Into a geological career. The report notes that this is costly,
and the students are doubly disadvantaged - they have to
spend time during the vacations carrying out fieldwork instead
of vacation employment, and also have to bear a significant
proportion of the costs themselves.
~bout
Four year MGeol degrees
It appears that traditional honours degree courses are overI~aded in some subjects (physics, mathematiCS), and that "in
view of changes occurring in the schools curricula, there is
now insufficient time to develop the knowledge and skills
deemed to be necessary at this level". Additionally, there will
shortly be a need for harmonisation with European degree
structures. The physicists have therefore produced a scheme
in which about two thirds of the present honours content is
covered in three years, after which a BSc (Honours) Physics
degree would be awarded. A proportion of students (30-40%)
would then proceed to a fourth year. The degree awarded
would be MPhys, which would be regarded as an initial degree,
not a Masters.
The view of the working group was that in general the existing
three year course was adequate to allow progress into the
geological profeSSion. Four year courses could be prOVided by
individual institutions. It was also felt 'that accelerated two
year degrees were not possible.
Geoscience in schools and further education
The number of candidates entering the GCSE geology examination has fallen in recent years, to 4846 entries in 1991.
However, some candidates will have studied geoscience as
part of GCSE double award science. Similarly, A-level candidates in 1991 numbered 2794, compared to over 4000 in the
early 1980's. New developments, such as the introduction of
AlAS courses, and the General National Vocational Qualification, will however increase the provision of geoscience education. Overall, however, the report states that "the current
shortage of geology courses in the 16-19 sector must mean
that opportunities for capturing the interest of A Level students in geoscience are being missed". Note that in Scotland
the provision of courses is very limited.
Geoscience degree courses
At university level the standard degree course is three years
(four in Scotland). In the former polytechnics the course is
likely to be modular, but in general the older universities
provide a non-modular course (this is rapidly changing, however). The schemes provided usually focus on "traditional"
elements of geology, as it has been taught over the past fifty
What do higher education geoscience departments
want?
A majority of departments favoured physical science as a
preferred (though not exclusive) entry reqUirement, and a
broader 16-18 year old 'background (cf Scottish LeaVing).
Courses should include a core of skills; they should fit graduates for both geoscience and non-geoscience employment;
and emphasise fieldwork.
The views of employers
Three topiCS were rated as of major importance by employers: stratigraphy, structural geology and fieldworklsitework
(80 days). Non-geoscience topics include computer technology and programming, communication and presentation skills,
management and administration skills, legal responsibility/liability awareness and foreign languages.
Field/project work is particularly singled out in the report, and
part of para I 14 is worth quoting:
"What most distinguishes geoscience graduates in competi-
35
tion for employment. however. is the individual project work.
particularly fieldwork. undertaken as an essential element of
degree training. This inculcates an ability to come to conclusions from data sets which are often incomplete. to report
verbally and in writing. to meet deadlines. and not least to plan
and manage programmes with total self-sufficiency".
Professional status
There are at present no statutory or other regulations governing qualifications to practise professionally as a geoscientist
in the UK. The Geological Society is now identified as a
competent authority with respect to European legislation. It
has now established the title of C Geol. for Fellows who apply
for it and have had an initial three years training in a recognised
earth science subject followed by a minimum of five years
relevant working experience. It will also qualify for the title of
"European Geologist". ratified by the European Federation of
Geologists. In the future it is likely that accreditation of degree
courses will follow.
Important issues, General conclusions and recommendations
Those conclusions of particular relevance to the schools
sector. in addition to those outlined above. are:
130 The relationship between the Higher Education
geoscience providers and geoscience teachers in schools/FE
colleges needs to be strengthened.
149 The Geological SOciety could play an important role in
monitoring national educational developments in all phases of
the system (primary and secondary schools. the FE and HE
sectors). and in raising awareness of these developments
through training workshops and publications. It could play an
important role in the professional development of geosciences
teachers in all phases of the education system and in the
dissemination of good practice.
150 The introduction of General National Vocational Qualifications into the 16-19 curriculum prOVides an opportunity
for introdUcing a geoscience component into a vocational
science course. so continuing the balanced approach to science begun in the NC. Better support and interaction with
geoscience teachers in schools and the FE sector might encourage more students to study geology at GCE AlAS Level
and to continue their geoscience education in an HE institution. The message that geoscience prOVides a good vehicle for
the delivery of the physical sciences and that a geoscience
training provides many opportunities for developing a range of
general skills which will be useful in any career. should be
promoted Vigorously. It is important that the geoscience
community plays a full role in the future development of a
GNVQ in science.
151
The Society will be unable to play a full and active role
in geoscience education without the assistance of a full-time
education and training officer.
JOHN MURRAY - National Curriculum Earth Science for the 90s
Earth Science:
Activities and Demonstrations
MIKE TUKE
This flexible, photocopiable Teachers' Resource for
Geography and Science departments in secondary schools
can support the teaching of a wide range of Earth Science
Statements of Attainment in KS3/4. It is divided into pupil
activity sheets complete with experimental details,
diagrams of the equipment and questions; and teachers'
notes.
The leachers' noles Include:
• equipmenllisls
• notes on experimenlal work
• background information
• descriptions of classroom demonstrations
• answers 10 questions where appropriate
The introductory materiat shows how the activities match awide
range of NC Science and Geography topics, including:
Nalurat resources
Rock formation
Landforms
Weathering
Erosion
Transportation
Deposition
Volcanoes
Earthquakes
Plate tectonics
Glaciation
Soil formation
PollUtion
Uses and properties of materials
The pack also includes advice on resources and suppliers of
equipment and samples, and an easy-to-use rock idenlification
key.
Mike Tuke is Lecturer in Geology at Cambridge Regional College.
This is agood resource and has the bonus of being usable in
several curriculum areas. '
Times Educational Supplement
96 pages 0 71 95 4951 5 £29.99
r---------------------------------------------------------------------: Ordar Form Teaching Earth Sciancas Fab 1993
[coda631] Name
: Please envelope and return to:
: The Educational Marketing Department
: John Murray, FREEPOST London W1 E7JZ
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
Please send me:
Earth SCience: Activities and Demonstrations £29.99
(firm order only)
Free sample material only
-P-O-sil-io-n- - - - - - - - - - - - - School/college address
o
o
I
I
I
Poslcode
LEA
Firm orders: please send a cheque payable to John Murray
or an official order.
I
36
The Dudley Rock and Fossil Show
LETTER TO THE EDITOR
An amazing experience -the rock and fossil show at Dudley in
late November. The Editor and Co-Editor visited it on the
Saturday, with a group of students from the University of
Wales, Aberystwyth.
Dear Sir,
According to colleagues, some people have been experiencing
difficulty with the rock magnetism experiment described in
Teaching Earth Sciences 15(4).
With the large number of exhibits in the Town Hall, the
adjacent Dinosaur exhibition in the Dudley Museum across
the road, and the gUided tours, the Show, organised by Colin
Reid, of the Museum, kept us all occupied and interested until
we had to rejoin our bus for the trip home. Our only difficulty
was getting at some of the stands, so great was the attendance!
We were delighted to see the ESTA stand, masterminded by
John Reynolds, with helpers. Equally prominent was the Geo
Supplies stand. The first edition of Chris Darmon's new
newsletter was on display, and was also functioning as the
information sheet for the whole exhibition, being given to
every visitor as they entered. Chris also sponsored a free
draw, to take place on each day: the prize being an Estwing
geological hammer. To the embarassment of the Co-Editor,
his was the name to be drawn out of the hat on the Saturday!
So our picture shows the presentation of the hammer: from
left to right, Antony Wyatt, Colin Reid, Chris Darmon.
The apparatus is simple enough and it is just a matter of
selecting a coil with as many turns as possible along with the
most sensitive voltmeter. The equipment can always be checked
by waving a magnet or piece of magnetite near the coil. The
effect should be dramatic.
On the other hand, the rock samples may vary considerably. I
have two pieces of late Ordovician dolerite from Squilver
Quarry, in Shropshire. They look identical but one is intensely
magnetic while the other has no discernible affect on the
apparatus. The most reliable rock type is always basalt.
Turning to the seismometer mock up in Teaching Earth Sciences 16(4), I later discovered that cheap crystal microphones,
used in PhYSiCS demonstrations, make reasonable 'geophones'.
They are well damped, readily detect vibrations but scarcely
react to ordinary sounds (unless shouted into at close range!).
Just plug one into an oscilloscope and lay it on a bench.
Some years ago I saw an Open University programme for sixth
formers in which the principle of resistivity (the inverse of
conductiVity) was demonstrated. Modern laboratory
multimeters are able to measure resistance (thOUgh not resistivity directly). Beaker samples of dry sand, sand with distilled
water and sand with brine produce different values when the
meter probes are inserted at each side. For meaningful comparison of the readings it is important to keep the meter
probes clean (don't leave them in the brine) and the same
distance apart in each sample. Brine soaked sand clearly
emerges as a better conductor than water, while dry sand is
effectively a non conductor.
Keith Moseley
Head of Geology
Monmouth School
Honmouth
Gwent
NP53XP
37
Open University television programmes in 1993
The time of showing of the Open University television programmes of interest to teachers of Earth
Sciences are below. To record these for classroom use you need to obtain a licence from OUEE
Ltd., 12 Cofferidge Close Stony Stratford, MKll IBY
S102 A Science Foundation
Course
Title
Voyages of discovery
The planet Earth - a
scientific model
Measuring - the Earth and
the Moon
Earthquakes - seismology
at work
Magnetic Earth
Drifting continents
Volcanic Iceland
From Snowdon to the sea
Dating a granite
Frontiers of geology
Science and nuclear
wastes
0935 Sat
(BBC2)
0840 Sat
Jan23
Feb6
0645 Tues
(BBC2)
0910 Sat
Feb6
Feb9
Feb 13
Feb 16
Mar 6
Mar 9
Mar 13
Mar 20
Mar 27
Aug21
Aug28
Sept4
Sept 11
Mar 16
Mar 23
Mar 30
Aug24
Aug31
Sept7
Sept14
S365 Evolution
Title
Horses for courses
Date and time of
showing(BBC2)
1050 Sat.Oct 2
S3300 ceano2rap h V
Title
oWhat is oceanography
1 Ocean floor
2 Jamaica and the sea
3 Currents
4 Oceans and climate
5 Waves
6 Rockall
7 Sea-level
8 Polar oceans
Date
(time of normal
showing 0755 Sat
BBC2)
0820 Sat. Feb. 2
BBC2 (50 min prog).
Mar 6
Apr3
May 8
May 15
June 5
July 31
Aug28
Sept25
S236 G eo I02Y
Title
1 James Hutton:
Geologist
2 Landscapes: Bodmin
and Dorset
3 Mapping in the
Yorkshire Dales
4 Cheddar: Mapping the
Mendip anticline
5 Minerals under the
microscope
6 Rock textures
7 Inside volcanoes
8 Geology of the Alps:
Part I
9 Geology of the Alps:
PartII
10 Interpreting sediments
11 Deserts
12 Glaciation
13 From swamps to coal
15 Form and function of
fossils
14 The Capitan Reef
16 Britain before Man
Da~(normal showmg
0735 Tues. BBC2)
Feb 16
Mar 2
Mar 16
Mar 30
Apr20
May 4
May 18
June 1
June 15
June 29
July 13
July 27
Aug 10
Aug24
Sept7
Sept 21
U206 Environment
Title
1 Valued environments:
environmental values
2 Forest futures
3 Living with drought
4 Bankok: a city speaks
5 No hiding place
6 Danish energy
7 The heat is on
8 Walk softly on the earth
BBC 2
1410 Sat. Feb 13
1410 Sat. Mar 13
1410 Sat. Apr 24
1435 Sat. June 5
1050 Sat. July 3
1435 Sat. July 17
1435 Sat. Aug 28
1050 Sat. Sept 25
38
NEWS
The British Association Keele Meeting
The general theme of the Keele meeting is "Science for life",
being interpreted within the geology section as the geology of
raw materials. The President's Day (PreSident: Steve Sparks)
is related to aspects of volcanology.
Sunday: a possible field trip to the Peak District, including an
underground visit.
Monday: An excursion relevant to the President's Day topic.
Monday evening excursions would relate to the Tuesday
evening symposium.
Tuesday: President's Day - a range of inter-disciplinary topics
on the environmental effects of volcanic eruptions. An evening
symposium on the past, present and future of the petroleum
industry.
Wednesday: a joint programme with chemistry on raw materials, an afternoon programme on coal, a meeting on Darwin,
Wedgewood and Literature, geological excursions, including a
cemetery visit with Eric Robinson.
Thursday: still under discussion. Possibilities include a visit to
Ironbridge, and an all day geological excursion round the
Potteries. The BAYS (British Association for Young Scientists)
afternoon lecture will be by Peter Francis on planetary
volcanism.
Friday: a choice of field excursions, and a pUblic lecture on
vertebrate palaeontology.
record. By coincidence, the third edition of this work was
published in January ( ISBN 0471938084, Wiley, £9.95).
The Wm. Creighton Mineral Museum
If you are in the Lake District, this is a small private museum,
incorporating the Late William Shaw Collection of minerals.
Te1.0900 82830 I; the address is Harford House, 2 Crown St,
Cockermouth, Cumbria CA I 3 OEJ.
Yorkshire Museum· The Living World of Dinosaurs:
8th April. 31 st October 1993
This is an exciting exhibition featuring eight robotic dinosaurs,
which display a range of behaviours, from fighting to feeding
and caring for their young. The result is a remarkable creation
of the life of both herbivores and carnivores, made using
computers and pneumatic systems.
The Gloucester Wall Game
Eric Robinson has sent us a copy of a new Geological Trail
Guide with a difference. This is a self-gUide walk around the
Precinct of Gloucester Cathedral, looking at the stones used,
not only in the walls of the buildings, but also in the pavements,
kerbs and cobblestones. Its four page text is complemented
with seven A4 draWings, one a map of the trail, the others
drawings of individual sections of walls and paving. to help
identify individual groups of stones. The Guide is available
from the GeolOgiSts' Association (Burlington House, Piccadilly, London W IV 9AG, T el.071-434-9298) at 80p plus postage.
The Association for Science Education (AS E)
ICASE: the International Council of Associations for
Science Education
The ICASE have a number of publications which are of interest
to the earth science teacher. Recent ones include:
Apollo 11 - A Teacher Resource Book. This commemorates the 20th anniversary of the Apollo I I moon landing.
£7.50 incl. postage.
Pasteur and Microbes, commemorating the Centenary
of the Pasteur Institute. Experiments are described on soil
microbes, yeast as a food-making microbe, making cheese,
vinegar and wine. £6.25 including postage.
Members might like to know that the ASE Annual Meeting is to
be held at Birmingham University ffem Friday 7th to Sunday
9th January 1994 - just three full days.
There will also be the following Area Meetings in 1993 at
which some Earth Science might be expected:
Runnymede Centre near Weybridge - 2nd and 3rd July,
Bristol - 2nd and 3rd July,
University of Salford - 9th and 10th July,
Aston University, Birmingham - 9th and 10th July,
Homerton College, Cambridge - 10th July.
Who's Who in Science Education Around the World. £9.00
incl. postage.
The ICASE Yearbook, 1992: The Status of Science Technology - Society Reform Efforts around the World.
These are available from Dennis Chisman, Hon. Treasurer
ICASE, Knapp Hill, South Harting, Petersfield GU31 5LR.
If any members attend the Area Meetings I would be grateful if
they would consider taking part of the ESTA display stand and!
or some of our publications. If you can help please contact
Keith Harvey, Farnham College, Morley Rd, Famham, Surrey
GU9 8LU (TeI.0252-716988).
Professor Derek Ager
Leeds Conference
Members will be saddened to hear of the death of Professor
Derek Ager, on February 8th. The former Head of the
Department of Geology at the University College of Swansea,
and past President of the Geologists' Association, he will
probably be best known to members of the Association as the
author of The Nature of the Stratigraphical Record, a personal
view of the nature of the record, emphasizing the persistence
of certain facies, and the catastrophic or episodic nature of the
Have you booked for the Leeds conference yet? A booking
form is enclosed with this issue - fill in and send it off now!
The conference theme, "Water", is being interpreted by a
wide variety of lecturers and leaders, both in the field and in
lecture and laboratory. The Leeds Earth Science staff are
pulling out all the stops to prOVide a fascinating array of topics,
with abundant demonstrations and experiments. See you
there.
39
REVIEWS
Trilobites by H. B. Whittington. Boydell Press, l39.95. 120 Plates,
14 line illustrations, 145pp. ISBN 0 85115 31 I 9.
Trilobites is the second volume to appear in the series Fossils
Illustrated, edited by Douglas Palmer and Barrie Rickards. [The
first volume, on graptolites, was reviewed in TES Vo1.16, part
4, for 1991; further volumes are planned: Ammonites and
Dinosaurs are in preparation.] Unlike the first volume, this is
the production of a single author, Professor H. B. Whittington,
of Cambridge University - a world authority on trilobites, who
is currently engaged in the preparation of the revised Treatise
on trilobites.
Like its predecessor, this volume is dominated by the Plates giving us between 300 and 400 individual photographs of
trilobites. Accordingly, it is to the Plates that one first looks.
And how magnificent they are! The specimens are carefully lit
and accurately focussed to produce good negatives. The
quality of the photographic prints is particularly good, with a
full range of tones in almost every case, and a satisfying
evenness of contrast (The contrast of the scanning electron
microscope photographs is inevitably somewhat greater.) Not
only is Professor Whittington to be congratulated on his
work, but so also are the Publishers, in producing printing of
such quality. With so many illustrations, the Plates cover the
vast majority of trilobite types. Plates I -54 form a general
introduction to the trilobites, covering such topics as morphology, growth, moulting and preservation, and Plates 55-120
representative species arranged in stratigraphical order. Omissions are minor, and barely detract from the wealth of information. There appears to be only one species illustrated from
the Lower Ordovician (Asaphus, on Plate 12), although this
represents a significant proportion of time (Text-figure 13). It
would also have been appropriate to fi~re the first trilobite to
be illustrated and named, Trinucleus (p.1 ), together with Edward
Lhwyd's original illustration.
In its text, this book differs markedly from the first volume of
the series, in that it is written by a single person, rather than
the "committee" which produced the text on graptolites. The
aim of the text also differs: we have here a complete description of all we know about trilobites, written in a scholarly yet
readable style. By contrast, the text in Graptolites gives little
idea of that group as a whole, and is written in a mixture of
styles, some almost desperately chatty and journalistic. The
text of Trilobites starts with a description of the basic morphology, including a fascinating account of the trilobite limbs.
An especial delight, both here and in other sections of the
book, are the glimpses into the history of research, and of the
international band of workers, who come alive in these pages
("Dr Sidnie M. Manton ....very patiently, in conversation and in
long letters explained to me how arthropod limbs functioned").
In Chapter 3, on anatomy and activity, the trilobites realfy
begin to come alive, as possible muscle systems are described,
and the trace fossils of possible trilobite origin are discussed.
In the next chapter growth is considered: as arthropods, the
trilobites grew by moulting the skeleton at intervals, and the
moulted exuviae are well described (and of course illustrated,
mainly using the scanning electron microscope). Chapter 5 is
probably the most speculative in the book, as it covers the
topics of form and function of the exoskeleton. Again, the
narrative holds our attention, whether discussing trinucleid
fringes, or the "mud-shoe" of Harpes. Chapter 6, on preservation and occurrence, places the trilobites both in different
TeachIng Earth ScIences: vol. 78, pt. 7 (7993)
environments, and in a global context during the Early
Palaeozoic. The last chapter, on distribution in time, evolution
and classification, is an attempt to Similarly place the trilobites
in a temporal context. Unfortunately, as with the first edition
of the trilobite Treatise in 1959, the attempt is only very
partially successful. Whittington feels that, with the rapid
growth of descriptive work, a renewed interest in evolution
will enable a new classification to emerge. This is debatable,
however, as the geological record may be simply not complete
enough, particularly over certain short periods of time, to
furniSh the critical evidence of rapid episodes of evolution
which must have occurred.
In its combination of magnificent pictures and authoritative
and well written text this is undoubtedly a book to recommend to anyone, or any Institution, with the money to spare,
and £40 is not expensive for a work which is "the last word"
on both counts. The pictures can be studied and appreciated
at virtually any level from Junior School to Honours level at
University. While the text will only be fully appreciated at the
latter level, it can be usefully used by sixth formers and first
year undergraduates, both to learn about trilobites, and also
about the activities and achievements of palaeontologists.
There are few other works to compare with Trilobites: its only
direct competitor is Trilobites: A Photographic Atlas, by Ricardo
Levi-Setti (University of Chicago Press, 1975). The earlier
book has a much briefer text, which covers only the morphology and the eyes, but is in a larger format landscape size, which
has enabled text, line-draWings and figures to be mixed throughout. It is annoying when looking at the Plates in Trilobites to
have to continually refer back to the explanations. However,
the new book is more comprehensive in its range of illustrations.
Denis Bates
Institute of Earth Studies
University of Wales
Aberystwyth
Dyfed SY23 3DB
Fieldwork Pack. Northumberland County Coundl Education Department, produced in assodation with British Coal Opencast.
Available from Business Education Publishers Sales Office, Leighton
House, 10 Grange Crescent, Stockton Road, Sunderland SR2 7BN
Te1.091-5 67-4963.
I think this is an excellent fieldwork pack, consisting of four
items (booklet, pamphlets, poster etc.) and should prove most
valuable to schools. It is possible to buy different parts
separately, but I would advise purchase of the whole pack for
a start. It is good value for money. The pack is divided into
Fieldwork A: ten copies of Fieldwork Hazards, Advance Planner, for Fieldwork, Making the most of your Fieldwork, and Geology
Fieldwork Student Information £ 15; Fieldwork B: Hazards plus
Planner for £5; and Fieldwork C: ten copies of Making the
most of your Fieldwork (the most important item), and Student
Information for £ 12.
The booklet Making the most of your Fieldwork prOVides a good
introduction with notes on equipment, field notes, sketches,
graphic logs and mapping. I note that acid bottles should be
40
supervised by a teacher in the field, and that wann acid would
be a problem. Better for dolomite to powder the material
when it will react with cold acid. For A level students I would
prefer an A4 mapcase to a clipboard, but these are minor
matters. The field sketch illustrations give an interesting
comparison of the same view by three students bringing out
the important point that a beautiful sketch, taking a long time
but with little superimposed geology is less desirable than a
simple accurate sketch with more geology inserted. Overall
there is an emphasis on sedimentary rocks, probably the
correct approach at this level, but igneous and metamorphic
rocks could perhaps be given a little more space especially for
A level students.
The advance planner, intended for teachers only, is most
important. Many of us tend to put off decisions to the last
minute, but when planning is done gradually over many months
there should be no last minute panic. Of the other items
Student Information is a useful summary, while construction of
the Fieldwork Hazards poster must have been much fun for
the artist.
I can say finally that I can recommend this pack which is
beautifully produced.
Frank Hoseley
89 Cambridge Road
Birmingham B 13 9UG
The UK Environment. Alan Brown (ed.). Department of the
Environment, HMSO, London. 1992. ISBN 0 11 752420 4.
257pp. l14.95
This is the first edition of a new statistical report which was
promised in the DoE 1990 White Paper "This Common
Inheritance" (Cmnd 1200). The book contains seventeen
sections covering issues across the environment: climate, air
quality and pollution, the global atmosphere, soil, land use and
land cover, inland water resources and abstraction, quality and
pollution, the marine environment, coastal erosion, flooding
and sea level change, wildlife, waste and recycling, noise,
radioactivity, environmental health, pressures on the environment, public attitudes, and expenditure on the environment.
This is a visually attractive book whose text is in a readable
two-column format, regularly interspersed with maps, tables,
graphs, charts, scattergrams, and boxes all of which are set
against a suitably low-key, pale-green background. The introduction states that many of the figures and tables are available
on disc, and that these will be prOVided to purchasers on
request to the DoE.
flick through the book (or use the contents pages) to find
section 4 and then work through it until you come across the
figures and table in question. This could have been better
managed, and it would have helped had the figures and tables
been numbered consecutively together, rather than being
numbered separately. However, this is an irritant rather than
a major problem.
This book will prOVide a useful source of fairly up-to-date
information to teachers, writers and students. Although it
contains no soft-focus, atmospheric landscapes or candid wildlife shots which seem almost obligatory these days, you could
see the book finding a place on lounge coffee tables and
bookshelves. It is full of fascinating infonnation, but I was a bit
frustrated that it was only about the UK; there is a need for
information of this kind on a pan-European level: Eurocrats
please note.
Finally, a word of warning; hesitate before you give environmentally-conscious teenagers access to this book: there is
scope here for a whole new series of (not so) trivial pursuit
questions, and, as with all those on pop music, we won't
necessarily know all the answers.
William A H Scott
University of Bath
School of Education
Claverton Down
BATH BA2 7AY
The Sky (for Windows), Version 1.0, Level 3. (1991) Software
Bisque, Golden, Colorado. l140.49 (Available from BC & F Ltd, 63
Farringdon Road, London, ECIM 3)B or PC Connections Ltd, Lee
Barn, Rawenstall, Rossendale, BB4 BTA.)
Skyglobe, Version 3.1 (1992) Shareware Product by KlassM Software, Caledonia, Michigan.l3.50 (1) (Available from Schools direct,
The Green, Ravensthorpe, Northampton, NN6 BEP)
One couldn't get a greater contrast over price between these
two items of Astronomy software, yetlthey are both excellent
in their own way. There are a multitude of similar programs on
the market but The Sky is regarded as probably the most
comprehensive while Skyglobe does the most for a modest
expenditure. Both run on IBM PC's and their compatibles.
Each chapter begins with a summary of the major points and
this is followed by a range of issues, each of which is listed in
the contents section at the beginning of the book. As well as
the visual inserts, infonnation is gathered together in boxes
which usefully disturb the two-column rigidity. For example,
in section 4 on Soil, Box 4.1 gives brief descriptions of the
major soil groups, and Box 4.2 details the National Soils
Inventory. At the end of each section there is a brief selection
of references and further reading.
The Sky is available for PC's running Microsoft Windows or
just standard DOS. There are three levels at £70, £91 and
£ 140. You can build up from level I but, apparently, most
buyers go for level 3 straightaway. ObViously, a more modern
computer will run the program faster so an 80386/80486
machine is best. The level 3 version has 272,000 objects and
associated data so a mighty 12 megabytes of hard disk space is
reqUired (although one can save 1.5 megabytes by omitting the
optional images of planets and nebulae). A colour VGA or
Super VGA screen is useful because stars are white, galaxies
red, globular clusters green, planetary nebulae blue, planets
various colours, etc. Their shapes are discernible in monochrome but they can be discriminated more rapidly in colour.
At the end of the book there is a useful glossary and a list of
some 100 abbreviations. I confess that my perspective on the
ancient Britons has shifted somewhat now that I know that
WOAD actually stands for the Welsh Office Agricultural
Department. The book begins with a seven-page listing of 230
tables and 60 figures, and ends with a seven-page index which
refers to the same figures and tables in the text. For example,
under "soil" in the index. the main soil groups are referenced
at Figures H.I, H.2, H.3 and Table H.I. You then have to
Installing the program is user friendly and takes about 20
minutes with a 16 MHz 386 machine or 5 minutes with a
33MHz 486 machine. Loading the program from hard disk
subsequently takes about a minute with the 386 but the 486
rattles into action within seconds. Once running. everything is
far qUicker of course. At the outset, it makes sense to select
the observer location box and enter your town name, latitude,
longitude and time zone. The date and time should be alright if
the computer is set up correctly to start with.
47
The basic screen shows the objects against a black background
with a control panel at the side or along the top, an optional
status box at the bottom (telling where you are, the amount of
sky you are looking at, etc.), and a menu of other functions at
the top (which look much like any other Windows layout).
The screen can be displayed with grid lines, constellation lines
and constellation boundaries, which are activated with the
control panel. The user can customise the objects, lines and
labels using a colour palette and font selection. The projection
of the sky can also be altered from Mercator to spherical,
polar etc.
Moving around the sky is very easy. Small moves can be
selected from the arrows on the control panel (but remember
if you turn to the left the sky moves to the right of course).
Large moves can be achieved using a sort of gun Sight with can
be manoeuvred around a grid box. No matter how big a move
you make the screen image is re-established in a split second.
Two magnifying glass symbols with plus and minus allow you to
zoom in and out of portions of the sky qUickly. Higher magnifications reveal more and more faint objects.
Identifying stars, planets, nebulae etc. is easy. Simply move the
mouse pointer to even the most obscure looking object and a
box of information appears instantly. At this point you can
centre the chosen item and, if available, look at a photographic
image of it. Frankly, the images are a bit of a gimmick and need
full screen display to look any good (the pupils like them
though).
To find an object there is a search option on the control panel.
A box appears into which names (or just part names) of
objects can be entered. If you are not sure what you are
looking for, there are lists of constellations, stars etc. (by name
as well as number) to check through. These lists did reveal
occasional sloppiness. The constellation Scorpius was incorrectly called ScorpiO (the astrologers' misspelling) and '58'
appears to have been accidently typed in after the star name
Betelgeuse, to name but two. Nevertheless, action is instantaneous and the object appears at the centre of the screen.
Objects can be labelled on the sky charts and immense detail is
possible (e.g. spectral classification, magnitude, identification
number etc.), although the screen rapidly clutters up with
information.
A selection of tools is available. One can observe the orbital
motions of Jupiter's four large moons and the planets of the
Solar System, watch predicted solar and lunar eclipses, watch
forthcoming planetary conjunctions and look at the phases of
the moon for any particular month. The last item draws rather
slowly on the 386 and takes an age to dump to the printer. The
sky charts print more rapidly and objects are clearly identified
by neat labels or a variety of symbols, with a key prOVided
beneath.
For serious astronomers the program has an electronic notebook for observations and an interface program for driving
various makes of telescope. Lazy types can simply key in the
object they want and let the program steer the telescope to
the correct position.
This program is enormously enjoyable just to 'play with'. I
zoomed in on double stars, such as Polaris, Mizar and Alberio,
which did indeed separate into two at high magnification. I
wandered through the galaxy clusters of Virgo and Coma
Berenices. I brought up images of Saturn, Jupiter and numerous nebulae. I 'watched' the 1999 eclipse of the Sun, haVing
adjusted the program to show the (best) view from Cornwall.
Using the time skip function, I accelerated time and watched
the planets sweeping across the sky, retrograde looping as
they did so. I explored the sky as seen from New Zealand
(totally unfamiliar to a British observer). I zoomed in on the
150 stars of the Pleiades, labelled them all by spectral classification, magnitude and ID number before printing selected portions. Using the spherical projections I picked out the ecliptic
and the plane of the galaxy by selecting planets and globular
clusters. The possibilities seem limitless and the astronomy
notice board is festooned with print outs!
After The Sky one would expect Skyglobe to disappoint but it
doesn't. The graphics are tastefully coloured and very clear.
The basic screen consists of a spherical projection view about
90 degrees across. This can be zoomed in to a view about 15
degrees across.
Several command and status boxes appear in the corners and
can be shown in full, part or not at all, so as to prevent
obscuring the view. Top left there is a box giving time, date,
position, direction of view, number of stars visible and highest
magnitude (faintness), etc. On the right there is a list of over
40 control options operated by the keyboard.
If the mouse is activated a box appears bottom left giving the
identity and co-ordinates of object under the moving cross
hairs. Moving the mouse to the edge of the screen enables the
viewer to move to the adjacent area of sky. Autoscan (key A)
moves the sky continuously from left to right while indicating
the elapsed time during which the real sky would alter by the
same amount. Four keys, N, S, E and W (what else!) centre the
view on the four main compass bearings.
The screen displays up to 25000 stars and other objects. The
constellation boundaries, construction lines and various identification labels can be shown at various levels of detail, or
omitted. The horizon and the ecliptic lines are also visible as
required. The Milky Way appears as a contoured blue sweep
across the sky. (InCidently, The Sky doesn't show it.) It can also
be shown unshaded, or grey or not at all.
Various keys enable the observer to jump forwards or backwards in hours, days, months, years, centuries and m iIIenia,
though not in increments between. The millenia shift clearly
shows the Earth's chandler wobble adjusting our view of the
sky.
A search menu is included for constellations, stars, planets,
Messier objects etc. The arrow keys enable the correct object
to be highlighted and the return key centres it on the screen
with a bold white label.
Both The Sky and Skyglobe have more to offer than can be
described here. I can thoroughly recommend both, just decide
how much you want to spend!
Keith Moseley
Head of Geology
Monmouth School
MONMOUTH
Gwent NPS 3XP
42
NEW MEMBERS
The following have recently been admitted to membership of
the Association. If any of these members lives near you. we
hope you will make contact with them.
Carlos Aramburu. Departamento de Geologia (Estratigrafia).
Universidad de Oviedo. dj Arias de Velasco. OViedo. Spain.
Mr J A H Barber. 39 Seagry Rd. London Ell 2NH.
Ms Penny Bell. Sackville School. Lewes Rd. East Grinstead.
West Sussex.
Miss Joy Bradley. The Henrietta Barnett School. Bamet. London.
Mr Dean Brockway. Department of Education. Royal Holloway
and Bedford New College. University of London.
Dr Craig Brown. Department of Education. University of Bath.
Dr Margaret Burgess. 77 Broomhill Ave. Aberdeen.
Miss Vanessa Carr. Palmer's College. Grays. Essex.
Ms Cooke. School of Education. University of Bath.
Miss Sarah Cooper. Canute House Study Centre. New Barn.
Bradford Peverell. Dorchester. Dorset.
Mr T Cramp. Hartsdown High School. Margate. Kent.
Mr Clive Daniels, The Streedy School. Streetly. Walsall.
Ms Lesley Dunl0r.' North East Surrey College of Technology.
Reigate Rd. Ewel. Surrey.
Mrs S V Fairclough. Department of Education. University of
Wolverhampton.
Mr Shane Farrell. Prescot High School. Knowsley Park Lane.
Prescot, Merseyside.
'
Mrs Jane Filby. Belle Vue Girls School. Bradford. W. Yorks.
Mr M Groombridge. Pool Hayes Community School. Castle
Drive. Willenhall. Walsall.
Mr Mike Halpin. Department of Education. University of Keele.
Staffs.
Mr Roy Halpin. Department of Education. Keele University.
Mr Paul Hammond. Queensbury School. Dunstable. Beds. LU6
3BU.
Dr Mark Hayward. Queen Mary's Sixth Form College,
Basingstoke.
Mrs Sally Hayward. LSU College of Higher Education. Southampton.
Mrs Pauline Howlden. Sydney Smith School. First Lane, Anlaby.
N. Humberside.
Miss J B Irving. Department of Education. University of Bath.
Mrs W M Jay. King's College. London.
Mr R Jenkins. Department of Education. University of Bath
Mr C A Jeffrey. Department of Geology. The University of
Leicester.
Mr KJohnson. Bradford C.T.C.• Ripley St, Bradford. W. Yorks.
Mr David J. Johnstone. School of Education. University of Bath.
Mr Kelsall, 7 Mardale Crescent. Lymn, Cheshire.
Mr HE Lock. Hitchinbrooke School. Huntingdon. Cambs.
Mrs Judy Machin. Crumley House Convent School. Isleworth.
Middlesex.
Ms Helen Manfield. Bedgebury School. Gondhurst, Kent.
Mrs R Marsh. 14 Howden Close. Dorton, Barnsley. S. Yorks.
Mr Peter Northfield, St Peter's School. Clifton. York.
Dr John Oversby, Dept. of Science and Technology Education.
University of Reading.
Dr Mary Page. Bournville School. Birmingham.
Mr Gary Park. 29 First St, Blackhall. Cleveland.
Ms J Pattison. Dept. of Education, Liverpool College of Higher
Education. Liverpool.
Miss Rachel Rees-Jones, Bath UniverSity.
Miss N S Roope. Department of Education. University of Bath.
Mr T. G. Sayle. St Ninian's High School. Douglas. Isle of Man.
Mr Shaun Smith. Department of Education. Keele UniverSity.
Mr A Tillotson, Department of Education. University of Bath.
Miss MeilingTsang. Queen Elizabeth Boys School. Queens Rd.
High Barnet. Herts.
Mr lan Turley. High Arcal School. Sedgeley. Dudley.
Mr Andrew Wands. Strathallan School. Forgandenny. Perth.
Mr J M Warner. Geology Department. Broadoak School.
Broadoak Rd. Weston-super-Mare.
Mr H J Webber. St Luke's High School. Ringswell Ave. Exeter.
Devon.
Mr A Whatson. Department of Education. Liverpool Institute
of Higher Education. Liverpool.
Mr A Wood. Cheadle High School. Station Rd. Cheadle.
Stoke-on-Trent.
Miss Katharine Wright. Liverpool Institute of Higher Education.
Primary Pages
Have you noticed anything different about the centre
pages of this journal?
Yes. that's right - Teaching Primary Earth Sdence - a brand
new section especially for Primary Teachers. As this is
the first issue we would like to circulate it to as many
primary schools as possible. and we would be grateful for
help from all ESTA members.
How you can help:
I. Unfasten the centre pages (A3 sized sheet).
2. Photocopy (double side A3) several times.
3. Distribute to your local primary schools.
Further issues will appear in ESTA journals each on a
particular topic - so any ideas. comments etc. will be
gratefully received.
Enquiries, comments to:
Sue Pryor, Primary Working Group Convenor,
TECHNIQUEST, 72 Bute St, CARDIFF CF I 6AA.
Tel. 0222-460211.
43
TIPS AND TECHNIQUES
compiled by Frank Henderson
A mobile mini-museum
How often have you been with a group looking for fossils on a
site with pupils or students who are unsure as to exactly what
they might expect to find? Do you help things along by
bringing a few examples previously collected, in true "Blue
Peter" style? Do you stuff them in a pocket and hope to fish
them out when the time arrives? Well, why not consider this
idea. A really strong shockproof display unit for mounted
specimens can be easily knocked up from the transparent
plastic containers that supermarkets use for small quantities of
fruit. Specimens can be attached to expanded polystyrene
from the same source using bluetack, and the container can be
carried around in a rucksack together with hammers, lumps of
rock, etc. and will survive rough usage.
Anton Kearsley
Oxford Brookes University
Handling sand grains
A valuable class exercise, since it requires minimal equipment,
is estimating the roundness of two contrasting samples of sand
grains, using a visual roundness estimation chart, such as that
of Powers. The differences between the two can then be
tested for significance, using the Chi-squared test, and the
results discussed. Details of this exercise, complete with
model data collection grids etc., can be found in Lindholm
(1987: A Practical Approach to Sedimentology. Alien & Unwin,
London).
A practical difficulty, however, arises from trying to count sand
grains under the binocular microscope. and trying to retain
some control over them. A very simple method of doing this
is as follows:
An overlay kit for geological map demonstration
During a classroom session on solving geological maps teachers find it difficult to reproduce the given exercise on the
blackboard for a meaningful demonstration. The technique
suggested here is simple, inexpensive, and learner oriented.
Materials and Methods
I. Show problem map to students. traced on an overhead
projector sheet.
2. Draw the first strike line, on a second overlay sheet, by
joining eqUivalent stratum contour values.
3. Complete the other strike lines and index them on a third
sheet.
4. Construct outcrop lines on a fourth sheet.
If the traced copies are placed one over the other ensuring the
coincidence of the boundary lines the complete picture emerges.
This can be used during a micro level teaching, as such. Or it
can also be shown by overhead projector for a large gathering.
Conclusion
The use of this simple teaching aid will make the job easy for
the teacher. It will also create enthusiasm among students.
Acknowledgements
I. Draw, on the normal surface of a white sticky address
label, a squared grid in dark ink (the grid squares should be
fairly small, e.g. 5x5mm).
The author wishes to thank Prof. C. Pakkiam, Principal, V. O.
C. College, T uticorin, for his encouragement to develop educational aids, and Prof. S. Sathyamoorthy of National College.
Thiruchirappali, for his criticism of an earlier draft.
2. Scatter some sand grains as evenly as possible over the
bottom of a petri dish, or similar.
v. Radhakrishnan
3. Press the sticky side of the label down onto the scattered
sand grains.
V. O. Chidambaram College
Tuticorin
Tamll Nadu 628 008
India
4. Lift, and place under the microscope, sticky side up (the
grid will show through from the other side).
5. Grains can then be counted, grid square by grid square. It
is much easier to keep count, since each square is small,
and there is no problem with grains rolling off and getting
counted twice. To avoid confusion, grains lying on grid
lines should be ignored. A single stiCky label will easily
accomodate the 200 or so grains necessary to complete
this exercise.
Robin Stephenson
Norfolk College of Arts and Technology
KING'S LYNN
Norfolk
44
Key Stage 3
Science of the Earth 11-104 Units have been devised to introduce
Earth Science to pupils at Key Stage 3 level as part of their National
Curriculum studies in Science.
EARTH
SCIENCE
Each Unit occupies about one double period of teaching time and the
Units are sold as 3-Unit packs. Units that are available now are:GW:
Groundwork - Introducinl Earth Science
GWI - Found In the Ground
GW2 - Be a Mineral Expert
GW3 - Be a Rock Detective
LP:
Ufe from the Past - Introduci"l Fossils
LP I - Remains to be seen
LP2 - A well-preserved specimen
LP3 - A fate worse than death - fossilization!
ME:
Moulding Earth's Surface - Weathering, Erosion and
Transportation
ME I - Breaking up rocks
ME2 - Rain, rain and rain again
ME3 - Landshaplng
PP:
Power from the past: coal {a full colour poster is available
with this Unit for a p & P charge of £ 1.15 (Inc. VAT) please
indicate if you do not require this.
pp I - Coal swamp
PP2 - Layers and seams
PP3 - 'Unspoiling' the countryside
He:
Hidden changes In the Earth: Introduction to metamorphism
HC I - Overheated
HC2 - Under Pressure
HC) - Under Heat and Pressure
M:
SR:
BM:
TEACHERS'
ASSOCIATION
Key Stage 4
Science of the Earth Units are designed to introduce
Earth sciences to all in the upper secondary school and as
such fill a void in present publishing. The Units cover material
in Science in the National Curriculum, mainly Attainment
Targets 5 and 9. A detailed list of Units and AT's is available.
The following are available only as 5-unlt, bound sets.
Unit I;
Unit 2:
Unit 3:
Unit 4:
Will my gravenone last!
Earthquakes - danger beneath our feet
Fluorspar - is it worth mining!
Building sedimentary structures - in the lab and
millions of years ago
. Waste - and the hole-in-the-ground problem
Magma - Introduci"llgneous processes
M I - Lava In the lab,
M2 - Lava landscapes
M) - Crystallising magma
Unit 5:
Secondhand rocks: Introduci"l sedimentary processes
SRI - In the stream
SR2 - Blowing hot and cold
SR3 - Sediment to rock, rock to sediment
Unit
Unit
Unit
Unit
Unit
8:
10:
Nuclear Waste - The way forward!
Neighbourhood stone watch
MOVing ground
Ground water supplies: A modem Jack & JiII story
Astrogeology - and the clues on the Moon
Unit
Unit
Unit
Unit
Unit
11:
12:
13:
14:
15:
The Water Cycle
Which roadstone!
The geological time scale
Temperatures and pressures in the earth
Rock Power! - Geothermal energy resources
Bulk constructional minerals
BM I - What is our town made of!
BM2 - From source to site
BM3 - Dig it - or not!
FW:
Steps towards the rock face - Introduclnl fieldwork
FW I - thinking it through
FW2 - Rocks from the big screen
FW) - Rock trail
.
ES:
Earth's surface features
ES I - Patterns on the Earth
ES2 - Is the Earth cracking up!
ES3 - Earth's moving surface
E:
Power source: 011 and ener'l}'
El - Crisis in Kiama - which energy source now!
E2 - Black COld - oil from the depths
E) - Trap - oil and gas caught underground
WG:
Water overcround and undercround
WG I - Oasis on a desert island-the permeability problem
WG2 - Out of sight, out of mind! - waste disposal and ground
water pollution
WG3 - The dam that failed
6:
7:
9:
Unit 16:
Unit 17:
Unit 18:
Unit 19:
Unit 20:
The Earth's patchwork crust - an
introduction to plate tectonics
Cool It! liquid magma to solid rock
Salts of the Earth
The day the Earth erupted - volcanoes
S.O.S. - Save our sites: Earth Science Conservation in Action
I£ I 0.50 per set (post free) I
Please Note: New prices with Immediate effect. We hope to
for at least 12 months.
be able to ha/d these prices
I£3.25 each (post free) I
Please note - to claim ESTA member' prices on the above items, you must enclose a copy of this
advertisement or an ESTA order form, or simply mention your ESTA membership.
ORDERS TO: G,'O SUppll'''' Ltd. 16 St.ltl()11 Ro.ld, Ch,lp,·ltown, 5hdfi,·ld 530 olXH T. I (0742) ol~~746
• Off,u.11 ord"r~ will bp 1r1V1lIe,·d .• Ch"qlH' .Hld po~t.11 ordl'r~ ~hould b" m,ld .. p,IY,lbl,· tCl G,·o 5uppllt,~ Ltd.
Earth Sci.e nce Teachers'
Association
N.B. All items are posted free of charge.
GRAIN SIZE SCALE
,
Plastic cards specially printed for ESTA (6 x 9 cm credit card size).
They show grains from coarse sand do'!"n to silt.
30p each
20p each for 20 to 99 copies
I00 copies or more £ 15
1000 copies £100
FILM STRIPS
(These are available as unmounted strips)
I ; METAMORPHIC ROCKS by Con Gttten
24 frames, showing metamorphic terrains, rocks and photomicrographs
·of metamorphic rocks and minerals. £4.50 per unmounted strip
2. GEOLOGY FROM SPACE (PLATE TECTONICS)
12 frames of satellite imagery from NASA and USGS showing aspects of
plate tectonics as viewed from space. The notes that accompany the
strip were written by Steve Flitton and include annotated sketches of
the frames which are copyright free for class use. £3.50 per unmounted
strip.
187
Fine Sand
B.
LET'S LOOK AT CHINA CLAY, published by MIMCU.
Masses of information, could be used from Primary to A-level. The pack
consists of 42 worksheets, a pupil resource book and a teacher's guide,
£5.00.
4.
LET'S LOOK AT SAND, published by MIMCU.
Masses of infonnation could be used from primaty to A levell
A companion to "Let's look at China Clay". It consists of
65 worksheets, a pupil resource book and a teaCher's guide. £5.00.
5.
6.
750
0.5
1111000
0
Coarse Sand
1 500
2000 JJm
-1
phi
V. Co~rse
IGranules
EARTH SCIENCE EDUCATION FORUM DIRECTORY
A directory for school teachers 'implementing the Earth Science
component of the National Curriculum. Published jOintly by the
Geographical Association and the Geological Society.
Regular price £7.50. ESTA members price £5.00
GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE OF GREAT BRITAIN '.
published by the Geological Society of London
The chart consists of a full colour tectonic map of Britain
and the surrounding seas and twenty small block diagrams
shOWing the detailed structure of speCific areas. (Size
approx. 106 x 87 cm).
£3.50 for folded chart
2.
GEOTHERMAL MAP OF THE UNITED KINGDOM
published by BGS
Useful for Unit 15 - Rock Power
This coloured chart consists of a map (scale I: 1,500,000)
showing the geothermal potential of the UK along with
annotations describing the major sites and projects. Size
approx. 80 x 80 cm.
£4.00 per folded map
3.
THE FLOOR OF THE OCEAN published by Marle
Tharp
Useful for Unit 16 - Earth's patchwork crust and forthCOming I 114 Unit - Earth's surface features.
Specially imported by ESTA from the USA. Printed on
laminated paper, a superb map showing the relief featues of
the ocean floor in graphic detail.
. £ 11.00 per rolled map.
4.
LE PUYS VOLCANOES (AUVERGNE)
Published by the French Bureau of Geology and Mines and
the Auvergne Volcanoes Regional Park.
I. SAFETY IN EARTH SCIENCE FIELDWORK
Guideline notes on fieldwork leadership. Recommendations of the
ESTA Fieldwork Committee, £1.00.
3.
Medium Sand
1
I.
BOOKLETS & WORKSHEETS
DOWN TO EARTH IN THE PRIMARY SCHOOL
Some ideas to assist in the delivery of the Earth Science component of
the National Curriculum. A selection of recent Items published in
"Teaching Earth Sciences", D .25.
I
500
MAPS AND WALLCHARTS
I. GEOLOGY OF THE LAKE DISTRICT
(21 x 16cm) 40p each, 10 or more 30p each.
2.
375
7. EXPLORING EARTH SCIENCE: Earth Science Activities for
Key Stages I & 2. Price £ 15 .00.
POSTCARDS
2. THE FLOOR OF THE OCEANS
(14 x 9cm) miniature version of wall map. 20p each, 10 or more 15p
each.
250
2
DOWN TO EARTH : Earth Science and the National Curriculum KSI
An easy to use h.mdbook aimed at KS I. It highlights the Earth Science
components of the National Curriculum and shows how they .can be
integrated into topic themes for infants. £9.00
HOW THE EARTH WORKS: Earth Science at the National
Curriculum KS3. Designed to help the busy science teacher, with no
special expertise, deliver the Earth Science component of the National
.
Curriculum. £ 1250
f
Use~,1I
for I 1- 14 unit - Magma.
A plastic wallet includes the folded geological map of the
region at I: 25,000 scale, plus I 12 page illustrated guidebook
detailng the structure of each volcano. (In French, but most
big words are geological). An accompanying sheet of 16
postcards has been cut into 4-A4 sized sheets for easier
mailing.
£13.00 per folde.d map pack
ORDERS TO: Colin Ross, 4 Wyvern Gardens, Dore, Sheffield S 17 3PR .
• 0((1(1.11 otd.·" will b. Il1volu·d . • Cllt·qu.·, .ll1d p,,,Lti otd,·"
,hould b. nl.lck p.ly.lbl. to ESTA PrOI)1otll'I1"

TES 18.1 - Earth Science Teachers` Association

Transcrição

Documentos relacionados

Instituto do Petróleo e Geologia – Instituto Público - IPG Timor

White, Israel C.

Foraco fact sheet

–Concluída a perfuração do poço SPS

Tomás Fonseca Cosendey - Spe Uff

tFzÊt - Jardim Equipamentos

THE INFLUENCE OF GEOLOGY ON BATTLEFIELD TERRAIN AND

Instituto do Petróleo e Geologia – Instituto Público - IPG Timor

“Ocean Ambassador” e “Ocean Lexington” OGX PETRÓLEO E

combiloop - Müller Hydraulik

Francis Parker Shepard, 1897