Isaac Newton - No

Transcrição

Isaac Newton - No

c by Stochastikon GmbH (http: // encyclopedia. stochastikon. com )
Copyright °
1
Biography of Isaac Newton
Dates of Birth and Death:
(∗) 25 December 1642 (according to the old calendar) / 4. January 1643 in
Woolthorpe-by-Colsterworth, England
(†) 20 March 1727 (according to the old calendar) / 31 March 1727 in Kensington, England
Family Data:
Newton’s father Isaac Newton was a wealthy, but an illiterate farmer who
died shortly before his son was born. His mother Hannah Ayscough married
the minister Barnabas Smith in 1646. Isaac therefore stayed with his grandmother Margery Ayscough. After his stepfather’s death in 1653 he lived
together with his mother, grandmother, half-brother and two half-sisters.
The death of his mother caused him a nervous breakdown.
As from 1696, Newton lived as a wealthy man in London in a house with
his own observatory. From 1697 or from 1707 onwards his niece Catherine
Barton managed his household. Newton never married, but he is said to have
been engaged at the age of 19. He had to suffer an asperger-syndrom, and at
his later age, he suffered of cystolith. In 1727, he was buried in Westminster
Abbey.
Education:
As from 1653, Newton attended Free Grammar School in Grantham. At his
17, his mother took him away from school, because she wanted him to administer her estate, but his uncle saw to it that he could complete his schooling
in 1661. In 1661, Newton was educated at Trinity College in Cambridge,
where also his uncle did his studies. He wanted to get himself specialized
in law, but was more interested in the ideas of René Descartes (1596-150),
Pierre Gassendi (1592-1655), Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) and Robert Boyle
(1627-1691), Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) and Galileo Galilei (1564-1642).
He learnt mathematics by himself. In April 1665, he was awarded with the
Bachelor, but in the same year the University was closed because of the
deadly Plague. Isaac therefore worked at home for two years, dealing with
mathematics, optics, physics, and astronomy. During this time, he developed his discoveries laying the foundations of the differential calculus and
infinitesimal calculus, for the procedure of approximation, and for the new
theories of optics and for the law of gravity.
Copyright °
2
The scholastic school was at that time still valid, but Newton was influenced
by Descartes’ mechanistic system, by Gassendi’s atomistic ideas and the
theologian Henry More’s (1614-1687) Platonic-Hermetical ideas.
Professional Career:
In 1667, Newton became a Fellow of Trinity College in Cambridge and Master
of Arts. In 1669, Newton became successor of his professor Isaac Barrow
(1630-1677) on the Lucasian Chair in Cambridge for Mathematics. During
1670-1672, he taught optics and built a reflector telescope on his own.
Because Newton could not stand the critics of other people, he retired and
concentrated in the study of the Bible from 1673 onwards. He became convinced that the doctrine about the Holy Trinity was heresy. In 1675, he
got the dispensation from the duty of ordination. A conflict with English
Jesuits in Liège in 1678 and his mother’s death in 1679 caused a nervous
breakdown. Till 1684, he lived secludedly. During this time, he wrote “De
Motu Corporum”, which brought him the international recognition. Newton
was in permanent conflict with Robert Hooke (1635-1703), who was leading
in the Royal Society and who accused Newton of plagiarism.
Newton also protested, when in 1687 King James II wanted to change the
University of Cambridge into a Catholic University.
In 1689, Newton started a correspondence with John Locke (1632-1704)
about Theology and a friendship with the Swiss mathematician Nicolas Fatio
de Duillier (1664-1753). When this friendship ended in 1693, he had another
nervous breakdown; afterwards he discontinued his research.
In 1696, the treasurer, his university friend and patron Charles Montague,
Earl of Halifax (1661-1715), gave Newton the office of the Warden of the
Royal Mint, where Newton organized the necessary newly refined mint. In
1699, he became the “Master” there, which definitively stopped his scientific
career, because he felt obliged to work hard. In 1701, he retired from his
chair in Cambridge.
Newton’s relations to other scientists were always troublesome, as to Robert
Hooke (1635-1703), Christiaan Huygens (1629-1695) and Robert Flamsteed
(1646-1719). With Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1746) he had a long
lasting quarrel for the discovery of the infinitesimal calculus, which Leibniz
had found independently of Newton.
Newton became predominantly important in three subjects: the infinitesimal
calculus, the theory optics and the law of gravity.
Copyright °
3
Important Publications:
• Isaaci Newtonii, equitis aurati, Opuscula mathematica, philosophica, et
philologica, 3 vols. (Lausanne, Genève 1744; electr. resource Firenze
2006).
• Opera quae exstant omnia, 5 vols. (London 1779-1785; Fac. StuttgartBad Cannstatt 1964; electr. resource Firenze 2006).
• D.T. Whiteside (ed.), The mathematical papers of Isaac Newton, 16641722, 8 vols. (Cambridge 1967-1981), also in digitalized form 2008.
• The mathematical works, 2 vols. (London, New York 1964).
• H.W. Turnbull et al. (eds.), The correspondence of Isaac Newton, 7
vols. (Cambridge 1959-1977).
• Ierome Bernard Cohen (ed.), Papers & letters on natural philosophy:
and related documents (Cambridge, Mass., 1958, 1978).
• Sir Isaac Newton’s Tables: for renewing and purchasing the leases of
cathedral-churches and colleges, according to the several rates of interest
(Cambridge 1686; London 1735, 1742; electr. resource Farmington
Hills, Mich. 2004, 2006).
• Philosophiae naturalis principia mathematica (London 1687; Cambridge
1713; London 1726; Amsterdam 1713, 1714, 1723; Genf 1739-1742; London 1959, Cambridge 1972), some editions in 2 vols., English: Mathematical Principles of natural philosophy, 2 vols. (London 1729, Faksimile repr. 1968, 1969), also: The principia: mathematical principles of
natural philosophy (Berkeley 1934, Berkeley 1999, Norwalk 1992, 2000),
other translation: The Principia: Mathematical principles of natural
philosophy (Berkeley, Los Angeles, London 1999), German: Mathematische Prinzipien der Naturlehre (Darmstadt 1963), also: Mathematische Grundlagen der Naturphilosophie (Hamburg 1988; Sankt Augustin
2007), also: Die mathematischen Prinzipien der Physik (Berlin 1999),
French: Principes mathématiques de la philosophie naturelle, trad. de
la Marquise de Chastellet (Paris 1756; Paris 1985), Spanish: Principios
matemáticos de la filosofia natural (Madrid 1982, 1987, 1998).
• The preliminary manuscripts for Isaac Newton’s 1687 Principia 16841686 (Cambridge 1989), s.a. The preliminary manuscripts for Isaac
Newton’s 1687 principia: 1684-1685 (Cambridge 1989).
Copyright °
4
• De mundi systemate liber (London 1728, 1731, 1782; electr. resource
Farmington Hills 2004), English: A treatise on the System of the World
(London 1728, 1731; London 1969; Mineola, NY 2004), Spanish: El
sistema del mundo (Madrid 1984) (often as vol. 2 of: Sir Isaac Newtons
Mathematical principles on natural philosophy and his system of the
world (1729)).
• Opticks or Treatise on the reflections, refractions, inflections and colours
of light (London 1704; 1718; 1721; 1730; London 1931; New York 1952;
Bruxelles 1966; New York 1979, 2000; electr. resource Farmington Hills
2004), Latin: Optice: sive de reflexionibus, refractionibus, inflexionibus
et coloribus lucis libri tres (London 1706, 1719, 1721; Ingolstadt 1726;
Lausanne, Genf 1740), French: Traité d’Optique sur les réflexions de
la lumière (Amsterdam 1720, Paris 1722), German: Optik oder Abhandlung über Spiegelungen, Brechungen, Beugungen und Farben des
Lichts, 3 vols. (Leipzig 1898; Braunschweig 1983; Frankfurt 1998); s.a.:
Lectiones Opticae, Annis MDCLXIX, MDCLXX, MDCLXXI (London
1729; electr. resource Firenze 2006), englisch: The Cambridge lectures
on optics, 1670-1672; the unpublished first version (Cambridge 1973).
• Methodus differentialis (1711; London 1779), German: “Differentialmethode”, in: Vier grundlegende Abhandlungen über Interpolation und
genäherte Quadratur (1711, 1722, 1814, 1826)... (Leipzig 1917).
• The Chronology of Ancient Kingdoms Amended (London 1728; electr.
resource Farmington Hills 2004), French: La chronologie des anciens
royaumes corrigée (Paris 1728; electr. resource Firenze 2006), bzw.
Abregé de la chronologie des anciens royaumes (Genf 1743), German:
Kurtzer Auszug aus des weltberühmten Isaac Newtons Chronologie derer
alten Königreiche... (Meiningen 1741; Hildburghausen 1745), italienisch:
La cronologia degli antichi regno emendata (Venezia 1757; electr. resource Firenze 2006).
• Analysis per quantitatum series, fluxiones, ac differentias (London 1711),
English: A treatise of the method of fluxions (London 1736, 1737; elektr.
Ressource Farmington Hills 2004), French: La méthode des fluxions et
des suites infinies (Paris 1740; 1966).
• Arithmetica Universalis, sive de compositione et resolutione arithmetica
liber (Cambridge 1707; Amsterdam 1707; Leiden 1732; Mailand 1752;
Amsterdam 1761; London 1769; London 1779; Leiden 1792), English:
Universal Arithmetick, Or a Treatise of Arithmetical Composition and
Copyright °
5
Resolution (Cambridge 1707; London 1720, 1722, 1728, 1769), French:
Arithmétique universelle, 2 vols. (Paris 1802).
• Construction d’un telescope par reflexion (Paris 1738; Amsterdam 1741,
1756).
• Two treatises of the quadrature of curves (London 1745; electr. resource
Farmington Hills 2004).
• Observations Upon the Prophecies of Daniel and the Apocalypse of St.
John (London 1733, 1922; Zürich 1985, 1988; Cave Junction 1991;
Lewiston, N.Y. 1999; electr. resource Firenze 2006), German: Beobachtungen zu den Weissagungen des Propheten Daniels (Leipzig 1765).
• De gravitatione et aequipondio fluidorum (Frankfurt 1988), English: On
Sir Isaac Newton’s first solution of the problem for finding the relations
between resistance and gravity that a body may be made to describe a
given curve (Dublin 1811), Italian: Principii di filosofia naturale teoria della gravitazione (Roma 1925), French: De la gravitation: ou les
fondements de la mécanique classique (Paris 1985), German: Über die
Gravitation (Frankfurt 1988).
• Certain philosophical questions: Newton’s Trinity Notebook (Cambridge
1983).
• Isaac Newton’s ’Theory of the moon’s motion’ (1702) (Folkstone, Kent
1975; 2000; electr. resource Farmington Hills 2004).
• Horst-Heino v. Borzeszkowski, Renate Wahsner (eds., übers.), Newton und Voltaire: zur Begründung und Interpretation der klassischen
Mechanik (Berlin 1980).
• The preliminary manuscripts for Isaac Newton’s Principia: 1684-1685
(Cambridge 1989).
• Philosophical writings (Cambridge 2004, 2005).
• Newton’s philosophy of nature: selections from his writings (Mineola,
NY 2005).
• Abhandlung über die Quadratur der Kurven (1704) (Leipzig 1908),
printed with: Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, Über die Analysis des Unendlichen: (1684-1703) (Frankfurt 2007).
Copyright °
6
Scientific Honors:
In 1672 Newton became Fellow of the Royal Academy.
In 1699 Académie des Sciences in Paris made him corresponding member.
In 1703 he became president of the Royal Society.
Newton was knighted by Queen Anne in 1705.
References and Literature:
• Charles Coulston Gillespie (ed.), Dictionary of scientific biography, vol. X
(New York 1974) pp. 42-103.
• Peter Ackroyd, Isaac Newton (London 2006).
• Peter R. Anstey, “The methodological origins of Newton’s queries”, em
Studies in history and philosophy of science 35 (2004) pp. 247-269.
• Robyn Arianrhod, Einstein’s heroes: imagining the world through the language of mathematics (Cambridge 2004).
• Jean-Paul Auffray, Newton ou le triomphe de l’alchimie (Paris 2000).
• Peter Aughton, Newton’s apple: Isaac Newton and the English scientific
renaissance (London 2003).
• Donald D. Ault, Visionary physics: Blake’s response to Newton (Chicago
1974).
• Abdelkader Bachta, L’espace et le temps chez Newton et chez Kant: essai
d’explication de l’idéalisme kantien à partir de Newton (Paris 2002).
• Walter William Rouse Ball, An essay on Newton’s principia (London 1893;
New York 1972).
• W.W.R. Ball, A Short Account of the History of Mathematics (New York
2001) pp. 319-352.
• Jason Socrates Bardi, The calculus wars: Newton, Leibniz and greatest
mathematical clash of all time (New York 2007).
• Georges Barthélémy, Newton mécanicien du cosmos (Paris 1992).
• Alain Bauer, Isaac Newton’s freemansonry: the alchemy of science and
mysticism (Rochester Vt 2007).
• Zev Bechler, Contemporary Newtonian research (Dordrecht 1982).
• Michael Ben-Chaim, “The discobvery of natural goods: Newton’s vocation as an “experimental””, The British journal for the history of science 34
(2001) pp. 395-416.
• David Berlinski, Newton’s gift: how Sir Isaac Newton unlocked the system
of the world (New York 2000), deutsch: Der Apfel der Erkenntnis: Sir Isaac
Newton und die Entschlüsselung des Universums (Hamburg 2002).
• Meli D. Bertolini, Equivalence and priority: Newton versus Leibniz (Oxford
1993).
Copyright °
7
• Volker Bialas, “Newtons religiöse Begründung des mechanistischen Weltorganismus”, Von den Planetentheorien zur Himmelsmechanik (Linz 2004) pp.
17-27.
• Marie-Françoise Biarnais, Les Principia de Newton: genèse et structure des
chapitres fondamentaux avec traduction nouvelle (Paris 1982).
• Michel Blay, La conceptualisation newtonienne des phénomènes de la couleur
(Paris 1983).
• Michel Blay, Les “Principia” de Newton (Paris 1995).
• Horst-Heino v. Borzeszkowski, Renate Wahsner, Voltaire’s Newtonianism:
a bridge from English empiricism to Cartesian rationalism and its implications for the concept of mechanics in German idealism (Berlin 2000).
• Valentin Boss, Newton and Russia: the early influence, 1698-1796 (Cambridge 1972).
• Pierre J. Boulos, “Newton’s path to the universal gravitation: the role of
the pendulum”, Science & education 15 (2006) pp. 577-595.
• Bruce J. Brackenridge, “Newton’s mature dynamics revolutionary or reactionary?”, Annals of Science 45 (1988) pp. 451-476.
• J. Bruce Brackenridge, “Newton’s unpublished dynamical principles: a
study in simplicity”, Annals of Science 47 (1990) pp. 3-31.
• B.J. Brackenridge, The key to Newton’s dynamics (Berkeley, Los Angeles,
London 1995).
• B.J. Brackenridge, “Newton’s easy quadratures ’omitted for the sake of
brevity”’, Archive for History of Exact Sciences 57 (2003) pp. 313-336.
• David Brewster, Memoirs of the life, writings, and discoveries of Sir Isaac
Newton (Edinburgh 1855; New York, s.a.).
• Richard S. Brooks, The relationship between natural philosophy, natural
theology and revealed religion in the thought of Newton and their historiographic relevance (Evanston, Diss. 1976).
• Wolfgang Buchheim, Der Farbenlehrestreit Geothes mit Newton in wissenschaftsgeschichtlicher Sicht (Berlin 1991).
• J.Z. Buchwald, I.B. Cohen (eds.), Isaac Newton’s Natural Philosophy (Cambridge 2004).
• John Garrett Burke, The uses of science in the age of Newton (Berkeley
1983).
• Gianfranco Cantelli (ed.), La disputa Leibniz - Newton sull’analisi (Torino
2006).
• Fabien Capeillères, Figures de l’idéal de scientificité en métaphysique (Paris
2004).
• Capucine Casati, “Newton, mathématicien ou “mathémagicien””, Découverte
316 (2004) pp. 54-71.
• P. Casini, “Newton: the classical scholia”, History of Science 22 (1984) pp.
Copyright °
8
1-58.
• Alejandro Cassini, “Newton and Leibniz on non-substantial space”, Theoria 52 (2005) pp. 25-43.
• David Castillejo, The expanding force in Newton’s cosmos as shown in his
unpublished papers (Madrid 1981).
• Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar, Newton’s Principia for a common reader
(Oxford 1995, 2003).
• Vera Clairborne Chappell, Seventeenth-century natural scientists (New
York 1992).
• Gale E. Christianson, In the presence of the creator: Isaac Newton and his
times (New York 1984).
• Gale E. Christianson, Isaac Newton (Oxford 2005).
• David H. Clark, Stephen P.H. Clark, Newton’s tyranny: the suppressed scientific discoveries of Stephen Gray and John Flamsteed (New York 2000).
• I. Bernard Cohen, Introduction to Newton’s Principia (Cambridge 1971).
• Isaäc Bernard Cohen, The Newtonian Revolution (Cambridge 1980).
• I. Bernard Cohen, “A guide to Newton’s Principia”, in: Newton, Principia
(1999) pp. 1-370.
• I. Bernard Cohen, G.E. Smith, Isaac Newton’s natural philosophy (Cambridge 2001), darin: G.E. Smith, “The Newtonian style in Book II of the
Principia”, pp. 249-298; C. Wilson, “Newton on the Moon’s variation and
apsidal motion: the need for a newer ’new analysis”’, pp. 139-188.
• I.B. Cohen, G.E. Smith (eds.), The Cambridge companion to Newton (Cambridge 2002; elektr. Ressource).
• I. Bernard Cohen, “Newton’s concept of force and mass, with notes on the
laws of motion”, in: I.B. Cohen, G.E. Smith (eds.), The Cambridge companion to Newton (Cambridge 2002) pp. 57-84.
• Thomas George Cowlings, Isaac Newton and astrology (Leeds 1977).
• Ed Dellian, Die Rehabilitierung des Galileo Galilei: oder Kritik der Kantschen
Vernunft (Sankt Augustin 2007).
• D. Densmore, Newton’s Principia, the central argument: translation, notes,
and expanded proofs (Santa Fe 1995).
• R. DiSalle, “Newton’s philosophical analysis of space and time”, in: I.B.
Cohen, G.E. Smith, The Cambridge companion to Newton (Cambridge 2002)
pp. 33-56.
• Di Sieno, M. Galuzzi, “La quinta sezione del primo libro dei Principia:
Newton e il ’Problema di Pappo”’, Archives Internationales d’Histoire des
Sciences 39 (1989) pp. 51-68.
• Betty J. Dobbs, The foundations of Newton’s alchemy: or, “The hunting
of the greene lyon” (Cambridge 1975).
• Betty J. Dobbs, Newton and the culture of Newtonianism (Atlantic High-
Copyright °
9
lands, NJ 1995).
• Betty J. Dobbs, The Janus faces of genius: the role of alchemy in Newton’s
thought (Cambridge 1998).
• Michael J. Duck, “Newton and Goethe on colour: physical and physiological considerations”, Annals of science 45 (1988) pp. 507-519.
• Fokko Jan Dijksterhuism “Reading up on the ’Opticks’: refashioning Newton’s theories of light and colors in eighteenth-century textbooks”, Perspectives on science 16 (2008) pp. 309-327.
• Steffen Ducheyne, “Newton’s training in the Aristotelian textbook tradition: from effects to causes and back”, History of science 43 (2005), bzw.
141 (2005) pp. 217-237.
• Sven Dupré, “Newton’s telescope in print: the role of images in the reception of Newton’s instrument”, Perspectives on science 16 (2008) pp. 328-359.
• Frank Durham, Some truer method: reflections on the heritage of Newton
(New York 1990).
• Herman Erlichson, “Newton’s solution to the equiangular spiral problem
and a new solution using only the equiangular property”, Historia mathematica 19 (1992) pp. 402-413.
• Herman Erlichson, “Passage to the limit in Proposition I, Book I of Newton’s “Principia””, Historia mathematica 30 (2003) pp. 432-440.
• Marco Fabbrichesi, Pensare in formule: Newton, Einstein e Heisenberg
(Torino 2004).
• Patricia Fara, “Isaac Newton lived here: sites of memory and scientific heritage”, The British journal for the history of science 33 (2000) pp. 407-426.
• José Faur, “Sir Isaac Newton - “a Judaic monotheist of the school of Maimonides”, in: Moses Maimonides (1138-1204) (2004) pp. 289-310.
• John Fauvel, Let Newton be! [a new perspective on his life and work] (Oxford 1989)
• John Fauvel, Newtons Werk: die Begründung der modernen Naturwissenschaft (Basel 1993).
• Vincenzo Ferrone, Scienza, natura, religione: mondo newtoniano e cultura
italiana nel primo Settecento (Napoli 1982).
• Markus Fierz, Isaac Newton als Mathematiker (Zürich 1972).
• Karin Figala, “Die exakte Alchemie von Isaac Newton: seine “gesetzmäßige”
Interpretation der Alchemie, dargestellt am Beispiel einige ihn beeinflussender
Autoren”, Verhandlungen der Naturforschenden Gesellschaft zu Basel 94
(1984) pp- 157-227.
• Joachim O. Fleckenstein, Der Prioritätsstreit zwischen Leibniz und Newton
(Basel 1977).
• Jacques Fleuriot, A combination of geometry theorem proving and nonstandard analysis with application to Newton’s Principia (London 2001).
Copyright °
10
• James E. Force, Essays on the context, nature, and influence of Isaac Newton’s theology (Dordrecht 1990).
• James E. Force, Newton and religion: context, nature, and influence (Dordrecht 1999).
• James E. Force, Newton and Newtonianism: new studies (Dordrecht 2004).
• Duncan C. Fraser, Newton’s interpolation formulas (London 1928).
• Duncan C. Fraser, “Newton and interpolation”, in: William J. Greenstreet
(ed.), Isaac Newton, 1642-1727 (London 1927).
• Gideon Freudenthal, Atom und Individuum im Zeitalter Newtons (Frankfurt 1982, 1989).
• John Gage, “Signs of disharmony: Newton’s ’Opticks’ and the artist”, Perspectives on science 16 (2008) pp. 360-377.
• Ôfer Gal, Meanest foundations and nobler superstructures: Hooke, Newton
and the “Compoubding of the celestiall motions of the planetts” (Dodrecht
2002).
• François de Gandt, Force and geometry in Newton’s Principia (Princeton
1995).
• François de Gandt, Cirey dans la vie intellectuelle: la réception de Newton
en France (Oxford 2001).
• J. Gani, “Newton on “a Question touching ye different Odds upon upon
certain given Chances upon Dice”, Mathematical Scientist 7 (1982) pp. 6166.
• Colin Gauld, “The treatment of the motion of a simple pendulum in some
early 18th century Newtonian textbooks”, Science & education 13 (2004) pp.
321-332.
• Colin Gauld, ´´The treatment of cycloidal pendulum motion in Newton’s
Principia”, Science & education 13 (2004) pp. 663-673.
• Colin Gauld, “Newton’s cradle in physics education”, Science & education
15 (2006) pp. 597-617.
• Fritz Gelhar, “Newton und die Kosmogonie”, Beiträge zur Astronomiegeschichte
1 (1998) pp. 59-78.
• Michel Gjins, L’inertie et l’espace-temps absolu de Newton à Einstein: une
analyse philosophique (Bruxelles 1990).
• Gregory Gillette, Isaac Newton’s philosophy of sacred space and sacred
time: an essay on the history of an idea (Lewiston, NY 2007).
• Derek Gjertsen, The Newton handbook (London 1986).
• James Gleick, Isaac Newton und die Geburt des modernen Denkens (Darmstadt 2004).
• Johann Wolfgang Goethe, Farbenlehre. Band 3: Enthüllung der Theorie
Newtons (Stuttgart 1980), La théorie de Newton dévoilée (Toulouse 2006).
• Matt D. Goldish, Judaism in the theology of Sir Isaac Newton (Dordrecht
Copyright °
11
1998).
• Friedrich Graevell, Über Licht und Farben: mit besonderer Beziehung auf
die Farbenlehre Newton’s und Goethe’s (Berlin 1859).
• Friedrich Graevell, Goethe im Recht gegen Newton (Stuttgart 1922).
• John L. Greenberg, The problem of the earth’s shape from Newton to
Clairaut (Cambridge 1995).
• Henry Guerlac, Newton on the Continent (Ithaca 1981).
• Niccolò Guicciardini, Reading the Principia: the debate on Newton’s mathematical methods for natural philosophy from 16t87 to 1736 (Cambridge 1999).
• Niccolò Guicciardini, Newton - ein Naturphilosoph und das System der Welten (Heidelberg 2001).
• Niccolò Guicciardini, “Conceptualism and contextualism in the recent historiography of Newton’s “Principia””, Historia mathematica 30 (2004) pp.
407-431.
• Niccolò Guicciardini, “Isaac Newton, Philosophiae naturalis principia mathematica (1687)”, in: I. Grattan-Guiness (ed.), Landmark. Writings in Western Mathematics 1640-1940 (Amsterdam, Boston 2005) pp. 59-87.
• Alexander J. Hahn, Basic calculus: from Archimedes to Newton to its role
in science (New York 1998).
• Anders Hald, A History of Probability and Statistics and their Applications
before 1750 (New York 1998).
• A.R. Hall, Philosophers at war: the quarrel between Newton and Leibniz
(Cambridge 1980).
• Alfred Rupert Hall, Newton, his friends and his foes (Aldershot 1993).
• Alfred Rupert Hall, All was light: an introduction to Newton’s Opticks
(Oxford 1995).
• Alfred Rupert Hall, Isaac Newton: eighteenth century perspectives (Oxford
1999).
• Alfred Rupert Hall, Isaac Newton adventurer in thought (Cambridge 2000).
• David Boyd Hancock, “The long-lost truth: Sir Isaac Newton and the Newtonian pursuit of ancient knowledge”, Studies in the History and Philosophy
of Science 35 (2004) pp. 605-623.
• William Harper, “Newton’s methodology and Mercury’s perihelion before
and after Einstein”, Philosophy of science 74 (2007) pp. 932-942.
• John Robert Harrison, The library of Isaac Newton (Cambridge 1978).
• David Boyd Haycock, “The long-lost truth: Sir Isaac Newton and the
Newtonian pursuit of ancient knowledge”, Studies in history and philosophy
if science 35 (2004) pp. 605-623.
• John Lewis Heilbron, Physics at the Royal Society during Newton’s presidency (Los Angeles 1983).
• John Henry (ed.), Newtonism in the eighteenth century, vol. 6: Henry Pem-
Copyright °
12
berton, A view of Sir Isaac Newton’s philosophy (1728; repr. Bristol 2004)
vol. 7: Colin Maclaurin, An account of Sir Isaac Newton’s philosophical discoveries (1748; repr. Bristol 2004).
• J.W. Herivel, The background of Newton’s Principia: a study of Newton’s
dynamical researches in the years 1664-1684 (Oxford 1965).
• B. Hessen, Social and economic roots of Newton’s Principia (New York
1971).
• Harro Heuser, Der Physiker Gottes: Isaac Newton oder Die Revolution des
Denkens (Freiburg 2005).
• Rebekah Higgit, Rob Iliffe, Early biographies of Isaa Newton, 2 vols. (London 2006).
• Rebekah Higgit, Recreating Newton: Newtonian biography and the making
of nineteenth-century history of science (London 2007).
• Michael Hoskin, “Gravity and light in the Newtonian universe of stars”,
Journal for the History of Astronomy 39 (2008) pp. 251-264.
• Kolumban Hutter, Die Anfänge der Mechanik: Newtons Principia gedeutet
aus ihrer Zeit und ihrer Wirkung auf die Physik (Berlin 1989).
• Rob Iliffe, Early biographies of Isaac Newton: 1660-1885, 2 vols. (London
2006).
• Karl-Norbert Ihmig, Hegels Deutung der Gravitation: eine Studie zu Hegel
und Newton (Frankfurt 1989).
• Margaret C. Jacob, Larry Stewart, Practical matter: Newton’s science in
the service of industry and empire, 1687-1851 (Cambridge, Mass. 2004).
• Andrew Janiak, Newton as philosopher (New York 2008).
• Tereza Jindráková, Jaroslav Folta, “Die Rolle von Mme de Châtelet in der
Anwendung des Infinitesimalkalküls in Newtons Principia”, Von den Planetentheorien zur Himmelsmechanik (Linz 2004) pp. 155-162.
• Étienne Jollet, Les figures de la pesanteur: Newton, Frangonard et Les
hasards heureux de l’escarpolette (Nı̂mes 1998).
• Keiko Kawashimo, “Two popular accounts of Émilie du Châtelet and the
gender problem”, Historia scientiarum 2. ser. 17 ( 2007), bzw. 92 (2007)
pp. 121-133.
• Milo Keynes, The iconography of Sir Isaac Newton to 1800 (Woodbridge
2005).
• Milo Keynes, “Balancing Newton’s mind: his singular behaviour and his
madness of 1692-93”, Notes and records of the Royal Society of London 62
(2008) pp. 289-300.
• Edward J. Khamara, Space, time, and theology in the Leibniz-Newton controversy (Frankfurt 2006).
• Desmond G. King-Hele, Newton’s Principia and its legacy: proceedings of
a Royal Society discussion meeting held on 30 June 1987 (London 1988).
Copyright °
13
• N. Kollerstrom, “Thomas Simpson and ’Newton’s method of approximation’: an enduring myth”, The British Journal for the History of Science 25
(1992) pp. 347-354.
• N. Kollerstrom, “The path of Halley’s comet, and Newton’s late apprehension of the law of gravity”, Annals of Science 56 (1999) pp. 331-356.
• Peter Kroes, The dual nature of technical artefacts (Amsterdam 2006).
• Werner Kutschmann, Die Newtonsche Kraft: Metamorphose eines wissenschaftlichen Begriffs (Wiesbaden 1983).
• Véronique Le Ru, Voltaire newtonien: le combat d’un philosophe pour la
science (Paris 2005).
• Wolfgang Lefèvre, Between Leibniz, Newton, and Kant: philosophy and
science in the eighteenth century (Dordrecht 2001).
• Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, Marginalia in Newtoni Principia mathematica
(Paris 1973).
• Aaron Bunsen Lerner, Einstein and Newton. A comparison of the two
greatest scientists (Minneapolis 1973).
• Ayval Lashem, Newton on Mathematics and spiritual purity (Dordrecht
2003).
• Stanton J. Linden, The alchemy reader: from Hermes Trismegistos to Isaac
Newton (Cambridge 2003).
• Frank Linhard, Newtons “spirits” und der Leibnizsche Raum (Hildesheim
2008).
• Andreas Lorenz, Kant und Newton: klassische Natur- und Transzendentalphilosophie (WrocÃlaw 2003).
• Martina Lorenz, Der Anteil Christian Wolffs an der Rezeption von Grundprinzipien der Newtonschen Physik in Deutschland zu Beginn des 18. Jahrhunderts (Leipzig 1985).
• J.E. MacGuire, Certain philosophical questions: Newton’s Trinity notebook
(Cambridge 1983).
• James E,. MacGuire, Tradition and innovation: Newton’s metaphysics of
nature (Dordrecht 1995).
• Herbert MacLachlan, The religious opinions of Milton, Locke, and Newton
(Manchester 1941; Norwood 1975).
• Colin MacLaurin, An account of Sir Isaac Newton’s philosophical discoveries (London 1748; Hildesheim 1971).
• Ernan MacMullin, Newton on matter and activity (Notre Dame 1978).
• Koffi Maglo, “The reception of Newton’s gravitational theory by Huygens,
Varignon, and Maupertuis: how normal science may be revolutionary”, Perspectives on Science 11 (1993) pp. 135-169.
• Koffi Maglo, “Force, mathematics, and physics in Newton’s ’Principia’: a
new approach to enduring issues”, Science in Context 20 (2007) pp. 571-600.
Copyright °
14
• Maurizio Mamiani, Isaac Newton filosofo della natura: le lezioni giovanili
di ottica e la genesi del metodo newtoniano (Firenze 1976).
• Scott Mandelbrote, Newton and Newtonianism (Amstderdam 2004).
• Frank Edward Manuel, The religion of Isaac Newton: the Fremantle lectures 1973 (Oxford 1974).
• Frank Edward Manuel, A portrait of Isaac Newton (London 1980).
• Don Marchant, Sir Isaac Newton: 1642-1727 (1987).
• Maurice Martin, Die Kontroverse um die Farbenlehre (Schaffhausen 1979).
• Roberto de Andrade Martins, “Newton and colour: the complex interplay
of theory and experiment”, Science & education 10 (2001) pp. 287-305.
• Jean-Pierre Maury, Newton et la mécanique céleste (Paris 2005).
• J.E. McGuire, M. Rattansi, “Newton and the ’Pipes of Pan”’, Notes and
Records of the Royal Society of London 21 (1966) pp. 108-143.
• Domenico Bertoloni Meli, Equivalence and piority: Newton versus Leibniz: including Leibniz’s unpublished manuscripts on the “Principia” (Oxford
1993).
• Hélène Metzger, Newton, Stahl, Boerhaave et la doctrine chimique (Paris
1930, 1974).
• Sven Müller, Naturgemäße Ortsbewegung: Aristoteles’ Physik und ihre
Rezeption bis Newton (Tübingen 2006).
• M. Nauenberg, “Newton’s early computational method for dynamics”,
Archive for History of Exact Sciences 46 (1994) pp. 221-252.
• M. Nauenberg, “Newton’s perturbation methods for the three-body problem and their application for lunar motion”, in: J. Buchwald, I.B. Cohen
(eds.), Isaac Newton’s natural philosophy (Cambridge 2001) pp. 189-224.
• Helmut Nieke, “Die Folgen der Nichtbeachtung von Newtons Beugungsexperimenten”, Sudhoffs Archiv 85 (2001) pp. 1-17.
• Désiré Nolen, Die Lehrer Kants (Schutterwald 2005).
• Moisés Nussenzveig, Fernando L. Carneiro, Luiz P. Rosa, 300 anos dos
“Principia” de Newton (Rio de Janeiro 1989).
• Margaret J. Osler, Rethinking the scientific revolution (Cambridge 2000).
• Jesús Padilla Gálvez, “Nil Luce Obscurius! Informe sobre una polémica
olvidada”, Llull 29 (2006) pp. 121-141.
• Robert Palter, The annus mirabilis of Sir Isaac Newton: 1666-1966 (Cambridge 1970).
• Marco Panza, Newton et les origines de l’analyse: 1664-1666 (Paris 2005).
• Manolis Patiniotis, “Periphery reassessed: Eigenios Voulgaris converses
with Isaac Newton”, The British journal for the history of science 40 (2007)
pp. 471-490.
• P. Pesic, “The validity of Newton’s lemma 28”, Historia Mathematica 28
(2001) pp. 215-219.
Copyright °
15
• Michael J. Petry (ed.), Hegel and Newtonianism (Dordrecht 1993).
• Bruce Pourciau, “On Newton’s proof that inverse-square orbits must be
conics”, Annals of Science 48 (1991) pp. 159-172.
• Bruce Pourciau, “The integrability of ovals: Newton’s lemma 28 and its
counterexamples”, Archive for History of Exact Sciences 55 (2001) pp. 479499.
• Bruce Pourciau, “Newton’s argument for proposition 1 of the ’Principia”’,
Archive for History of Exact Sciences 57 (2003) pp. 267-311.
• Bruce Pourciau, “Newton’s interpretation of Newton’s second law”, Archive
for History of Exact Sciences 60 (2006) pp. 157-207.
• Bruce Pourciau, “Force, deflection, and time: Proposition VI of Newton’s
Principia”, Historia mathematica 34 (2007) pp. 140-172.
• Bruce Pourciau, “From centripetral forces to conic orbits: a path through
the early sections of Newton’s ’Principia”’, Studies in the history and philosophy of science 38 (2007) pp. 56-83.
• Helmut Pulte, Axiomatik und Empirie: eine wissenschaftstheoriegeschichtliche
Untersuchung zur mathematischen Naturphilosophie von Newton bis Neumann (Freiburg 2005).
• Ayval Ramati, “The hidden truth of creation: Newton’s method of fluxions”, The British journal for the history of science 34 (2001) pp. 417-438.
• Maria Luisa Righini Bonelli, Reason, experiment, and mysticism in the
scientific revolution (London 1975).
• Ferdinand Rosenberger, Isaac Newton und seine physikalischen Principien
(Leipzig 1895; Darmstadt 1987).
• Peter Rowlands, Newton and the concept of mass energy (Liverpool 1990).
• J.A. Ruffner, “On Newton’s propositions on comets: steps in transition,
1681-84”, Archive for History of Exact Sciences 54 (2000) pp. 259-277.
• Viktor Scharnowell, Von Newton zu Goethe (Basel 1973).
• Leonhard Schmeiser, Um Newton: zur Rekonstruktion eines diskursiven
Ereignisses (Wien 1999).
• Ivo Schneider, Isaac Newton (München 1988).
• Hartmut R. Schönherr, Einheit und Werden: Goethes Newton-Polemik als
systematische Konsequenz seiner Naturkonzeption (Würzburg 1993).
• Prosper Schroeder, La genèse de la loi de la gravitation universelle et le tentative de sa démonstration à travers le problème des trois corps et la théorie
de la Lune: de Newton à Euler et Laplace (2005).
• Werner Bernhard Sendker, Die so unterschiedlichen Theorien von Raum
und Zeit: der transzendentale Idealismus Kants im Verhältnis zur Relativitätstheorie Einsteins (Bad Iburg 1999).
• Dennis L. Sepper, Goethe contra Newton: polemics and the project for a
new science of color (Cambridge 1988).
Copyright °
16
• Dennis L. Sepper, Newton’s optical writings: a guided study (New Brunswick
1994).
• J.B. Shank, The Newton wars and the beginning of French enlightenment
(Chicago 2008).
• Alan E. Shapiro, Newtonianism: mathematical and ’experimental’ (Leiden
2004).
• Alan E. Shapiro, “Twenty-nine years in the making: Newton’s ’Opticks”’,
Perspectives of Science 16 (2008) pp. 417-438.
• O.B. Sheynin, “Newton and the classical theory of probability”, Archive
for History of Exact Sciences 7 (1971) pp. 217-243.
• D.L. Simms, “Newton’s contribution to the science of heat”, Annals of
science 61 (2004) pp. 33-77.
• S.D. Snobelen, “’God of gods and Lords of lords’: the theology of Isaac
Newton’s General Scholium to the Principia”, Osiris 16 (2001) pp. 169-208.
• Stephen David Snobelen, “William Whiston, Isaac Newton and the crisis
of publicity”, Studies in history and philosophy of science 35 (2004) pp. 573603.
• Adolph Judah Snow, Matter and gravity in Newton’s physical philosophy
(New York 1975).
• Maria Laura Soppelsa, Leibniz e Newton in Italia: il dibattito padovano:
(1687-1750) (Trieste 1989).
• Quayshawn Spencer, “Do Newton’s rules of reasoning guarantee truth ...
must they?”, Studies in History and Philosophy of Science 35 (2004) pp.
759-782.
• Philip Steele, Isaac Newton: the scientist who changed everything (Washington DC 2007).
• Friedrich Steinle, Newton’s Entwurf “Über die Gravitation” (Stuttgart 1991).
• Egbert Stieb, Die Raum-Zeit-Problematik (München 1985).
• Paul Strathern, Newton and gravity (New York 1998), deutsch: Newton &
die Schwerkraft (Frankfurt 1998).
• Walter Keith Thomas, A mind for ever voyaging: Wordsworth at work
portraying Newton and science (Edmonton 1989).
• Hans-Jürgen Treder, Isaac Newton und die Begründung der mathematischen Prinzipien der Naturphilosophie
• C. Truesdell, “A program toward rediscovering the rational mechanics of
the age of reason”, Archive for the History of Exact Sciences 1 (1960) pp.
3-36.
• Voltaire, Newton and Voltaire: hzur Begründung und Interpretation der
klassischen Mechanik (Berlin 1980).
• Fritz Wagner, Isaac Newton im Zwielicht zwischen Mythos und Forschung
(München 1974).
Copyright °
17
• Fritz Wagner, Zur Apotheose Newtons (München 1974).
• Fritz Wagner, Isaac Newton im Zwielicht zwischen Mythos und Forschung:
Studien zur Epoche der Aufklärung (Freiburg 1976).
• Renate Wahsner, Das Aktive und das Passive (Berlin 1981).
• Renate Wahsner, Prämissen physikalischer Erfahrung (Berlin 1992).
• Peter John Wallis, Newton and Newtoniana 1672-1975: a bibliography
(Kent 1977).
• A. Warwick, Masters of theory: Cambridge and the rise of modern physics
(Chicago 2003).
• Hans-Joachim Waschkies, Physik und Physiktheologie des jungen Kant: die
Vorgeschichte seiner Allgemeinen Naturgeschichte und Theorie des Himmels
(Amsterdam 1987).
• Charles K. Webster, From Paracelsus to Newton: magic and the making of
modern science (Cambridge 1982).
• Robert Weinstock, “Newton’s ’Principia’ and inverse-square orbits in a resisting medium: a spiral of twisted logic”, Historia Mathematica 25 (1998)
pp. 281-289.
• R. Weinstock, “Inverse-square orbits in Newton’s Principia and the twentiethcentury commentary thereon”, Archive for the History of Exact Sciences 55
(2000) pp. 137-162.
• Richars S. Westfall, Force in Newton’s physics: the science of dynamics in
the seventeenth century (London 1971).
• Richard Samuel Westfall, Never at rest: a biography of Isaac Newton (Cambridge 1980).
• Richard S. Westfall, Isaac Newton (Heidelberg 1996).
• Robert S. Westman, Hermetism and the scientific revolution: papers read
art a Clark Library Seminar, March 9, 1974 (Los Angeles 1977).
• D.T. Whiteside, “The mathematical principles underlying Newton’s Principia Mathematica”, Journal for the History of Astronomy 1 (1970) pp. 116138.
• D.T. Whiteside, “The prehistory of the Principia from 1664 to 1686”, Notes
and records of the Royal Society of London 45 (1991) pp. 11-61.
• Johannes Wickert, Isaac Newton: Ansichten eines universalen Geistes
(München 1983).
• Hans Wußing, Isaac Newton (Leipzig 1990).
• Brian J. Young, “Newtonianism and the enthusiasm of enlightenment”,
Studies in the history and philosophy of science 35 (2004) pp. 645-663.
• Jean Zafiropulo, Sensorium dei: dans l’hermétisme et la science (Paris
1976).
• J.J. O’Connor, E.F. Robertson, http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/ his-
Copyright °
18
tory/Mathematicians/Newton.html (30 August 2007).
• J.J. O’Connor, E.F. Robertson, http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/ history/References/Newton.html (25 March 2008).
• http://leifi.physik.uni-muenchen.de/web ph11/geschichte/02newton/ newton.htm (03 September 2007).
Author(s) of this contribution:
Claudia von Collani
Version: 1.00

Isaac Newton - No

Transcrição

Documentos relacionados

6 o arquivo

0.5 MB - relativity.li

Christmas tree ornaments

4_Live Demo - Strategien im Adeptra Portal

Katharina Moessinger

Visual Arts News October 28, 2011

Die Schwalbe fliegt

Newton`s Dog - Human Systems Dynamics Institute

Deutsch:English LongDistanceVoyager

An emperor as composer - Die Welt der Habsburger