Universität Bayreuth Rechts- und Wirtschaftswissenschaftliche

Universität Bayreuth
Rechts- und Wirtschaftswissenschaftliche Fakultät
Wirtschaftswissenschaftliche Diskussionspapiere
SPORT MEDIA CONTENT ON MOBILE DEVICES:
IDENTIFICATION AND ANALYSIS OF MOTIVATIONAL DEMAND FACTORS
Reinhard Kunz, Herbert Woratschek, James Santomier
Discussion Paper 06-11
June 2011
ISSN 1611-3837
Dipl.-Kfm. Reinhard Kunz
University of Bayreuth
Department of Services Management
D-95440 Bayreuth, Germany
Phone: +49/921/55-5022
E-Mail: [email protected]
Professor Dr. Herbert Woratschek
University of Bayreuth
Department of Services Management
D-95440 Bayreuth, Germany
Phone: +49/921/55-3497
E-Mail: [email protected]
Professor James Santomier, PhD
Sacred Heart University
Department of Marketing and Sport Management
John F. Welch College of Business
5151 Park Avenue
Fairfield/CT 06825, USA
Phone: +1/203/3717849
E-Mail: [email protected]
Abstract
SPORT MEDIA CONTENT ON MOBILE DEVICES:
IDENTIFICATION AND ANALYSIS OF MOTIVATIONAL DEMAND FACTORS
New mobile media technologies and services are an important new dimension for the
distribution and consumption of sport worldwide. Whereas mobile TV (live broadcasting and
video on demand) is already a success in some Asian and Western countries, its diffusion still
proceeds slowly. In this study consumers from Germany and the U.S.A. were compared in
order to identify their motivational factors related for using mobile TV. The role of sport
content was discussed in this context, since it has been a driver for other new media
technologies and services (Turner, 2000).
First, consumer-relevant benefits and barriers related to mobile TV use in general were
explored by using content analyses. The mobility characteristic, different media consumption
motives and specific mobile TV content were mentioned most frequently as benefits. Costs,
quality and other digital alternatives were seen as the most important barriers to mobile TV
usage. Second, based on an extensive literature review related to sport consumer
identification, sport viewing motives, mobile TV usage motives, and media-specific
innovativeness, consumer motivational demand factors were identified and analyzed. Factor
analyses revealed nine motivational factors and regression analyses were used to analyze the
influence of these factors on consumer intention to view sport on mobile devices.
In the German sample, the cognitive sport viewing motive related to live information-seeking
was the most influential factor for viewing sport on mobile TV, whereas in the U.S. sample,
the affective sport viewing motive related to entertainment-seeking and mood regulation was
the most influential factor.
Keywords: Sport media content, mobile devices, mobile TV, consumer behavior
Introduction: Sport and mobile media
Regarding new patterns of media consumption, according to recent predictions by research
firm Gartner (Walsh, 2010) mobile phones will surpass PCs as the most common device used
to access the Internet worldwide by 2013. Gartner estimates the number of smartphones and
browser-equipped enhanced phones will surpass 1.82 billion by 2013, more than the total of
1.78 billion PCs expected to be in service by that time.
One promising consequence of the economic recovery is the increased rollout of third and
fourth generation mobile networks and devices capable of live streaming and on demand
delivery of content. Mobile TV in this context refers to any type of audiovisual content – both
live broadcasts (TV) and video on demand (VOD), which is transmitted by wireless mobile
communications networks (UMTS, HSPA, LTE) or digital broadcasting networks (DMB,
DVB-H, DVB-T) and received by mobile devices. In addition to smartphones, other devices
that may be included in this category are tablet computers such as the iPad, etc., portable
music players, and portable game pads. However, for the purpose of this study, the focus was
on mobile phones (smartphones).
Sport is important content for global and local media and telecommunications companies
across all digital platforms – TV, Internet, and mobile. Currently, there is a variety of sportrelated digital content available to consumers, such as game and event statistics updates
provided by SMS or MMS, which can be received by mobile phones. Regarding sport content
that may be relevant for mobile TV, live coverage as well as before and after-event reporting,
replays of matches, video highlights and sport news represent content that currently is
available in some countries such as Germany, Italy, U.K., and the U.S.A. In Germany, TMobile provides UMTS-based mobile TV service with exclusive live coverage and highlights
of the German football league, the Bundesliga. The mobile TV channel is called “Liga total!”.
Moreover, T-Mobile and Vodafone broadcast sport programs from TV such as Sport1 and
Eurosport. Pay TV channel Sky introduced with “Sky Go” applications (apps) for
smartphones and tablets, which enable access to its sports channels Sky Sport 1 and
Sky Sport 2 and sports such as UEFA Champions League and Europa League football, tennis
or golf. In the U.S.A., Sprint, AT&T, Verizon, and other carriers provide ESPN Mobile TV
and sport-related VOD as well as other TV channels such as NBC Sports. For example,
Verizon Wireless now distributes National Football League (NFL) games and T-Mobile
distributes National Basketball Association (NBA) games. Major League Baseball (MLB) has
MLB.tv, which is accessible with 3G/4G web-enabled mobile devices.
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However, in many countries, except South Korea and Japan, mobile TV is still far from being
completely successful (Petrovic, Kittl, & Maxl, 2009; Karnowski & von Pape, 2009).
“Although mobile television’s success has been taken for granted, competing standards, high
data costs, absence of insight into consumer demands and bargaining stakeholder power are
carried as explanations for the slow market development of mobile television in Western
Europe” (Evens, Lefever, Valcke, Schuurman, & De Marez, 2011, p. 37). Nevertheless, with
the increased penetration of mobile devices such as Apple’s iPhone and iPad or Android
smartphones and tablets, mobile TV is expected to be a viable distribution channel for sport
content in the future.
Sport and new media are closely linked. Mega sport events such as the FIFA World Cup, the
NFL Super Bowl or the Olympic Games, as well as premium sport series such as the German
Football Bundesliga or U.S. Major League Baseball have been used to launch and promote
new media and telecommunication technologies such as high definition television (HDTV)
and Internet TV (IPTV and Web TV). Sport is a phenomenon that is followed globally by
consumers of both genders, and of all ages and social classes. Thus, it is the demographics
that make sport so attractive for media corporations to produce and distribute sport content
through new technologies and services. Sport content, therefore, can be a major driver for
mobile TV as well (Evens et al., 2011).
The focus of this study is on consumer behavior. Media managers and marketers will be
required to learn more about their motivation to use mobile devices for viewing TV and video
in order to develop new business models and marketing strategies. Dedicated sport consumers
have proven to be early adopters in the diffusion process of media innovations (Turner, 2000)
and may be willing to view sport delivered via mobile platforms. Therefore, sport consumers
could be the key to success for mobile TV.
Literature review: Sport new media and mobile TV demand
In order to identify relevant variables that may determine sport mobile TV viewing behavior,
a systematic review of literature related to sport new media and mobile devices was
conducted. Research related specifically to sport media demand and mobile TV consumer
behavior was considered.
There are numerous studies regarding sport media demand. These focus mainly on traditional
sport television (e.g. Gantz, 1981; Wann, 1995; Aimiller & Kretzschmar, 1995; Wenner &
Gantz, 1998; Schafmeister, 2007; Raney, 2008). Only a few scientific studies have focused on
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consumer behavior regarding sport content distribution via the Internet (e.g. Theysohn, 2006;
Seo & Green 2008). These studies primarily addressed consumer motives and willingness-topay. Many of these motives are difficult to separate from each other and often refer to similar
types of variables.
According to Raney (2008) motives for viewing sport media can be categorized as cognitive,
emotional, and social. Cognitive motives concern learning and aesthetics. Learning something
from the sport broadcast refers to information seeking, knowledge acquisition and remaining
current about players and teams. Sport can be an aesthetic attraction and movements can show
artistic and stylistic beauty. Emotional (or affective) motives of sport media consumption are
entertainment and enjoyment, eustress (arousal and excitement), self esteem (feeling better
and basking in reflected glory), and escape from stress of daily life. Social motives refer to
companionship during sport viewing or sharing a common interest with other people and to
the activity of spending time with one’s family. Behaviors such as letting loose and letting off
steam (release) or sports gambling (economics) were other motives of sport media
consumption (see Raney, 2008, and the referred literature such as Gantz, 1981; Wann, 1995;
Wenner & Gantz, 1999).
Sport fan identification (Mahony, Nakazawa, Funk, James, & Gladden, 2002) is a construct
for explaining sport consumption in general. Sport fandom is a reason why people consume
sport at the primary and secondary levels of consumption (attending live events and viewing
events on TV or on other digital platforms). Sport fan identification is object-directed and
research primarily has focused on identification with a team. “Team identification refers to
the extent to which a fan feels psychologically connected to a team” (Wann, Melnick, Russel,
& Pease, 2001, p. 3; see also Guttmann 1986; Hirt, Zillmann, Erickson, & Kennedy, 1992;
Sloan, 1989; Wann 1995; 1997; Wann & Branscombe, 1993; Trail & James, 2001; Lock,
Taylor, & Darcy, 2011). Fan identification can also be directed to single athletes or players
(Wann, 1997; Robinson, Trail, & Kwon, 2004) and other sport objects.
In addition to motives for viewing sport media and sport fan identification, other motivations
should be considered regarding media innovations such as mobile technologies and mobile
TV. Although, in practice, media and telecommunication (telco) enterprises often use sport to
launch innovations, only limited academic literature was found related to sport in the context
of new media adoption and diffusion of media innovations. Turner’s (2000) theoretical
analysis of “the role sport programming plays in the diffusion process” can be seen as an
exception. Rogers (1963; 2003) introduced innovativeness as a core construct of his
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framework regarding the diffusion and adoption of innovations in general. The innovativeness
of consumers represents their openness for new ideas, products and services, etc., and their
willingness to adopt these earlier than other consumers. Using this time-based criterion,
Rogers separated five different adopter categories: innovators, early adopters, early majority,
late majority, and laggards. Since not every consumer is equally innovative in each area (e.g.,
fashion
vs.
technology),
Goldsmith
and
Hofacker
(1991)
suggested
considering
innovativeness in different domains.
Research on consumer behavior relative to mobile devices focused on uses and gratifications
of mobile phone usage and mobile communications in general (Leung & Wei, 2000; Perters
& Allouch, 2005; Nysveen, Pedersen, Thorbjornsen, & Berthon, 2005), reasons for nonadoption of mobile phones (Wei, 2001), and consumer motivations and acceptance of 3G
mobile multimedia services (Pagani, 2004; Shim, Kyungmo, & Shim, 2006; O’Doherty, Rao,
& Mackay, 2007; Hsu, Lu, & Hsu, 2007; Wei, 2008).
Most of the research on consumer behavior related to mobile TV in general was conducted in
Asia (e.g. Cui, Chipchase, & Jung, 2007; Kim, Ko, Takahashi, Schellhase, Kim, & Lee, 2008;
Shim, Park, & Shim, 2008; Shin, 2009; Choi, Kim, & McMillan, 2009). South Korea and
Japan were the first countries to launch mobile TV and scholars were able to collect valuable
data in these countries. Based on Rogers’s framework and knowledge from other
technological innovations, Kalba (2009) discussed attributes of mobile TV innovation and the
role of innovators/early adopters in the context of mobile TV diffusion. He emphasized the
importance of “betweeners” as adopters using both traditional and new media as well as
young consumers who are always online. Kim et al. (2008) developed “a model of adoption
of digital multimedia broadcasting (DMB) service” and compared three countries (Korea,
Japan, Germany). According to Kim et al., permanent access, entertainment and social
interaction had a positive influence on consumer attitude towards using DMB. These factors,
as well as the perception of innovation, determine the intention to use DMB in all countries
observed. Based on a modified technology acceptance model, Jung, Perez-Mira, and WileyPatton (2008) detected that cognitive concentration and content in general played an
important role relative to mobile TV adoption mediated by perceived ease of use and
perceived usefulness. Shin (2009) integrated motivational aspects (perceived enjoyment,
quality, availability, and cost) with perceived usefulness to modify the technology acceptance
model. The perceived availability and cost level were identified as significant predictors of
the intention to use DMB services.
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In the qualitative study conducted by Cui et al. (2007) drivers and barriers of mobile TV
usage were identified. Pastime, novelty, and staying up-to-date were identified as reasons why
Korean consumers use mobile TV. According to Cui et al., battery life, screen size, and lack
of compelling content had a negative influence. Karnowski and von Pape (2009) analyzed
data gathered from a German mobile TV panel of “Vodafone life!” users. They identified
battery drain, complexity of navigation, and bad reception as significant barriers.
The potential relevance of mobile TV as a status symbol was identified in a German study
(Kaumanns & Siegenheim, 2006). Furthermore, it was observed in a Korean study (Kwon &
Chon, 2009) that social influence plays an important role for highly innovative consumers to
adopt media innovations. The main motives of mobile TV usage were information and
entertainment (Hanekop & Schrader, 2007). Oksman, Noppari, Tammela, Mäkinen, and
Ollikainen (2007) identified passing time, mobility, and novelty in addition to information as
key factors. Choi et al. (2009) analyzed “motivators for the intention to use mobile TV” at the
launch of mobile TV in Korea and compared differences between men and women. They
detected that permanent access was very important for both men and women, while the
intention to use mobile TV for women was primarily motivated by social interaction and
motivators for men were mainly entertainment and status aspects.
Shim et al. (2008) present results from actual usage data. One core outcome of their study was
that Korea consumers of all age groups used mobile TV in various situations. Several studies
focused on usage situations. Mobile TV was used at home, on the go, such as in public
transport while commuting, and while waiting and in other situations (see also Oksman et al.,
2007; Hanekop & Schrader, 2006; Klein et al., 2009; Miyauchi, Sugahara, & Oda, 2008;
Karnowski & von Pape, 2009).
To date, there is limited research related to mobile TV viewing behavior related to sport
content. In Germany, a DMB mobile TV pilot study labeled “MI FRIENDS” was started prior
to the 2006 FIFA Football World Cup.
The usage behavior of the subjects (mainly
journalists) during this mega sport event was compared to the period after the World Cup. It
was observed that users lost interest when the event was concluded (Klein et al., 2009).
During the 2006 World Cup mobile TV was used on average 25 minutes per day while it was
used only 10 minutes per day after the event.
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Research Objectives
A literature review revealed that limited knowledge existed regarding the motivations of
consumers to view sport on mobile TV. It also did not provide much detailed data on
consumer motivation as well as consumer-relevant restrictions with respect to viewing mobile
TV in general. Moreover, apparently no academic research to date has focused on consumer
motivation to view sport content on mobile TV.
Specifically, the research questions of this study are:
1) What are the benefits and barriers of mobile TV in general?
2) What are the motivations of consumers for viewing sport content on mobile TV?
3) How important are the different motivations for viewing sport content on mobile TV?
Methods
In order to answer the research questions a number of empirical studies were conducted that
examined consumers’ opinions and motivations related to using mobile TV and viewing sport
content on mobile devices. First, two qualitative pre-studies in Germany and the U.S.A. were
conducted in order to gather data on the use of mobile TV in general. Based on the results of
these initial surveys, two quantitative main studies were conducted in Germany and in the
United States in which motivational factors were examined and their influence on the
intention to view sport content on mobile devices was analyzed.
Since consumers between 15 and 30 years of age are more likely to be interested in new
media technologies and services in general (O’Doherty et al. 2007) and, thus, are more likely
to be aware of mobile TV, student samples were drawn. Although convenience samples are
not representative, they provide valuable knowledge in an explorative stage of research and
were used in order to gain initial insights into this innovative research area. Both actual and
potential mobile TV users were addressed in these studies.
Qualitative pre-studies
In 2008, a qualitative paper-and-pencil survey that examined the benefits and barriers of
mobile TV (research question 1) was conducted at a German university with a sample of 171
participants and at an American university with 132 participants.1
1
We would like to thank Mr. David Bott for collecting the U.S. data of the qualitative study.
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In addition to demographic questions related to gender, age, their specific mobile equipment
and current usage of mobile TV, the subjects were asked two questions: 1) “What do you
think is the most important benefit of using mobile TV?“ and 2) "What do you think is the
most important disadvantage of using mobile TV?”
Content analysis, as a systematic way of data evaluation (Strauss & Corbin, 1990; Patton
2002), was used following a similar approach by Keaveney (1995) and de Wet and Erasmus
(2005). Categories for benefits and barriers as well as their frequencies of occurrence were
identified following an iterative procedure and rigorous qualitative data analysis. The data
gathered from valid questionnaires was transcribed, read closely, first-level coded, verified,
discussed, and fine-coded. Clusters and hierarchies of information were identified based on
the screened material as well as the theoretical framework. A second researcher checked the
categories and the coding independently. In case of disagreements between coders, categories
and codes were discussed until a consensus was achieved. The inter-coder agreement on the
codes was very high. In total, the percentages of agreement (Keaveney, 1995) were 97 percent
in the German sample and 99 percent in the U.S. sample. These results can be partly
explained by the intensive discussions during the whole coding process in which the codes
and categories were defined by both researchers. In consequence, the coding revealed
consistency across the researchers and the content analyses can be seen as reliable.
Quantitative main studies
In the main studies a standardized questionnaire was designed in order to consider different
motivational constructs. The specific items representing these constructs were derived from
the literature and chosen by their factor loadings in the original wording or slightly adjusted to
the sport mobile TV context. English language questionnaires were not only used in the U.S.,
but also in Germany, since German university students have a good command of English. The
questionnaire was tested with German and U.S. students before it was used in the main
studies to be sure that the questions and statements could be understood easily and in the same
way as intended in both countries.2
Different motivational constructs were discussed regarding their relevance for viewing sport
on mobile devices. Four theoretical categories were considered to be relevant for the study:
sport fan identification, sport viewing motives, mobile TV usage motives, and domain-
2
We would like to thank Mr. Andreas Steudtner for helping develop an early version of the questionnaire and
conducting a first pre-study in his diploma thesis.
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specific innovativeness. These four were regarded to have the most potential influence on the
intention of consumers to view sport on mobile devices.
Sport fan identification refers to several elements: identification with a team (Mahony et al.,
2002; Trail, Fink, & Anderson, 2003), identification with an athlete or player (Robinson et al.,
2004; Schafmeister, 2007), identification with sport in general or a specific sport (Robinson et
al., 2004), and identification with other fans (community). Three items in the questionnaire
represented each of the elements of sport fan identification.
Another construct with relevance to the study is the array of sport viewing motives.
Information seeking (Seo & Green, 2008; Aimiller & Kretschmar, 1995; Dehm & Storll,
2003), viewing sport events live (Schafmeister, 2007), and learning (Aimiller & Kretschmar,
1995; Trail et al., 2003; Seo & Green, 2008) (cognitive motives) as well as entertainment
(Paparachissi & Rubin, 2000; Choi et al., 2009), excitement and relaxation (Rubin, 1983;
Wann, 1995; Seo & Green, 2008), escaping from problems or everyday life (Wann, 1995;
Ebersole et al., 2007, Trail et al., 2003) and pastime (Ebersole & Woods, 2007; Seo & Green,
2008; Choi et al., 2009) (affective motives) were each represented by three items in the
questionnaire.
In addition to the motivational constructs regarding sport (media) demand, explicit motives
relative to using mobile devices and mobile TV had been identified in the literature. First, the
permanent access to content in different situations and at different times was seen as a core
characteristic of mobile devices (Choi et al., 2009). Second, mobile devices and services are
potential fashion and prestige objects for their users (Choi et al., 2009; Leung & Wei, 2000).
Both mobile TV-specific motives were considered in the study and represented by three items
each.
Consumer innovativeness is also considered to be a motivation for mobile TV usage. As
suggested, the general domain-specific innovativeness was adapted to the media domain.
Goldsmith and Hofacker (1991) constructed a scale with six items that had to be applied to
the focused media-specific innovativeness.
Finally, the behavioral aspect was represented by the intention to view sport on mobile
devices and measured by the following statement: “Assuming that I have access to mobile
TV, I intend to watch sport”. The statement was originally used by Wang, Lin, and Luarn
(2006) regarding mobile services and was adjusted to sport mobile TV viewing.
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The participants were asked to evaluate several statements on a 7-point Likert scale (from
“disagree very strongly” to “agree very strongly” with an “I don’t know”-option) expressing
their motivation and intention level.
The quantitative studies were conducted at universities in Germany and in the U.S. in 2010
and 2011, with total sample sizes of 405 and 150 participants respectively with valid
questionnaires. In the German sample 48 percent of the participants were women and
52 percent were men, with an average age of 23 years. Of the participants, 22 percent had a
mobile TV-enabled phone or other device and 15 percent had used mobile TV previously. In
the U.S. sample 27 percent of the participants were female and 73 percent were male, with an
average age of 21. Fifty four percent had a mobile TV-enabled device and 19 percent had
experience with mobile TV. Factor and regression analyses were used to identify motivational
factors (research question 2) and to analyze their influence on the intention to view sport
content on mobile devices (research question 3).
Since there is no common acceptance of the number of dimensions of the motivational
constructs with relevance to sport media demand in general and the constructs considered had
never been used regarding sport mobile TV demand in particular, explorative factor analyses
(principal component factoring) were used to identify the construct dimensions.
The extracted factors from the factor analyses were then included in a regression model. The
factors were considered as independent variables, which could be used to explain and predict
sport mobile TV viewing behavior. The intention to view sport on mobile devices was used
as the dependent variable, assuming that the intention and the future actual behavior of sport
mobile TV consumers are highly correlated.
Consumer-relevant benefits and barriers of mobile TV
The objective of the qualitative pre-studies was to identify benefits and barriers of mobile TV
in general from a consumer’s perspective. Although a quantification of qualitative data is
delicate – especially when non-representative samples are drawn – it can provide an estimate
of the importance of categories identified within a content analysis. Therefore, benefits and
barriers were ranked by the frequency of occurrence of the categories’ statements.
Results and discussion: Benefits of mobile TV in general
The content analyses of the qualitative surveys revealed six categories in which benefits were
coded: mobility, media consumption motives, content, alternatives, convenience, and special
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events. Table 1 presents an overview of the benefits ranking and the statements’ frequencies
of occurrence in the German and U.S. samples.
Table 1: Benefits’ ranking and frequency of occurrence of benefit statements.
From the consumers’ perspective, the three most important benefits concern mobility aspects,
media consumption motives, and content in both the German and the U.S. studies. Mobility
aspects such as the unwired portability of mobile devices or the permanent access to content
and, resulting from this, the independence and flexibility regarding time and place of use
(time and geo-shifting) show the relevance of mobile TV usage in different situations.
Mobility was paramount in the German sample, but only the second most frequent benefit
identified in the U.S. sample. Being able to access TV and VOD anytime and anywhere seems
to be the key benefit from the consumers’ perspective.
In the U.S. sample different motives of media consumption were most important in contrast to
the German sample. Regarding these motives, especially cognitive motives, such as
information seeking and learning, as well as affective motives such as entertainment seeking
and reducing boredom were identified. Using mobile devices provides consumers with an
information and entertainment source.
The actual content that can be received via mobile devices is in both samples quite important.
The most frequently stated content on mobile devices was news and sport. When comparing
those subjects who were already in possession of a mobile TV-enabled device with those who
were not, sport content played a more important role.
Alternatives, convenience, and special events were categories in which statements were coded
less frequently, yet were relevant for some consumers. Compared to the benefits that were
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discussed before, these are new aspects that had not been identified previously in the literature
review. The absence of regular TV and other stationary devices such as computers can make
mobile devices a complementary alternative for viewing TV and VOD. Only a few
respondents considered mobile TV as a substitution for regular television and computers. In
comparison to radio, another mobile device, some subjects underlined the visual aspect as an
advantage of mobile TV.
Mobile TV was described as convenient. Convenience is a characteristic that can result from
the previously mentioned mobility, but also it was considered to be a category itself, since it
not only referred to mobility, portability, flexibility, etc. The relevance of convenience seems
to depend on the actual experience with mobile TV. Especially consumers who had used
mobile TV before stated that they considered it convenient. Convenience was more relevant
for U.S. than for German consumers.
A last category of benefits concerns special events. Mega sport events, elections or
emergencies are examples of extraordinary events in which mobile TV usage may suddenly
become relevant to consumers compared to everyday situations. In the U.S. mobile TV was
seen as a suitable device in case of emergency situations such as terrorist attacks or natural
disasters.
Results and discussion: Barriers of mobile TV in general
Regarding barriers to viewing mobile TV, six categories were identified. From the
consumers’ perspective, the most important disadvantages are cost, quality, and alternatives,
followed by availability, social aspects, and health issues. Whereas quality concerns were the
second most frequent response in both samples, cost issues were most important for the
German subjects and alternative possibilities for the U.S. subjects. Table 2 shows a summary
of the results from both samples.
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Table 2: Barriers’ ranking and frequency of occurrence of barriers statements.
The cost of mobile TV-enabled devices, data transmission and mobile TV services seem to be
quite relevant, especially in the German sample. This reflects the general situation of pay TV
in Germany, where, for example, the pay TV station Sky is still struggling because of a low
willingness-to-pay for TV among German consumers.
Quality issues primarily concern the size and resolution of the viewing screen. Image and
sound quality as well as problems with the signals (loading, streaming) were stated in this
category. A few subjects were also concerned about draining the batteries of their mobile
devices.
Many subjects, mainly in the U.S., considered mobile TV to be a distraction, preventing them
from doing other things. Because of the variety of alternatives regarding other media options
(in particular radio on the go, TV at home, Internet-enabled computers, sports bars or public
viewing) some saw the main disadvantages of mobile TV as media overflow, information
overload, and technology overkill. Media consumption in general competes with other leisure
activities such as participating in sport instead of viewing sport in the media.
Moreover, the availability of mobile TV via digital broadcasting (DVB) or mobile
communications networks (3G and 4G) as well as TV- and VOD-enabled mobile devices was
critical to a few subjects.
Social aspects, such as mobile TV being annoying to other people, being anti-social and
uncommunicative, and leading to social isolation were concerns that were mainly stated by
women in Germany.
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Finally, health issues such as safety risks resulting from using mobile devices while driving,
exposure to additional radiation, stress and addiction to technology, or even physical and
mental impoverishment were concerns that were identified in this category.
Consumers’ motivation to view sport on mobile devices
Results and discussion: Motivational factors of sport viewing on mobile devices
Factor analyses were used to answer research question 2: What are the motivations for
viewing sport content on mobile devices? The usual criteria (Eigenvalue, total variance
explained, communality, and interpretability of rotated factors) were employed to extract the
factors representing the construct dimensions. The total variances explained were more than
70 percent. The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) measures of sampling adequacy were higher
than 0.7 and 0.9. Following Kaiser and Rice (1974) these results may be described as
“middling” and “marvelous” respectively. The results of Bartlet’s test of sphericity were
significant in all factor analyses. In consequence, the different test criteria demonstrate that
the variables included in the factor analyses are very likely to be correlated. Therefore, the
number of variables could be reduced and represented by nine underlying factors. Finally,
Cronbach’s alpha was used to double-check the indicator reliability. A test of each extracted
factor’s indicators revealed Cronbach’s alpha values over 0.78.
The resulting factors were interpreted after a varimax rotation referring to the describing
statements with factor loadings greater than 0.5. Table 3 and Table 4 summarize the results
and test criteria of the factor analyses of the German and U.S. data respectively. An overview
of factors and related items is given in the appendix.
In both samples sport fan identification was identified as one factor. The factor represents all
the different aspects of fan identification with a sport team, a particular athlete or player, a fan
community or a sport in general. Fans want to be involved in the athletes’ lives, they are
committed to a team whether they win or not, and they share a common interest and
experiences with other fans. Sport and being a sport fan may contribute to one’s identity and
may be a motivation for viewing sport on mobile TV.
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Table 3: Results and test criteria from explorative factor analyses of data from the German
sample.
Table 4: Results and test criteria from explorative factor analyses of data from the U.S.
sample.
The factor analyses of the sport media motive items revealed five motivational factors in both
samples. As mentioned previously, there is no consensus related to the dimensions of sport
media motives. The findings of the two samples underline this insight. The composition of the
factors differed slightly in this construct category between both samples regarding the
cognitive motives.
The first two factors are an expression of cognitive motives. One was named live viewing and
information seeking in the German. Sport is viewed on mobile devices by subjects who
always want to be up to date and informed about what is happening in the sport world. They
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want to view sport events live when they occur in order to be the first to know about
interesting incidents and the results of sport competitions. That way, they are able to form
their own opinions and to discuss sports-related issues with their peers.
Another cognitive motive concerns learning. Subjects who would like to learn the rules of
certain sports or to receive instructions in order to improve their own skills can use mobile
devices to view sport for educational reasons.
In the U.S. study the first factor combined information seeking and learning and extracted
live viewing as an independent factor. Being informed and learning by viewing sports are
closely related and can be represented by one factor as seen in previous studies on sport
television viewing motives. Viewing sport “live” was obviously regarded as a specific motive
that can be relevant for mobile devices.
A third factor represents affective motivational aspects of sport media consumption.
Entertainment seeking and mood regulation means that sport on mobile TV may be viewed
because it is entertaining, pleasant, and fun on the one hand. On the other hand, it is a means
of regulating one’s mood vis-à-vis excitement (eustress) and relaxation.
Escape was identified as another affective factor during the analyses. Some subjects view
sport in order to escape from one’s day-to-day routine and problems at work, school,
university, etc. In these cases viewing sport on mobile devices can serve as a diversion.
A fifth factor for using mobile TV to view sport is pastime. Sport is being viewed in situations
of waiting and boredom in order to spend time more productively.
Two factors were extracted that are mobile TV-specific. One factor reflects the core
characteristic of mobile TV in general: mobility. In contrast to regular TV, which is
stationary, mobile devices enable consumers to view videos and TV anytime and anyplace, in
various situations. It may be a relevant motivation to view sport content.
Since mobile phones and other mobile media-enabled devices can be fashion accessories and
status symbols, mobile TV as an innovative technology and service can contribute to
enhancing one’s image and social status. The second mobile TV-specific factor was therefore
labeled style and status.
The media-specific innovativeness of an individual was also identified as one factor.
Consumers differ in their behaviors related to new media products and services. Earlier
adopters of new technologies and services, when compared to later adopters, are more
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interested in media innovations in general. They have higher levels of willingness to buy and
use new media technologies and services such as mobile TV.
Results and discussion: Relevance and importance of motivational factors for
viewing sport on mobile TV
Do the identified factors actually influence the sport on mobile TV viewing behavior of
consumers and, if so, how strong is the influence of each relevant factor on the intention to
view sport on mobile TV? This third research question was answered by performing a
regression analysis. A t-test helps in identifying the relevant motivational factors where
influence is expressed by beta values.
During the factor analyses nine motivational factors were extracted that were considered as
independent variables of the regression model (predictors). The objective of the regression
analyses was to explain and predict the intention to view sport on mobile TV as a dependent
variable. It was assumed that all motivational factors have a positive influence on the
intention.
Both data sets proved in total a good fit of the regression model to the empirical data (see
Table 5 for the test criteria of the regressions with the German and U.S. data).
Table 5: Test criteria of the regressions with the German and U.S. data.
The results of the regression analyses are as follows (see Table 6):
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Table 6: Significant and non-significant motivational factors and standardized beta
coefficients of the regressions in both samples.
In the German sample, t-tests revealed that seven motivational factors out of nine were
significant in the regression analysis. These factors were deemed to be relevant for the
explanation of the intention to view sport on mobile TV. The ranking of the different
motivational demand factors in terms of their importance for sport mobile TV viewing
behavior can be derived from their standardized beta coefficients. Comparing the standardized
beta-values the live viewing and information seeking motive had the strongest influence on
the intention to view sport on mobile TV in the German sample, and the mobility motive is
only of low importance for sport mobile TV. Two factors were non-significant. The mediaspecific innovativeness and the style and status motive had no influence on consumers’ sport
mobile TV viewing behavior.
Data from the U.S. sample revealed less significant factors. Depending on the significance
levels (95 vs. 90 percent), out of the nine factors only four or five respectively were
significant based on the t-tests. In addition to the media-specific innovativeness and the style
and status motive that were non-significant in the German sample, the mobility motive and
escape motive were non-significant in the U.S. sample.
A comparison of the results from both samples reveals that in the U.S. sample the affective
motives relative to entertainment seeking and mood regulation as well as pastime were more
important for consumers than the cognitive motives of viewing sport events live or being
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informed. In contrast live viewing and information was the most important motive followed
by the entertainment, stimulation and relaxation motive that viewing sport on mobile TV may
provide in the German sample.
Sport fan identification was another important predictor of the intention to view sport on
mobile TV in both samples. The intention to use new media such as mobile TV to view their
preferred sport broadcasts may vary among consumers and should be explored in future
research in more detail.
As a consequence of the non-significant motivations in both studies, media-specific
innovativeness and style and status could be more relevant for the usage of mobile TVenabled devices and services in general rather than referring to viewing sport on mobile TV in
particular.
Since style and status originally was identified as a motive in studies on mobile TV in Asia
and was not identified in the qualitative studies, it may not be relevant in Western countries
such as Germany or the U.S.A. This could possibly be explained by intercultural differences
Viewing sport on mobile TV was not considered to be stylish or to raise one‘s status among
the German or U.S. subjects.
Whereas escape was the third strongest predictor of viewing sport on mobile TV in the
German study, this motive was non-significant in the U.S. study. Sport mobile TV may help
consumers to forget about their problems for a while, however, further research will be
needed to confirm this motive.
The mobility motive, regarding the possibility of viewing sport and other content anywhere
and anytime did not appear to be as important as assumed. In the German sample, it had the
lowest influence of all predictors and in the U.S. sample it was not even relevant as a
predictor.
Conclusion
The empirical findings and the results from an extensive literature review on consumer
behavior regarding sport new media and mobile TV contributed to understanding the nature
of consumer demand for viewing sport on mobile TV. The results of pre-studies on benefits of
mobile TV were partly supported by the results of the main studies. Whereas the mobility
aspects motive was stated most frequently in the German pre-study and the third most
frequent in the U.S. pre-study it was almost irrelevant in the main studies. However, the
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importance of content as well as media consumption motives was identified in all studies. It
can be concluded that the intention to view sport on mobile TV is primarily driven by sport
media motives and sport fan identification. This emphasizes how important sport is as
premium media content for mobile TV.
Thus, marketing activities related to mobile media should focus on providing or matching
sport content with specific sport consumers. In other words, sport media content providers
should consider the needs and motivations of both the global and the local audience
(‘glocalization’). In the German market, cognitive aspects of sport mobile TV, such as being
able to view sport events live and to stay up to date are most relevant. In the U.S. market,
emotional aspects such as the excitement and fun that viewing sport on mobile TV provides
are stressed. Therefore, a consistent product and communication policy for different countries
is not reasonable regarding mobile TV. In consequence, marketing activities should address
current and potential mobile TV consumers based on the most important motivations and
consider intercultural differences. Regarding mobile TV content and promotional activities,
cognitive aspects should be emphasized in the German market and affective aspects in the
U.S. market. For German consumers all types of mobility aspects, such as the possibility of
viewing TV in different situations resulting from the portability of mobile devices, should be
emphasized in commercials.
Although motivation to view sport on mobile TV may vary among consumers, another
implication for marketers could be the focus on different sport fan segments, as well as the
careful selection and analysis of their preferred sport content packages available on mobile
TV. Further research should provide more information concerning different sports and forms
of sport programming that attract a wider range of consumers. For example, those that are
attracted to niche sports such as handball, fencing, etc.
When analyzing consumer motivation to view sport on mobile TV, barriers such as the cost of
mobile TV, quality issues with mobile devices, and other media outlets or leisure alternatives
may have a negative influence on consumers’ intention to view mobile TV. Therefore, future
research should include identify these barriers in motivational models because they may delay
even motivated sport fans from viewing mobile TV.
It is important to point out that when this research was conducted mobile TV was just
emerging as a new technology and the actual penetration and usage of mobile TV was rather
low. The actual availability of mobile TV-enabled devices and specific sport content services
are a limitation of this study.
- 19 -
Nevertheless, the data analyses of the current studies revealed a keen interest in viewing sport
on mobile TV. Sport has always attracted consumers willing to adopt new media
technologies. Since TV-enabled 3G and 4G smartphones and other web-enabled devices
provide a wide range of opportunities to deliver sport content to consumers in new situations,
sport may continue to play an important role in consumer decision-making regarding mobile
TV.
- 20 -
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Appendix: Motivational factors and items
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