DNICITINg IIfICCO NOIINTOAE

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DNICITINg IIfICCO
EF{I CO NOIINTOAE
PART
I
Characteristics of Office Buildings and Office Markets
CF{APTER
1
Evolution of the Om
Mid,Cle East -Eg5rpt, India and China-dedicated office spaces of any stze
became magnets for capital inl
jobs and business opportunihe:
THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
of nearby rural areas.2
To meet the growing neeC
buildings began to appear in s
four- and five-story strucfures
\\'ere imposing in their dar- anc
The form of the city was char
one thing, rapid horizontal e\
could have been iound only in the palaces and outposts of kings and
ecclesiastics who kept their books in the buildings where they lived.
Through the Middle Ages, little happened to advance office develoPment
until the Renaissance brought the invention of double-entry bookkeeping,
discount banking and modern capitalism. These inventions stimulated
business capitals such as Venice, Florence, London and Amsterdam to
impose a new order on the world. As early as 1480, powerful banking and
trading houses headquartered in these new financial centers were building
large, iolid houses, some of which are still in use as banks and corporate
headquarters.l
th" late 18th and ear$ 19th centuries brought with them a broad range
of technological innovations and a radical rearrangement of the landscape.
They also biought vast economic and social changes. water;Pgwered and
latei coal-poweied manufacturing slashed costs and allowed the distribu-
tion of low-priced manufactured goods to an eager world marketplace.
standards of living rose and urban populations soared as immigrants
in from the farm to share in the new prosperity, often by way of the
poured
-new
railroad and steamship lines. While man\r suffered from the associated dislocations, the general effect was to increase the wealth of the
industriahzing countries.
Among the consequences was a regrouping of business along new lines
of travel and communication. River and canal crossings, road junctions and
ports had always attracted trade and manufacturinE. NoW as manufacturenabled by the coming of the steam engine to mwe_down from the
it g
hills where water power was most readily harnessed, rail lines and espe-
*r
cially the rail tranifer points located in the cities began to compete with
them for growth. In fames Heilbrun's phrase, railroads "proved to be the
most powerful agglomerative invention of all time," an observation confirmed by the vasi influx of jobs, people and capital along the paths carved
by the new trackage.
As the Industrial Revolution spread and prospered, cities in Great
Britain and America launched upon a period of expansion that would be
interrupted only by periodic financial panics. Growing inter-city and
interregional trade, made easier by the new rail lines and communications,
stimulited business and manufacturing activity of every kind. Centers like
London, Manchestex, Liverpool, Boston, Philadelphia and New York
horsecars and steam,trains con'l
w-hich appeared later
in the c(
advantage of this opportunitr,'
the air was cleaneq, the streets
t*
s.
Cowntown for work, shopplnE
Another effect of rapid gror
land prices in the downto\\"n d
iould not afford downtolvn spdr
the docks, railheads, banks. ',-.
already locat€d, for functions
afford to pay the high r€r1ts an*
Ar.ailable sites were soon tal
real estate and insurance fur'-r
't
manufacturers, wholesalers, Ct
lnses, all of them able to use
i.orvntown land values. The r.r
ienser and more vertical.
Office buildings began to ns..
--rt lirst, they generally took the
and-office buildings, often 5,{:r
the storefronts . \"i si
>tarhalls to the high-ceilinged '
:'il and heated by storres an-l
srmplest and fire Protection rn-e
'retrrneen
Technical Innovation
i]fice work was changing
:nprovements such
ir1
as the tr-f'e
: Tarnes Heilbrun, Urban Ecotnni:;-< ;':
.;!-r; Adna F Weber, The Grozt'th;t J::
--ru\'ersity Press, L963).
R-ichard MacCorrnac, "The Digt'Lrf'.
letchet A History of Architectur:
:
1 Nikolaus Pevsnel AHistory of BuildingWpes (Princeton: Princeton U_niversity?ress, 1976);
Spiro Kostoff, A History of Architecfure (New York: Oxford University Press, L985).
' l''lark Girouard,
Cities and Peopti" \e-,
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slaTrel{I
al$lo p', E
PART
I
Characteristics of Office Buildings and Office Markets
productivity of office workers was gas light, invented by Lavoisier short$
before he was guillotined in the French Revolution. It became practical witfi
the founding of the first gas company in London (1813) and was common by
1860, reaching a peak of perfection with the 1885 invention of the gas
mantle, which multiplied the lumens it produced. Meanwhile, Thomas
Edison had registered his patent on the incandescent electric bulb in 1gz9
and would open the Pearl street Power station in 1885, making electric light
a commercial reality.s
white-collar work was growing more efficient in other ways thanks to
the development of modern communications. By 1868 most American cities
were connected by samuel E B. Morse's telegraph, which had seen its first
public use as early as 1844. The telephone, independently invented by
Gray and Alexander Graham Bell in the 1820s (Bell's patent dates to
1876) was in commercial useby 1878, and in 1882 the list of subscribers had
more than 150,000 names. Soon the telephone and telegraph would be
r{*a
supglemented by Guglielmo Marconi's wireless telegraphy, which had
reached across the English Channel in 1889 and would ctois ihe Atlantic in
1901.
Toilets, Lifts and Skeletons
Three other key inventions were essential before the modern office building
could take shape: the flush toilet, the passenger elevator and skeleton
construction. The first of these had appeared at the Minoan court four
millennia ago and reappeared in various forms over the years. It would
come to near-perfection only with Alexander Cumming siazspatent for a
toilet with a "stink trap" that prevented sewer gases from 6acking up
through the drains. cumming's invention allowed office tenants previously
dependent on chamber pots to enjoy upstairs accommodations without
paying servants to dump their deposits. The growth in the size, number
and comfort of office buildings would not have been possible without
corresponding improvements in sanitary and storm sewer installations.6
The second key to the future of the office building was the new safetyequipped, steam-driven passenger elevator exhibited by Elisha Graves
otis at the Crystal Palace Exposition of 1853 in New york city. otis's
elevatoq, which first appeared in practical form about 1858 in the Haughwout Building (designed by l. n Gaynor and Daniel Badger) at Broadway
and Broome street in New York City, was far from the first mechanicil
s
Charles Panatt, Panatis Extraordinary Origins of Eaeryday Things (New York: Harper & Row,
7987); Charles Panati, Panatib Browserb Book of Beginiings (Boston: Houghton Mi^fflin Com19M); Arnold Lehman, oThe
P?!y'
New York Skyscraper-A History of its Development
1870-7939," (Ph.D. diss., Yale University, May L974).
6 See Panati, Origins of Eaeryday Thin-qs and Browserb
Book of Beginnings.
means of vertical transporta:l
been used in the third c€ntur-,
Windsor Castle in 7700. B:
"automatic gravity-wedge Salt
them safe for human passe:;
made possible by steam Fo-,",r
Howeveq, it was onlr- ',",--r
improved hydraulic elevito:s bly reach to a height of 10 or :
1898 a new high-speed Ci:=:
dramatic 30 stories, tall enou i:
turn of the century, electnc ::
feet per minute were avaiia:_:
The Skeleton Frame
These devices improved the ::
pioneered by Daniel Badge: r:
not the first use of these maie::
B.C., though it was then :-- century technology made r: :beams and store fronts \\'€rr
States. In New York, the Lor-,,.
cast iron beams and colum: s
tural interest toward the en;,
glass facade of Peter Ellis's C:
had cantilevered bay-H.inCcr,,
the designs of the Chicagc S,-.Cast iron, which had ":.=.
structural columns because _-:
credited by the Chicago Fr= _ :
was not until the Worth S::e"=:
history of cast iron in that .riiron columns also causei :: _ ment of the box column, a r--, :r
first of wrought iron and
The Chicago, Boston
Among them were increas r :
around the iron and steel =::"* :
-
7 See Lehman, The Neu, )'crr;
-:,*- :_ -,
Skyscrapeq, Report of the Com.:r*i:..: :
for the Examination of the
Alderbrink Press,
8 Lehman, 14.
1939).
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PART
I
Characteristics of Office Buildings and Office Markets
CHAPTER
1
Evolution of tre
iJ
tile arch flooq a method of bridging the distance between cross-beams with
flat arches of hollow terra cotta tiles, the flanges of which covered the
I-beams to protect them. Steel lathing was used with " adamant" plaster for
greater fire resistance; so was terra cotta partitioning covered with plaste4 a
technique still common in the 1950s.
Toward the end of the century, new foundation techniques employing
grillages of steel embedded in concrete made it safe for architects such as
Burnham & Root to push structures 300 feet into the aiq, as they did at the
Masonic Temple Building at State and Randolph Streets in Chiiugo (1890).
This impressive mixed-use development had 7ahydraulic passengur elevators and retail stores on its lower floors. It would set a standard for many
subsequent buildings aimed at the prestige market.e
START OF THE MODERN ERA:
LATE 1.9th AND EARLY 2oth CENTURY
through most of the 19th century serious commercial building had been
characterized by masonry construction. It was limited to aboui six stories
in height by its own weight and by the inability or unwillingness of most
people to climb any higher in dim stairwells.
- L. s. Buffington of Minneapolis had worked out the principles of steel
framing n7871and patented a 28-story design in 1gzg. There followed a
variety of skeleton-framed buildings in Europe and America. The technique reached a climax in 1884-8s with the competition entries of Frederick
Baumann and william LeBaron fenney for what would turn out to be
fenney's fire-resistant Home Insurance Company Building in Chicago, a
ten-story marvel of skeleton framing and the first exemplar of the new
Chicago school of architecture. The structure, completery ielf-supporting,
incorporated the first steel I-beams rolled by the Carnegie enipps company of Pittsburgh, which sold them to Jenney for use in ionluniuon with
the_wrougJrt iron beams and cast iron columns called for inthe design.lo
soon after came the fully skeleton-framed rhcoma Buildingby Hola-bird
and Roche (1887-89), which had riveted junctions for added- structural
rigidity. Home Insurance and rhcoma weie bellwethers for the school of
architecture that almost immediately formed itself on the principles of
skeleton-frame construction: lightweight curtain walls of brick, stone and
terra cotta; generous wooden "Chicago,, windows grouped in threes;
simple ornamentation and rational floor plans. ThiJ "chicago school,,
would set the style for office buildings around the world..11
The Home Insurarr;= :
by architect l\IilLiarr *,
framing and \vas cr * Chicago Schooi
Photo bV
I
o: 1::
W, Tn1,,, *
^
*-.
The First Big Boom
Office buildings were risr-n: ":
In the central business disi:r--:
ings were completed rr-ithr^ :
York, Boston, Buffalo, Cle','e.:
rise and their business 1--.'= '
multiplied.12
e Masonic Temple (New York: Exhibit pubtishing
Com panfr no date).
10 See Lehman and
Thllmadge.
i1
John Zukowsky, editor, Chicago Architecture 1872-1922 (Munich: Prestel-Verlag,
Tha burgeoning
dor,,-i..t,,-',,
clothe, wate{, house and e:.:::
1987).
12 Earle
Schultz and Walter Srr:: : :
=
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H I UEI.IVHf
10
PART
I
Characteristics of Office Buildings and Office Markets
retail stores, restaurants, hotels, taverns, theaters, churches, schools and
bawdy houses. More than evet downtown was now the vibrant heart of the
American city. It would continue to capture the bulk of new office construction for almost a hundred years, until suburban development began to take
hold on a large scale in the late 1960s.
Steel-framed structures predominated but reinforced concrete was on
the march. It had already been used for floor slabs in Great Britain since
1854, and Portland cement had been used in the United States since L872.13
French technology featured at the Paris Exposition of L867 encouraged its
wider use in the United States and elsewhere. Thirty years lateq, nL902-03,
the L6-story Ingalls Building in Cincinnati became 'the first reinforced
concrete skyscraper" ,14 and by 7903 C.A.P Turner published his system for
manufacturing beamless floor slabs of this material.
Employers found that the advantages of the office space offered by these
centrally located buildings more than offset its relatively high cost and
occasional discomforts. It -,','j
transit lines, close to clients a:
than any outlying office rr-as . ,
days, attractive, light and a iupper-floor views.
The design of the builciL:,:.
employers a chance to der:,::
New York, where rents \\-€i= ;
:
,
earliest and most promrrre::
insurance companies to hc-:s.
rent and future policvhol,je:=
set aside to cover poliq- ob-::
Prudential, Manhattan Lr:e l,i
the most impressive struci* r:
Driving a large share c: :i
business from a dorunto',',-r
entrepreneurs
-
post
of
fic:
=
,
s:
markets, repair sen-ices : J"-.
ment agencies, clubs, res:3r-r::
want-were within eas\'
',',-;
ir.-
to choose a location an\-,',.r.: r:
'r,:,:: :
agglomeration impelleC
Downtown: A Nelv Kinc
For many tenants, these a-is.::
was an even more Po\\-er:i; - -- :
for the dirt and hurlr'-bur1., - : :
information available rn i ---'',": :
informally to customers a:;
In the larger building:s :.:
ideas could be floated anc. rr:
:
":
and decision makers co'.:-:i : ::
ivithin a few blocks' dista:::
of different disciplines
',','J r.r
faster access to the latest
.;.
-l
-::
up on the competitic:. l"
opportunities found the :' s =
increasing the demand ic r ',": r
The reiult was a \\-a\-e :: :notable example \ ras \e',', :
1eg
.
New York's Flatiron Building, constructed in 1902-03, was
part of a wave of multi-tenant speculative structures built in
response to businesses' demand for a downto\ /n location.
(Library of Congress)
r
Lehman, 24.
= Carl W. Condlt, Americtu',
j".n
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uopnlo^g I UEIdVHf
T2
PART
Building)
a
I
Characteristics of Office Buildirgr and Office Markets
triangular structure built to the designs of Daniel H. Burnham
l\rhile this il-as huppeF.r
reaching $200-5600 p,er sul r
Fifth Avenue and -Broadway. Many of these
buildings were aimed at particular trades and industries: railroad com-
square foot
Mechanical Systems
skvline with the \\'edding-.a
ments, which \,voulC sooj-i t
\\-ould be more to come, olh;r
and
-Company
in
1902-03 at
panies, stockbrokers, insurance agents, lawyers, doctors, real estate men.rs
Long before the start of the Great war all new buildings were equipped
with central heating. In various forms, it dated back to fro*"r, times. Hot
water systems fired by coal which distributed heat to cast iron radiators
below the windows had been used through much of the 19th century.
steam heat, quieter than the burbling hot water systems common at the
time, appeared toward 1890, the year the Masonic Temple Building was
built in Chicago.
coupled with electric_tisntins, steam heat made office buildings habitable, though uncomfortably dry, even on dark, cold winter days. s6on
they
would be tolerable even on hot summer days. Air cooling with ice and
blowers was an old idea which had been revived by Adler Ind sullivan
at
the Auditorium Theater Building (1ggz-g9) in Chicago. It would be reinvented by willis Carrier in 1902 with a system that co'jtrolled humidity
and
air movement as well as temperature, and used by Frank Lloyd wright in
!\ hlh Building (Buffalo.New york, 1904). L"tur i. the 1920s, the tust
fully air-conditioned office building would be erected by architect George
Willis: the Milam Building in San Antonio, Texas (192A).re
the long years before air conditioning became common, office
.buildings
P:fug generally
lacked all but the most primiuve artificial ventilation
(vertical air shafts in the toilet rooms and sometimes fresh air inlets
behind
the radiators). lbnants were obliged to leave their windows open through
the summe4, despite air that was ruil of soot and would remain so until
strict clean-air ordinances began to be enacted at mid-20th century.
In due course, technologicar progress and economic change would
multiply the size of the new buiidings and their efficiency as"places of
business. steam-powered rapid transiilines to bring in the workeis
would
make them mone accessible to gutlyrng residents. si would the improved
roads and widespread automobile ownership that followed Henry
Ford,s
application of mass production techniqrres urd
pricing
to the
-urr--arket
private car. Commuters, customers and crients who had migratea outward
toward the suburbs could now find their way downtown to"the new
office
buildings with relative ease, and once there could enjoy the views from
their upper-floor offices, however those views might be tbscured by
coal
smoke and neighboring buildings.
in 7972.17
demandi.g more space. \e:
roller coaste4 with se\-ere
_-,-
THE PROHIBITION
ET
\\hen center-cit)' develoF.,rr,
don'ntowns of the larger A:::
agglomerations of tall ofh;e
hotels, shops, restaurants s al
establishments of ranous i
r:rented in a varietr,' of cua_i:
Lrnes
under zoning ordrndrl,-r
ground level, though bl" i9:l
allon'the passage of ltght a:.;
ier-el, they ranged in heigh:
Empire State Building
of Architectural Design, Engineering and Construction, vol.3 (New York:
John
-F*V:lopedia
Wiley
& Sons, 1989).
r,Shre._
uP\\'ard to T]zstories) an.i Lll :
feet. More typicallr,' thel' r,,-e:(
400,000 square feet. The
r,-er
customers for a broad ran f e
i:nade life easier and more , *
Fire safety, alwavs a ser,, _i:
inherently fire-resistant,,,,,-3!
sprinklers and floors \\'ere ::
large openable Hdndor^,-s t.,
ceiling heights still ran 1r_r i,r,
',\-hen cigar smoking \\-as trr,e
jt.
:*
The typewriter the telep:,
cusiness more easil\-, chedtl.n"
Tenants during thrs penc,d
\\-as a rare building that rra j. :
social and business intercha:
remained far greater than ln r.
-\long with this adr-antaEi
1s See Lehman.
11
Ner.,-
:- Lehman,
::
9; Moses Kne,
See Lehman.
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aql ralle ppo/vr arueurpro Euruoz 916T g{ro1 rvlaN ,'ZT6I
looJ arenbs
rad 0?$ sp qrnu se sluar arr#o puu loo' arenbs rad 009$-002$ Surqrear
araM uellequpl^l ra/vroT uI senlp^ puel 'Stmraddeq se/v\ slr{l aIIqM
8r+plpg
€I
aTIJJO
aql Jo uopnlo
g
sr
'srollop
.\\
paddrnba ara/v\ s8ulptrnq
sr'uarrr alelsa IeaJ
-ruof, peoJFeJ :saulsnpul pL
asaql ;o .{uey.q dempeorE p
tuequJng 'H IaIueC Io su-:rs.;
I U1IJ.IVH)
L4
PART
I
Characteristics of Office Buildings and Office Markets
consequences of the new situation. Tenants in the new offices, separated
from the manufacturing and agricultural operations that fed them, grew
more speciabzed, their workers forming a new white-collar class that
seldom had to dirty its hands with physical work. As it multiplied, this
class would make new demands and force massive social changes.
While New York had almost 2,500 of the 4,800 buildings in 7929 that
were 10 stories or highea many other cities had significant numbers.
Chicago, Los Angeles, Philadelphia, Detroit and Boston as well as New
York each had more than 100 such buildings, while St. Louis, Pittsburgh,
Kansas Crty, San Francisco, Cleveland, Seattle, Baltimore, Minneapolis,
Tulsa, Dallas and Houston each had more than 30.1e
CHAPTER
1
Evolution of rhe
In a world where paper e
commodities as the basrc cd r
iar. The office building b,nr"on
the depression of the 193,,r_'_.
properties into recei'n'ershr_ip
office sfrucfures, notabh- \e,
groupin g of qualifi' bu:lCur
started during the Deprert,.,:
defense construcfion unhl ia:
E
THE POSTWAR YEARI
At the war's end, a generatrc
rt'ould in due course lind ns
there awaited them rtith ope::
good conunuter rail nehr-orr*:
downtowns were specrai bene
driving office rents to ner,,- l.rr
Most cities, though, e\ptrr
ment until at least the 195*-,s ,,,,
stainless-steel-clad Inlan,.l S:
rnternational sfyle architect
s
proof that the office burldr_-.
guarantee of financial succes j
these fwo buildings rvouli p,s,,
rncluded glass, stamped alu:
Building in Pittsburgh), preia
Building in New York, b,.,- i,,3.
Cve and Belluschi & Roth i i-,,.
steel (acfually u steel-copF-\,er a
Richard J. Daley Cirtc Center I
Son, 1963-65) and the U S
Abramovmtz, 1969). Stainies s s
used for building before the i:_
be used again at the Harns Ea:
and at the Mobil Oil Burler:r
":
Chicago's stainless-steel-clad Inland Steel Building
(1955-57), by international style architects Skidmore,
Owings and Merrill, paved the way for new cladding
materials. (Plnto W lon Miller/Hedrich-Blessing, Courtesy of
Skidmore, Owings and Merrill)
i
See Lehman.
-r- See,
for example, \\tilliarr. Br-*b,rr_:
J::cago Office (Chicago: BuilCr.: J,**",
:iann et al., A Guide to 150 ]?-;,s
_-l
- .,..,
F'aul Goldberger, Tla Shtscr;txr- i)rei,, ':
.:.' :)::tecture: Nineteenth ar.: | *,,*::--: : *
laulne A. Saliga, ed . TL"E Sh s : u _:*
b,ter-national Publications. lnc l"q,-
qozzry :>IroA ,v\aN) stadonsfi4g ohu4qJ lo tunrya3 o ,rrrr|lfgr' :ffi"ffT:tXHJ;:T:H?il
:filot 's1oog .4n8u9a :arowrlleg),'pa 'Wg 'sattn\ual qlavuamJ wa quaapwN :atnlra#qrtv
'lrorqrlrH llassng-drua11 :QgOt_?dooX 'V paryIV :>lro1 ruaN) ndansfi>15 ail ta8raqploD Ined
IGSOf 'ssar4 /!€rAaU o8e4q3 :oSecrq:r) atnqcaqltlctv o&anq3 lo snatr gil ol aplng V ,'le le uupru
-3T"9 uaqo5 :6OOt'uoqetrossv sra8euehl pue srau/ro Sr.tlplng :o8ee1qj) aqllO o*a4tq3
uonnlolg aqr,, 'ra>1eqn-rg urem1,4 ,aldruexa-JoJ
,,'s8ulplmg aJrryo iler
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plno/vr '1sol sll Jo asneraq Sulp11ng laals puEIuI eql aroJaq S.rlpgnq roJ pasn
alnll lnq ZI6IUI luaplr)B dq paralorsrp 'laa+s ssa1nels '(696T 'zlwroulerqv
ry uosrrreH) q8rnqslllcl uI SrqpUrg [aa]S .S.IL ar{l pue (Sg-ggOt ,uos
pue dqdrnru U 'f .{+Fn uosu/v\org sanbr4 dq ta1ua3 4^If dapq { pruqrlu
aql rvtou) ralual rl^If, go8errqf, le pasn (dop raddor-laals e d11en1re) 1aa1s
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EoqV g96l gzlrlotuerqv ry uoslrr€H) runununle padtuels 'sseF papnlrul
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to slITxs sse18-pue-lelaru aL{I 'sJolsanur Jo} ssaJJns lerJueuq Jo aa}ueren8
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aql pue (ZSOil TroA /vraN rn asnoH ralaT uaqm 's0g6l aql +seal le Flun luau
-dolarrap aJIJJo to arua8rnsar Iear ou paJuarradxa 'q8noql 'sar1n lsoIAI
'st{8FI /v\au o} sluar aJrl}o Eqnpp
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sradoldwg '&P at{l Jo ueaq aq} ol Treq dervr sll puIJ asrnor anp rn pFo/v\
BlqJnqns uI paJPaJ sra>IJo/v\ relloJ allq/v\ Jo uo4eJauaS e 'pua qJe/vt aql lv
SUVTA UVMISOd
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-uou 11e ol dols e lnd II rEM plroM lnq 'sread uorssardag aql So.trnp paile+s
aram '(vgot) E.rlpgng plalc go8erlqf, pue 's8ulp11nq dlqenb Jo Surdnor8
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rofew zvral V 'sJau,v\o dueru lno padrzvt pue dlqsranlaJal olur saruadord
lsoru paqsnd 's1ueua1 paldnqueq qrlqiv\ 's0€6I aqt Jo uorssardap aql
t{l}rvt }Ieq S,tlpunoser B ol aruer s016laq} Jo ruooq Sulpgnq arqJo aql 'rEI
-1;tuet atuoJaq peq sapdr lsnq-ruooq 'sarf,uarrnJ Jrs€q aql se saqrporuruof,
pue plo8 Suneldar lset ara^a uorleruroJul pue raded araqm plrorA E uI
Sqppg
9I
aTIJJO
aql Jo
uE
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lErll 6z6I uI sSutpFq O,{ls I
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sF{l 'paqdl{nru }l sV '{Jtr.',r
+eql ssulJ JelloJ-alrL{-\t .\!a.i
'ura{l pa} }eql suorru-:;
paleJedas 'sarqyo Atau aq] ;
rvrar8
uorlnlo^g I UiIIcIVHf
L6
PART
I
Characteristics of Office Buildings and Office Markets
The design of these buildhgr, which rose straight up from the ground
without setbacks and left much of the lot open, would also encourage major
revisions to the zoning ordinances of New York, Chicago and other cities.
Inside, the space was laid out to the new standards made possible by
central air conditioning. The Inland Steel Buildin g, for example, had all its
mechanical services in a separate core, allowing its office tower to be
designed without interior columns.
Central air conditioning, no\M refined to provide for suppLy and return
zorres, and a rising demand for the larger spaces it made possible, encouraged the new buildings to increase their floor sizes, though floor plates of
15,000 square feet or less remained common. At the same time, new
building forms were made possible by zoning reforms such as those of the
Chicago Zoning Ordinance of 1957 and the New York Ordinance of 1967,
which set limits on floor area ratios instead of imposirg height limits or
requiring upper-floor setbacks. These reforms, reflective of international
style architectural canons, allowed greater desigr flexibility and encouraged setbacks at grade rather than at the upper floors, often granting
bonuses for arcades, pLazas and other amenities.2l
Technology had been evolving behind the scenes during the quiet years,
and elevator manufacturers like Otis and Westinghouse were ready with
new high-speed operatorless systems that could move people to the top of a
4O-story building in less than a minute, popping eyes as well as ears. A
shift from direct to alternating electric current and improvements in
fluorescent lighting (invented 1938) reduced po\ /er consumption while
encouraglng light levels to rise. Oil and sometimes gas-fired boilers had
begun to replace the stoker-fired coal boilers of an earlier era. Lateq, electric
heating, cheaper to install and maintain, would have its turn.
Central air conditioning, still fairly rare in the 1950s because of its cost,
became common and in fact almost mandatory during the 1960s. It reduced
ceiling heights to as little as eight feet, though ceilings of nine feet or more
remained the standard in Class A buildings. Also possible with air
conditioning were floor plans far larger and more flexible than in the past,
with greater core-to-perimeter distances and greater amounts of windowless space lighted by fluorescent fixtures. Older buildings through the
period were often retrofitted with window air conditioners or package
units serving selected tenants.
Meanwhile asphalt, rubber tile and carpet floor coverings were becoming common, and fire-resistant gypsum-based plasterboard, generally
mounted on structural tile block or metal studs for reduced flammability,
had appeared as a lower-cost partitioning material which allowed faster
CHAPTER
1
Evolution oi :ne
and cleaner revision of tena
produced curtain wall elenler
for many buildings.
Decentralization Cre ate
A system of interstate h i
e
Administration and the s * :
first contribute to the vitai::"
accessible than ever to ouil-, :
blight and the ensuing tlj:i
employees, facilitated br- nei.."
undermine the attracti\-enes s
;
communities eager for ne,,,," ,'
with liberal zoning and other
As a result, office builcin ls
in isolation but soon, espe.,= lbv the new express\\'avs. ^:,i
and facilities
hid been conln-,:
Iandscaping and off-she,et
:
markets.
Tenants would also increa_.
sites. Wanting to work closer
private car rather than pu'rL,c :
1980s would induce the de',-=.:
"urban villages" or "edge ;:-=
rng American melropolises
Woodfield area near Chicag:
among the most strikrng el,.:
buildings reflecting this pn.. some 17 miles west of Ch_:" :
square-foot 64-storv Tiansc: I
the Post Oak area of Flt-rusi::l
trally suburban setting.
Through this period t'lc,,--,r :
larger. Column spacrne be:,
increasingly preferred for :a;:i:
50'and 40' x10' . These ccrSr T;
allowed more flexibilitr- ,r", :e:
rooms were installed to a.::
tenants; movable partrhonr--,:
:
carpet and vinyl tile rlot-: ::
asbestos-laden asphalt Cle :hr,
27 Seymour Toll, Zoned America (New York: Grossm an, 1969).
7965, asbestos, an ancien: b;-rng, was beg:nning to L.e re.e --":
plnom lI taleT 'slelralelu ra1es Jo ro^BJ uI palrafar ag o] 8o.t*.rl8"q sem '8ur
-;oordarg roJ pasn dpounuoJ lprralew S,rlpttnq luaTJue uE 'solsaqse '996I
dg 's096I at{l illun sroolJ }sotu paranor peq }eql a111 lleqdse uapel-solsaqse
aql pue s8nr aq+ pareldar .,{la8ret s8qranor roog a111 1dqn pue ladrer
lle/vr-ol-ilelA allqm 'aJuereadde slr apew peq Stmroqrlred alqe^ou 1s1ueua1
Jo spaau ralndruor Surruror8 aq+ aleporuruoJJe ol pailelsul aJaM sruooJ
ralnduor pau8rsap dgenadg 'slnodel lueual ur &ruqXaU arour pamolle
+nq sdeq ,\Zx ,02 f,WSor ssal ue{l pllnq ol aroru lsor asaql . ,0V x ,0V pue ,0g
x ,0€ ' ,0€x ,0€ sdeq Sunnpord 'Ernuueld saqrlrre1 ro1 parraJard dlSursearrur
a1npolu looJ-a^IJ aLIl uo azrptepuels ol ue8aq Suneds utunloJ 'ra8rel
zvror8 ol panwluor sazrs S.qpUnq pue saleld roog porrad sFIl q8norql
'8qil"s ueqrnqns dilnp
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9'I
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aJe 'dasra{ zvraN 'uolalnrd reau I a}no11 pue 'o8etrq3 reau Eare plagpoog
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aql ut suoperluaJuor aJrrto ueqrnxa Jo luarudola^ap aql aJnpu plnom s0g6l
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S.qpUnq arrJJO Jo uorle)ol aql aruangq dt8ulsearrur osle plnom slueua'1
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t{ll/v\ oFed aJqJo /v\oN 's0Z6IaL{} aJrrs arelduoruruor uaaq peq sarlrlrJeJ pue
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lsrlJ 7v 'adeJspuel ueqrnqns aq] ]op o1 ue8aq s8urpgnq a)rJto ']1nsar e sV
'sallluaJrrr raqlo pue Suruoz Ieraqrl
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luarudola^ap aJqJo lJerlle ol lq8noJ sanuanar /v\au ro; ra8ea saqrunururoJ
uEqJnqns 'sarlrJ lerlual ,{ueru Jo dlgtqe1n pue ssauanqJerlle aql aururrapun
o1 u8aq plnom 'saull llsue4 pue sdemssardxa lvrau dq palelIIIrBJ 'saadoldrua
pue sassaursnq arrJJo Jo sqrnqns at{l ol lq8ru Surnsua aq+ pue +q811q
ueqrn Jo uorsuedxa plder aql 5a1e1 'srasn Stldpno ol rana ue{} alqrssarre
arour /vrou 'are1d1a>lreu umolumop aql to &WlI^ aql ol alnqrrluoJ lsrlJ
le ppo/v\-ll paruedtuoJJe leqt uorlezrueqrnqns at{l pue-uolle4srunupv
ramoquasrg aql Sur"rnp paqJunel s.,{ertq8lq a}Elsralu }o rualsds V
sltFIS IEuoIlEroT ro [etr41 saluarJ uoqezqle4uara6l
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-sseur 'porrad aures aql Surrnq 'slnodel lueuat Jo uorsrlal JauealJ pue
LT
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aql Jo asoql se qJns suuola: :
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punor8 aql tuor1 dn IqBIE:ts
uoqnlo^g I UiIIcIVHf
18
PART
I
Characteristics of Office Buildings and Office Markets
become a serious problem for many building owners and manufacturers of
building materials because of the health hazard it posed.
Electric heating systems and floor-to-ceiling windows had become
common by the 1960s, but the energy crisis of 1973-74, when oil prices
soared and people lined up for gasoline on the streets, yielded a new
generation of buildings designed to conserve energy. These tight new
structures were heated mairly by gas, often with provision for the use of oil
as an alternate fuel. They came with low rooflines, reduced heat-wastit g
perimeter wall areas, insulating skins sealed to minimize heat loss, and
smaller double -glazed non-openable metal sash equipped with thermal
barriers.
In the 1980s a new problem was becoming apparent. The artificiallysupplied air which replaced air that had formerly come in through the
windows allowed toxic substances and germs released in the course of
ordinary operations to accumulate inside, making breathing a riskier
proposition. Also of growing concern was the danger of terrorist attack,
which led many o\ /ners to rearrange their building entrances and install
alarm systems for greater security.
In Chicago, major structures such as the |ohn Hancock Center (Skidmore, Owings and Merrill, 197A), Sears Tower (SOM, L974), the Amoco
Building (Edward Durrell Stone with Perkins and Will, L974) and Water
Tower Place, an instant mixed-use landmark (Loebl, Schlossman, Bennett
and Dart, 1975-76), dominated their market for several years. Far from the
Chicago scene in the roughneck city of Houston, a new architectural
standard would be set by |ohnson and Burgee's Pennzoil Place (1972-76),
which demonstrated to the world that good architecture could be worth its
cost. Meanwhile, in New York, Donald Trump was provingatTrump Tower
(Swanke, Hayden, Connell and Partners, L976) that mixed-use design
could be sybaritic as well as more or less functional.
1
CHAPTER
Evolution of the 'lr
In the suburbs, office b'ur
proceeding even faster than L:
continued apace. Some of ti
buildings" prewired for conlr
tions, often with central coml
Vertical chases were made lare
and special wiring. Heatrng a:.
new computer-confrolled ene:
tricity rather than gas or oil ti
control over temperafure an;
almospheric conditions to sui
contaminated by internal ei:l
rnents in the art of slicing an.j
j,
them to be used as facrng niai
numerous building skins \,,---r
perils.
Coming into fashion as :he
post-modernism exemplitre;
-{T&T Building in Nerv \orn l,
?ortland Municipal Senrces F
:
-ouisr-ille (1982). Neu- \c,r..
''r
a
rnasaki and Associates , 1a -:
ls \\-ould be Cesar Pelli,s \\c'ri;
:uropean and Japanese arch:
-,.,-€r€
begrnning to come on the
r^\tA Center (799I) and Rcar;
,-hr.cago. Daring, someh.rl,es :-. lahn, Bofill, Richard R.c'serj
;^,'hile \\-ere rising in Eur.-F; :
.he great strides ma.le ;
THE EASY EIGHTIES
.l,--cuchrifv throughout tl'.:s I
r
l,--''J.i space
and staff cutS
a*:
tir
rul.ls of ne\\- actir,id€s irri i
--;:;.l]rE and commufitcdtti-- r.i
-: :rtr asnglr- rntegrateC ar,.'t :i
::La
By 1982, when the country experienced a serious manufacturing recession
and blue-collar jobs were lost by the million, people began to believe that
the future of the United States luy with the service industries. Large
amounts of space would be necessary to accommodate their growth, much
of it in the suburbs where suburban baby boomers could get white-collar
jobs close to home. The impact of IBM's first personal computer was
multiplied by the proliferation of the photocopieq, the telefax and the
modem, novelties which greatly increased the flow of information and
stimulated the creation of new businesses. Communication via satellite,
fiber optic cable and laser printing increased unbelievably the speed of the
information flow and enabled companies to move anywhere.
:, ::l*rateJ tna mo"\'ement .): :;
.:" :esp,onse, decenfralizai: ',-:\ i:!€ emerglence rrf fast-$r
t:: * € tr"e:r op,eraftons i.,'heie",-,
-=:r:i. :a, Iocahon, Anot:,e:
'n.*-
::
:lii:
llr,-l-)QfShip arf"..i Tr3l'r3i€
*"*;-*-.1*:
:.OlfnE lJf *l'--,-eS=
--.-?.---^
t!aeFttsttl
.Eg-!r!rrg\l_
--::"*.:lf
l-*
j.-_,tst\
dlradord aql u1 dldaap aroru sa^lasuat{} pa^lo^'r 'srapual a8eStr"T:::l
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20
PART
I
Characteristics of Office Buildings and Office Markets
NOT THE END OF THE STORY
As the new century approaches, it is evident that the shape and function of
the office building will continue to evolve, though the directions they will
take are not yet clearly discernible. So will the office building's investment
dynamics and its relationship to its community. Like a living creature, the
office building must adapt to the vagaries of chance and change, as it
always has done in the past, forever ready to make new-and possibly
quite different-economic and social contributions to the constantly unfolding capitalist society which gave it birth.
THE CH
OF TO
BT
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
]ared Shlaes, CRE, MAI, is the author of Real Estate Counseling in a Plain
Brown Wrnpper, published by the Counselors of Real Estate in 7992.
Recently retired as director for special real estate services for Arthur
Andersen & Co., Shlaes had also been founder-president of Shlaes & Co., a
real estate counseling and appraisal firm, and senior vice president of
Arthur Rubloff & Co. in charge of counseling and appraisal services.
Shlaes is a national authority on the economics of landmark properties and
the use of preservation easements, and was co-originator of the internationally acclaimed Chicago Plan for landmark preservation, a transferable
development rights scheme.
Marc A. Weiss, Ph.D", is director of the Real Estate Development Research
Center and associate professor in the Graduate School of Architecture,
Plannitg and Preservation at Columbia University. He previously taught at
MIT. He is author of The Rise of tLrc Community Builders and co-author of ReaI
Estnte Deaelopment Principles and Process. Weiss has written many articles on
urban development and is now writing and producing Prime Property, a
public television series on the history of American real estate. He holds an
undergraduate degree from Stanford University and a Ph.D. from the
University of California, Berkeley.
$'
INTRODUCTION
Chapter 1 described ho\^,- s,
requirements for buildr.gs :
the office building as it is : - -: :
--
_
buildings
in Europe, -\::::.:
technology overwhelrns re J.
Office buildings \-ar\- i:: i
Con, building services a:r j :
-
served. Although the acc€;::
classify office buildi.g. t. r:
cussed later in the chari€:
-t
\{ODERN OFFICE BUI]
The office building tr':es :
:uantity during the 191:; j
inrough the 1960s anC 1r-.
i
=
000,000 square feet or F.--r:
l:,e author lvishes to thar.k J,:,h.: : ;
r-i
S 1S
tanCe.