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Journal of Biomechanics 42 (2009) 242–248
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Journal of Biomechanics
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jbiomech
www.JBiomech.com
Influence of the distance in a roundhouse kick’s execution time and
impact force in Taekwondo
Coral Falco a,, Octavio Alvarez b,c, Isabel Castillo c, Isaac Estevan a, Julio Martos d, Fernando Mugarra d,
Antonio Iradi e
a
Catholic University of Valencia, Faculty of Physical Activity and Sport Sciences, c/Guillem de Castro, 94, 46003 Valencia, Spain
Centro de Medicina del Deporte de Cheste (Cheste Sport Medicine Center), Consell Valencià de l’Esport, Carretera Cheste-Valencia s/n, 46380 Cheste (Valencia), Spain
c
University of Valencia, Faculty of Psychology, Avda. Blasco Ibañez, 21, 46010 Valencia, Spain
d
University of Valencia, Faculty of Physics, Avda. Doctor Moliner, 50, 46100 Burjassot, Valencia, Spain
e
University of Valencia, Faculty of Medicine, Avda. Blasco Ibañez, 15, 46010 Valencia, Spain
b
a r t i c l e in f o
a b s t r a c t
Article history:
Accepted 28 October 2008
Taekwondo, originally a Korean martial art, is well known for its kicks. One of the most frequently used
kicks in competition is Bandal Chagui or roundhouse kick. Excellence in Taekwondo relies on the ability
to make contact with the opponent’s trunk or face with enough force in as little time as possible, while
at the same time avoiding being hit. Thus, the distance between contestants is an important variable to
be taken into consideration. Thirty-one Taekwondo athletes in two different groups (expert and novice,
according to experience in competition) took part in this study. The purpose of this study was to
examine both impact force and execution time in a Bandal Chagui or roundhouse kick, and to explore
the effect of execution distance in these two variables. A new model was developed in order to measure
the force exerted by the body on a load. A force platform and a contact platform were used to measure
these variables. The results showed that there are no significant differences in terms of impact force in
relation to execution distance in expert competitors. Significant and positive correlations between body
mass and impact force (po.01) seem to mean that novice competitors use their body mass to generate
high impact forces. Significant differences were found in competitive experience and execution time for
the three different distances of kicking considered in the study. Standing at a certain further distance
from the opponent should be an advantage for competitors who are used to kick from a further distance
in their training.
& 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords:
Biomechanics
Taekwondo
Execution time
Impact force
Competition distance
1. Introduction
Taekwondo is a martial art that has been an official Olympic
sport since the 2000 Sydney Olympic Games. Taekwondo is a full
contact combat and one of the kicks most used in competition is a
Bandal Chagui or roundhouse kick (Lee, 1983, 1998; Nien et al.,
2004; Roh and Watkinson, 2002). The roundhouse kick,
a multiplanar skill, starts with the kicking leg travelling in an
arc towards the front with the knee in a chambered position. The
knee is extended in a snapping movement, striking the opponent
with metatarsal part of the foot extended.
One of the main strengths of this particular type of kicks is that
they can be easily adjusted according to the target distance during
a competition. Although a long kick is more difficult to perform
than a normal or short kick, it can be useful to score points in an
unexpected attack (Kim et al., 2008). These authors studied the
Corresponding author. Tel.: +34 61 58 99 718.
E-mail address: [email protected] (C. Falco).
0021-9290/$ - see front matter & 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jbiomech.2008.10.041
rotational range of movement of different parts of the body
depending on the distance in a roundhouse kick. Careful
observations during Taekwondo matches suggest that Taekwondo
players spend quite some time in well-defined relative distances
from each other, which allows to perceive how to better reach the
target, or to try finding the optimal attack distance defined by Lee
and Huang (2006), such as the horizontal displacement starting
from the attack leg’s heel in ready position, until the foot finally
contacts the target. Distance control means slipping away from or
towards the opponent with an impeccable timing. Therefore,
competition distance, the first variable in this study, relates to the
time we need to reach the opponent and score. Boey and Xie
(2002) presented, but did not explain, some data on the kick’s
technical performance parameters, such as trajectory distance.
Short distance means less execution time but also less time to
respond to the opponent’s action. Long distance means more time
to respond to the opponent’s action but more time for kick
execution. However, as far as we know, little research has been
carried out on execution time in a roundhouse kick, which is the
second variable in this study, although it is actually one of the
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C. Falco et al. / Journal of Biomechanics 42 (2009) 242–248
factors relevant to score when kicking the opponent, and refers to
how fast the athlete can kick efficiently (Tsai et al., 2004). Pieter
and Heijmans (2003) measured the total duration of the basic
roundhouse kick in American female elite Taekwondo athletes,
which resulted in some 0.68 s. For Sung et al. (1987) the same kick
in Korean elite male athletes took 0.65 s. Boey and Xie (2002)
found that movement times in Taekwondo athletes were about
0.35 s for male and 0.30 s for female. Nien et al. (2004) described
movement times for two different groups in 0.36 and 0.32 s. Tang
et al. (2007) found movement times of about 0.6 s. Finally,
Hermann et al. (2008), for the same kick in Taekwondo athletes
from the German National team, found performance times of
some 0.3 s.
Scoring occurs when those blows (kicks) are performed
accurately and forcefully towards the opponent’s frontal upper
trunk or head (Vieten et al., 2007), while avoiding leaving oneself
open to a counterstrike (Pearson, 1997). From a biomechanical
perspective, Taekwondo skills may be analyzed in actions relative
to force, time and space (Adrian and Cooper, 1995), the variables of
this study. In this sense, impact force, the third variable in this
study, was measured by Balius (1993) who found forces of about
2103 N, Pieter and Pieter (1995) up to 620 N for four different kicks
against a water-filled bag with a built-in force sensor unit. Conkel
et al. (1988) used piezoelectric film and measured impact forces
up to 470 N for the same kick. In contrast, Sidthilaw (1997) using
three accelerometers recorded peak forces of up to 14,000 N for
Thai boxing roundhouse kicks. Nien et al. (2004) used a tri-axial
accelerometer to measure fighting reaction time and attacking
force. Pearson (1997) reported mean impact force of nearly 292 N
with a maximum reaching 382 N. Li et al. (2005) found forces
about 2940 N for males and 2401 N for females in a roundhouse
kick.
Thus, the overall purpose of this study was twofold. First, to
examine the impact force and execution time in a Bandal Chagui
or roundhouse kick. And second, to explore whether the execution
distance affects on impact force and execution time.
243
hysteresis. In order to condition the sensors, 110% of the test weight was placed on
the sensor, thus allowing its stabilization. (This process was repeated five times.
This way, the interface between the sensor and the test subject material was the
same during conditioning, calibration and the test.)
Calibration is the method by which the voltage obtained in the tensor
amplifier, which is connected to the sensor, relates to the force that is acting on the
sensor, expressed in kilos force or in Newtons. The slight variance between sensors
is corrected by calibration. When performed in an environment similar to that of
the test, calibration helped to improve repetition and to neutralize the drift.
Calibrating the sensor allowed to choose force units and to adjust the sensitivity
based on a known load which helped achieve the best resolution. When the
sensitivity of the sensor is increased, the maximum force range essentially
shortens, which results in a greater resolution. The calibration of the force
platform was carried out following the manufacturer’s recommendations, that is,
sensor-by-sensor first, and then, all the five sensors together. Then, in order to
determine the actual force range that matched the sensor output range, a linear
interpolation was done between zero load and the known calibration loads. In
order to provide with a constant drive voltage as well as an output voltage
proportional to the applied force, we started placing 2 kg by 2 kg until reaching
20 kg, and then 10 kg by 10 kg until 110 kg, the weight being centred on the
pressure sensor. The Cronbach’s alpha internal consistency reliability was .985
(interclass coefficient 0.66–0.98). The range of the parameters used to measure
and stabilize the system’s sensitivity is shown in Figs. 1 and 2.
Two trials were carried out for each of the three different distances (6 trials per
athlete), which were recorded considering the subjects’ leg length (distance 2 or
medium distance) and, respectively, 1/3 up the leg (distance 3 or large distance)
and 1/3 down the leg (distance 1 or short distance). The target area was adjusted to
the subjects’ abdomen height. Fig. 3 shows the experimental setup with the three
distances and the mannequin with the force platform on it. The athlete was placed
in front of the mannequin with the supporting leg at the corresponding trial
distance and the kicking leg on the contact platform in attack position. Time starts
when the athlete raises the foot of the kicking leg from the contact platform. Time
stops when the athlete’s foot makes impact with the force platform while reaching
the maximum impact force. Indicators describing the best stroke were analyzed:
that is, maximal stroke force Fmax (N) and time of getting maximal stroke force
tF max ðsÞ.
Execution distance, execution time and impact force were registered in a HP
computer. Weight and height (see Table 1) were measured on a calibrated digital
scale (SECA, Vogel & Halke, GmbH & Co, Hamburg, Germany). Visual Basic 6.0 was
used to develop software capable of analyzing the data captured by the system.
The software developed was suitable for martial arts as it had been specifically
designed for measuring efficient technical performances in martial arts. That is,
2. Methods
2.1. Participants
A sample of 31 Taekwondo players aged from 16 to 31 years (M ¼ 21.57;
S.D. ¼ 4.75) were selected to participate in the study, divided into two groups
according to their competitive experience: group 1 (n ¼ 15 expert athletes) and
group 2 (n ¼ 16 novice athletes). All of them had been practicing Taekwondo for at
least 4 years and gave informed consent to the work. In order to be considered an
expert or elite athlete, each Taekwondo player should have won, at least, a medal
in a Spanish University Taekwondo Championship or in a Spanish Taekwondo
Championship. Within the expert group we found 4 Spanish University
Champions, 3 participants at the Bangkok Universiade ’07, 2 Spanish Champions,
1 European Champion and World Cup Champion, and 1 Silver medal in a World
Championship and European Championship.
2.2. Procedure
After a warm up, all the athletes were asked to use the instep of their foot to
kick a freestanding boxing mannequin that can be adjusted to three different
heights, 160, 173 and 188 cm measured from floor level. The base was designed to
be filled with water to ensure its stability. The body, heavy dense foam padded
torso, itself was 70 cm in height, had a force platform adapted in its trunk.
In order to carry out the present study, a new model was developed to measure
the parameters relating to the mechanical variables relevant to kick performance:
distance, time and force. To measure the force exerted by the body on a load, a
force platform, made with two circular wooden plates of 25 cm diameter, had been
placed with five piezoresistant pressure sensors (A201 model by FLEXIFORCE
Company) in a pentagonal structure on the mannequin.
Five sensors were chosen, taking into consideration that the force of the kick
would be distributed more homogeneously on the area of the hit. Conditioning and
testing the sensors before calibration was essential in achieving accurate results
and was required for new sensors. This helped lessen the effects of drift and
Fig. 1. Signal from sensor’s amplifiers (V) and applied force (N and kg) obtained in
the calibration process.
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C. Falco et al. / Journal of Biomechanics 42 (2009) 242–248
1200
1200
1000
800
800
600
600
N
N
1000
400
400
200
200
0
0
0
2
3
5
1
4
SIGNAL IN THE AMPLIFIER OF SENSOR C (V)
2
3
5
1
4
0
SIGNAL IN THE AMPLIFIER OF SENSOR D (V)
Y(N) = 235.62 X(V) - 17.32 R = 0.99907
SENSITIVITY = 4.5 N
1200
1200
1000
1000
800
800
600
600
N
N
Y(N) = 220.27 X(V) - 26.84 R = 0.9998
SENSITIVITY = 4.2 N
400
400
200
200
0
0
0
1
2
3
4
5
SIGNAL IN THE AMPLIFIER OF SENSOR C (V)
0
1
2
3
4
SIGNAL IN THE AMPLIFIER OF SENSOR D (V)
Y(N) = 218.32 X(V) - 18.94 R = 0.9995
SENSITIVITY = 4.2 N
Y(N) = 272.22 X(V) - 51.65 R = 0.9998
SENSITIVITY = 5.1 N
1200
1000
N
800
600
400
200
0
0
1
2
3
4
5
SIGNAL IN THE AMPLIFIER OF SENSOR E (V)
Y(N) = 214.44 X(V) - 10.40 R = 0.9992
SENSITIVITY = 4.2 N
SENSOR’s SYSTEM SENSITIVITY
Fig. 2. Sensors system calibration and system sensitivity.
following Nien et al. (2004), we developed a device capable of measuring fighting
impact force and movement time, which are the main factors in martial arts
together with reaction time. The block diagram of the sensor’s system, amplifiers,
A/D-microcontroller and start platform is shown in Fig. 4. An example of force
curves measurement is shown in Fig. 5. Statistical analyses were carried out by
SPPS 15.0 computer package (University of Valencia licenses).
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3. Results
The preliminary analysis (Kolmogorov–Smirnov) showed a
normal distribution of all the considered variables. Statistical
descriptive (mean and standard deviation, minimum and maximum) are shown in Table 1. Weight variables were between 46
and 98 kg (M ¼ 69.97; S.D. ¼ 13.76 for expert competitors;
M ¼ 68.12; S.D. ¼ 13.01 for novice competitors); maximum impact force was 3482 N (M ¼ 1994.03; S.D. ¼ 537.37 for expert
competitors; M ¼ 1477.90; S.D. ¼ 679.23 for novice competitors);
minimum execution time was 0.174 s (M ¼ 0.25; S.D. ¼ 0.06
for expert competitors and M ¼ 0.32; S.D. ¼ 0.10 for novice
competitors).
One-factor ANOVA was used to establish differences depending
on competition experience, and Scheffe for multiple comparisons.
Results depending on the competition experience (expert and
novice competitors) showed significant differences in all the
variables of the study. That is maximum impact force (F ¼ 32.74,
po0.001) and execution time (F ¼ 27.52, po0.001). Segmented by
competition experience, significant differences were found for
245
execution time as function of its execution distance for expert
competitors (F ¼ 17.68, po0.001) and novice competitors
(F ¼ 15.30, po0.001), respectively; that is for distance 1 and 3,
and 2 and 3 with Scheffe post-hoc test.
Pearson correlation coefficients were calculated between the
variables of the study (weight, execution time and impact force)
and execution distance. Significant and positive correlations
(po0.01) were found between execution time and execution
distance for expert competitors (r ¼ 0.51). For novice competitors
significant and positive correlations (po0.01) were found
between execution time and execution distance (r ¼ 0.42),
execution time and weight (r ¼ 0.28) and between impact force
and weight (r ¼ 0.57).
A series of regression analysis was performed to test the
execution distance influence, in which the three kinetic variables
(weight, impact force and execution time) were used as
dependent variables. For the expert competitors group, regression
analysis showed that execution distance significantly predicts
execution time (b ¼ 0.51 po0.01), explaining 25.6% of its
variance. For the novice competitors group, regression analysis
showed that execution distance predicts significantly execution
time (b ¼ 0.42 po0.01), explaining 17.6% of its variance. In these
same group, regression analysis showed that weight predicts
significantly execution time (b ¼ 0.28 po0.01), explaining 7.7% of
its variance. Equally, regression analysis showed that weight
predicts significantly impact force (b ¼ 0.57 po0.01), explaining
32.6% of its variance.
4. Discussion
The purpose of this study was to examine the impact force and
execution time in a Bandal Chagui or roundhouse kick, and to
explore whether the execution distance affects any of these two
variables. It was designed in order to measure the parameters
relating to the kinetic biomechanical variables relevant to kick
performance, that is, time, force and distance. Maybe the device
does not mimic the human body inertia, but considering that the
purpose of the study was to compare the differences among
distances and the competition level of the athletes, it might
provide the researchers with a model that could be reproduced
using the same system and material.
Fig. 3. Experimental setup with the three distances.
Table 1
Maximum impact force and execution time between expert and novice competitors in function of its execution distance.
L
Competitors (n ¼ 15)
Non competitors (n ¼ 16)
M
S.D.
Min
Max
M
S.D.
Min
Max
Weight (kg)
69.97
13.76
53
98
68.12
13.01
46
91
Height (m)
1.74
0.12
1.57
1.93
1.72
0.10
1.52
1.89
Fmax (N)
1
2
3
T
2089.80
1987.83
1904.47
1994.03
634.70
466.10
498.30
537.37
1143
1014
1113
1014
3482
2804
2830
3482
1537.25
1591.94
1304.50
1477.90
737.43
671.94
608.63
679.23
193
184
158
158
3339
2839
2552
3339
Texec (s)
1
2
3
T
0.226
0.239
0.297
0.254
0.06
0.025
0.053
0.057
0.174
0.192
0.221
0.174
0.501
0.293
0.464
0.501
0.285
0.279
0.387
0.317
0.088
0.046
0.114
0.100
0.208
0.226
0.263
0.208
0.493
0.472
0.666
0.666
Note: n ¼ 15 for expert competitors, n ¼ 16 for novice competitors, M ¼ Mean, S.D. ¼ standard deviation, L ¼ execution distance (1 ¼ closed; 2 ¼ medium; 3 ¼ large),
Fmax ¼ maximum impact force in Newtons (N), Texec ¼ execution time in seconds (s), weight in kilograms (kg). T ¼ mean of total trials.
Significant differences po0.001.
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Fig. 4. Sensor’s system, amplifiers, A/D-microcontroller and start platform.
The internal consistency analysis provided with information on
a reliable measurement mechanism that allowed analyzing,
understanding and reproducing data from martial arts training.
The results on execution time and impact force showed that the
martial arts measuring device was able to discriminate the
difference between expert and novice competitors.
The study shows higher maximum impact forces for expert
competitors than for novice competitors. The maximum impact
force differences between the two groups were significant. Also,
expert competitors were more powerful in longer distances
(M ¼ 1904.47; S.D. ¼ 537.37) than novice competitors in the
closest (M ¼ 1537.25; S.D. ¼ 737.43). As far as the execution
distance is concerned, no differences were found for the impact
force in expert competitors, but these differences became
significant for novice competitors. All this might suggest that
execution distance does not have an influence on impact force as
competition level increases.
On the other hand, significant and positive correlations
between body mass and impact force in novice competitors
(po0.01) seem to suggest that these athletes use their body mass
to generate high impact forces instead of using it to reach the goal,
due to the kinetic link principle. That is, for novice competitors,
weight predicts significantly impact force (b ¼ 0.57 po0.01),
explaining 32.6% of its variance. Also, Pieter and Pieter (1995) and
Pedzich et al. (2006) found that the correlations between these
parameters showed the athlete’s ability to increase the impact
force as a consequence of a greater body mass.
Our results are consistent with Balius (1993) and Li et al.
(2005). Nevertheless, Pieter and Pieter (1995), Conkel et al. (1988),
Nien et al. (2004) and Pearson (1997) also reported impact forces
that are lower than in our results. Despite variations in data
collection techniques, it is generally evident that a roundhouse
kick performed by elite athletes can generate largest impact
forces.
Expert competitors are faster than novice competitors in all
distances and as execution distance increases, so do their
differences for each distance. Expert competitors’ mean execution
time in short distance was 0.23 s, 0.24 s for the medium distance
and 0.30 s for the largest distance while for novice competitors it
was 0.28, 0.28 and 0.39 s for the short, medium and large distance,
respectively. Although expert as novice competitors showed
significant differences in execution time between large and short,
and large and medium, it means a difference of 0.07 s for expert
competitors between the short and the large distance and almost
0.10 s for novice competitors. In this line, expert competitors in
large distance are almost faster than novice competitors in the
short distance.
On the other hand, reaction time needed to start a counterattack movement or to avoid the attack reported by Vieten et al.
(2007) was 341 ms. Nien et al. (2004) also reported reaction times
of 363 and 329 ms for two different groups. All this taken into
consideration, it seems to suggest that standing further away from
the opponent should be an advantage for competitors who are
used to kick from a further distance in their training.
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247
immediate feedback provided by the software, than to get a
minimum execution/movement time may have interfered with
the results of the study as far as execution/movement time is
concerned.
Despite these limitations, it is undeniable that the system
allows coaches to obtain, in a quick and simple manner,
quantitative parameters that can be compared and used during
the athlete’s technical training and that may end up becoming
fundamental variables when considering goals and results. During
the training, the athletes verbalized that they were feeling
uncomfortable hitting from the long distance, but the results
show that it is possible to hit with the same impact force from the
three distances without significant differences. In martial arts in
general, and in Taekwondo in particular, where the distance is a
fundamental variable during the combat, knowing its relationship
with the other variables could be a good way to plan the training.
Obviously, in the pursuit of excellence, further research is required
in order to define the goals in terms of execution time, impact
force and how they relate to reaction time, as well as how both
attention and motivation influence Taekwondo kicks in a real
combat, which will help to understand how the variables
influence in moments of high performance.
Conflict of interest statement
All of us (authors) declare that we do not have any financial or
personal relationships with other people or organisations that
could inappropriately influence our work.
Fig. 5. Measure of a force curve. On the top the mean of the 5 s. On the bottom the
signal of each sensor.
Perhaps, due to the range of definitions and methods used, it is
difficult to find consistencies in research on the impact force of
martial arts kicks. Authors have often neglected to clarify whether
they were measuring peak, average, or some other form of
‘‘impact force’’. Another possible reason for the differences is the
variation in the kicking technique. Subjects using the ball of the
foot may have performed the kick at slightly less than maximal
effort for fear of injuring their toes on the bag. The nature of the
target may have also been a factor. In some cases, comparisons
may lead us to confusion due to existing differences regarding the
nature of the target where subjects kick. All the studies mentioned
above used targets that were larger than the ones used for the
present study. Stroke forces of the same techniques, presented in
literature, are characterised by repeated differentiation of values.
This is definitely due to the researchers’ use of measurement
equipment of different rigidity level. The size, inertia and
elasticity of the target have an influence on the measurement of
the impact force. As the accuracy requirement increases, a
decrease in impact force would be expected. The equipment used
to register the data has an influence on the value of the obtained
impact force, which must be then considered valid and reliable.
Video data, accelerometers and piezoelectric film, are all indirect
measures of the impact force; hence a force platform seems to be
the best form of equipment to collect such data.
A limitation of the study was the use of a mannequin that
mimics the human body with its inertia. Although it is the best in
the market, and is capable of simulating the human movement,
using a more rigid target could have injured the athletes, which
was out of question. Another limitation of the study was the
athlete’s motivation. The obvious fact that subjects were more
motivated to get a high maximum impact force because of the
Acknowledgment
This investigation has been supported by Valencia University
Sport Service.
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