Analysis of the Petroleum Systems of the Lusitanian Basin (Western
Transcrição
Analysis of the Petroleum Systems of the Lusitanian Basin (Western
Analysis of the Petroleum Systems of the Lusitanian Basin (Western Iberian Margin)—A Tool for Deep Offshore Exploration Pena dos Reis, Rui Centro de Geociências Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia da Universidade de Coimbra Lg Marquês de Pombal 3000-272 Coimbra, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] EP M Pimentel, Nuno Centro de Geologia Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade Lisboa Campo Grande C-6 1749-016 Lisboa, Portugal e-mail: [email protected] Abstract C SS Mesozoic and Tertiary seals and traps. Related processes, such as organic matter maturation and hydrocarbons migration are also discussed. The characteristics of these elements and processes are analysed and implications for deep offshore exploration are discussed. G A synthesis of the knowledge about the Lusitanian Basin is presented here, focusing on its stratigraphic record, sedimentary infill, evolution, and petroleum systems. Petroleum system elements are characterized, including Palaeozoic and Mesozoic source rocks, siliciclastic and carbonate reservoirs, and 14 Introduction op yr ig ht 20 The Lusitanian Basin is one of the Western Iberian Margin sedimentary basins related with the opening of the North Atlantic (Fig. 1) (Wilson et al., 1989). These basins have their counterparts in the eastern Canada Jeanne D’Arc and Whale basins, as part of the Iberia-Newfoundland conjugate margins complex (eg., Wilson et al., 1989; Pinheiro et al., 1996; PeronPinvidic and Manatchal, 2009). The evolution of all these basins are defined by the same geodynamic controls but also by specific local constraints, explaining different characteristics and success in exploration. In the Canadian basins, the intense exploration has led to several good production and development results, but the Iberian basins have not had so far similar positive results. However, exploration continues and a good understanding of these basins’ evolution and characteristics is crucial to enhance the chances of future success. This paper deals with the evolution of the mainly onshore Lusitanian Basin and its petroleum systems, in order to establish an analog for other nearby offshore basins, aiming to contribute to a better regional framework for exploration in this region (Fig. 1). In this paper we present a summary of this approach, based on an overview of the basin evolution and an analysis of the related petroleum systems and elements, with implications on the deep offshore ongoing exploration. Lusitanian Basin’s Evolution and Infill The Lusitanian Basin extends for about 250 km north-south and 100 km east-west, facing the Atlantic to the west, representing the inner and most proximal margins of much larger basins extending towards the shallow and deep offshore (LB in Fig. 1). The geological record of the Western Iberian Margin’s evolution is present in several nearby basins sharing similarities, such as the offshore Porto and Galicia basins in northern Iberia (PB, GB in Fig. 1), the Peniche and Alentejo C 4 basins in southwestern Iberia (PenB, AB in Fig. 1) and the Gulf of Cadiz Basin in southern Iberia (Gb in Fig. 1). The Lusitanian Basin resulted from the initial extension of the Pangea’s continental crust and later opening of the North Atlantic Ocean as a result of rifting and seafloor spreading. The evolution of the Paleozoic basement and the Mesozoic extension created a complex succession of events and sedimentary Sedimentary Basins: Origin, Depositional Histories, and Petroleum Systems 1 7 C SS EP M Since the Late Carboniferous and during Permian times, gradual uplift and erosion brought these rocks to more shallow structural domains and predominantly gentle deformation, commonly known as “lateVariscan faulting.” These north-northeast/south-southwest sinistral and northwest-southeast dextral movements conditioned the origin and configuration of the Lusitanian Basin from the Late Triassic, in the global context of the Pangaea break-up and intracontinental troughs in western Europe and eastern America (Wilson et al., 1989) (Fig. 2). In western Iberia, strong subsidence resulted in north-northeast/south-southwest trending asymmetric grabens that rapidly filled by alluvial-fan siliciclastic deposits passing to sabkha evaporite clays and salts, under arid climatic conditions. This sedimentary infill corresponds to the Silves Group (Palain, 1976) and is composed mainly of coarse siliciclastic red-beds forming two fining-upward megasequences (Fig. 4). Its total thickness is up to 400 meters and thee paleogeographic reconstructions point to the development of north-northwest/south-southeast fault-bounded half-grabens, separated by intra-rift basement horst blocks (Uphoff, 2005). These deposits show good reservoir potential and have been targeted for gas as part of a pre-salt petroleum system (Uphoff, 2005). These Upper Triassic grabens became gradually filled-up and sabkha-like environments became predominant, promoting the accumulation of red clays and evaporites in the most subsiding parts of the basin (Dagorda Formation) (Palain, 1976). The resulting shaly deposits, some hundreds of meters thick, include significant amounts of gypsum and halite, which would be fundamental for the tectonic deformation of the Meso-Cenozoic units, acting as “decollement” level and also as diapiric masses with kilometric-scale vertical movements, locally piercing the Mesozoic cover (Kullberg, 2000) (Figs. 2 and 3). In the Sinemurian, the Hettangian sabkha-like to coastal environments are replaced by open marine, predominantly carbonate environments, such as the Coimbra Group (Soares et al., 2007) (Fig. 4). This unit is about 200 m thick and present throughout the basin as a result of the paleogeographic coalescence of the initial troughs and an expansive onlap of a carbonate ramp over the basement towards the East. Dolomitic limestones (São Miguel Formation) are present in the northern and eastern areas, whereas the marly limestones are present in central and western areas of the basin (Água de Madeiros Formation) (Duarte and op yr ig ht 20 14 G infill (Figs. 2 and 3). The influence of the basement on the basin’s evolution may be addressed along two main lines: (i) its lithologies, including the presence of units having source-rock potential; (ii) its structures, particularly the presence of important regional faults and their movement during the Mesozoic and Tertiary (e.g., Pena dos Reis et al., 2012 Dinis et al., 2008; Pena dos Reis et al., 2000) The complex structure of the Paleozoic basement of western Iberia resulted mainly from the collision and deformation of two terranes (e.g., Ribeiro et al., 1979, 1990, 2007; Matte, 1991): (i) the Iberian Terrane with the Central Iberian Zone (CIZ) and the Ossa Morena Zone (OMZ); and (ii) the Southern Portuguese Terrane and its Zone (SPZ). The joint deformation of all this basement is related with the Ibero-Armorican Arch developed in the Late Paleozoic during the Variscan Orogeny. The Central Iberian Zone includes Silurian units having organic matter in pelitic layers, sometimes several hundred meters thick (Romão et al., 2005). However, metamorphism may have over maturated those units and most (if not all) of the hydrocarbons may have been lost. Late Carboniferous deposits are more prospective, considering their post-orogenic age and therefore not so high maturation. They have been deposited in narrow intra-mountain lacustrine basins as fining-upward siliciclastic deposits, including black shales and coal seams at the top (Domingos et al., 1983). The Ossa Morena Zone includes several units containing organic-rich layers, affected by low-grade metamorphism that has caused intense maturation (Chaminé et al., 2003). However, some outcropping Silurian graptolitic black-shales show highly variable Ro% equivalent values, ranging from the late oil-window to the gas-window, probably controlled by the proximity to major fault zones (Uphoff, 2005; Machado et al., 2011). The Southern Portuguese Zone includes Devonian to Late Carboniferous metasedimentary rocks, including some black-shales having source rock potential, such as the fine-grained turbidites of the Baixo Alentejo Flysh Group (Oliveira, 1983). Although they are affected by low-grade metamorphism and are generally over mature (McCormack et al., 2007; Fernandes et al., 2012), preliminary data (Barberes, 2013) suggests that there may have been some places where the group is preserved within the gas-window. C 4 3 7 Pena dos Reis and Pimentel 2 7 C SS EP M related with a Late Jurassic rifting event, recognized in subsidence curves and related with the beginning of the Atlantic opening to the south of Iberia (Wilson et al., 1989; Rasmussen et al., 1998). The Abadia Formation corresponds to the riftclimax, and its deposits have been the classical target of oil exploration in the Lusitanian Basin during the 20th century (DPEP, 2013). Prograding continental siliciclastics continue to cover the basin during the Tithonian, resulting in the accumulation of almost 1 km of fluviodeltaic sands and clays (Lourinhã Formation; Hill, 1988). Late Tithonian to early Berriasian sediments are generally named as the “Purbeck Facies” and include fluvial to coastal siliciclastics. The Cretaceous evolution of the Lusitanian Basin is closely related with the opening of the North Atlantic Ocean. This opening has been developed in three steps which are well identified in the geological record as break-up unconformities (Dinis et al., 2008). The beginning of the Early Cretaceous is also marked by an important magmatic event indicated by several dykes mainly associated with diapiric piercing structures (Martins et al., 2010). Lower Cretaceous sediments are known only in the south and central sectors of the Lusitanian basin, indicating an important uplift of the north sector during most of this time period (Fig. 4). The sedimentary record is composed mainly of fluvial to coastal fine-grained siliciclastics and impure limestones, grouped into two cycles, separated by unconformities associated to distinct segments of the North Atlantic opening (Rey et al., 2006; Dinis et al., 2008) (Fig. 4). The late Berriasian to early Barremian cycle is interpreted as associated to the opening of the Tagus segment, whereas the early Barremian to midAptian cycle is associated to the opening of the Iberian segment (Dinis et al., 2008). The late Aptian unconformity is present along the whole basin, resulting in abundant coarse siliciclastics (Figueira da Foz Formation) in top of Early Cretaceous sequences in the South or Jurassic uplifted and eroded sequences in the North (Santos et al., 2010). Abundant siliciclastics covered the basin during the Albian (Rey et al., 2006). Late Cretaceous evolution corresponds to the development of a classical passive margin, controlled both by the uplift of the continental areas and the eustatic level variations. During the Albian and Cenomanian, a global eustatic sea-level rise result in the marine invasion of most of the basin and the gradual development of a carbonate (rudist and coral-buildups) op yr ig ht 20 14 G Soares, 2002; Azerêdo et al., 2003). The later includes a lower unit only a few tenths of meters in thickness, deposited in open marine environments but having very good organic content of upper Sinemurian–lowermost Pliensbachian age (Polvoeira Member; Duarte and Soares, 2002; Duarte et al., 2004, 2010, 2012). During the Early Jurassic, sedimentation took place in a carbonate ramp depositional system, giving place to a thick sequence of marly limestones, known in exploration and the 20th century literature as the Brenha Group (Witt, 1977). The sedimentation began with the deposition of about one hundred meters of alternating centimeter-thick layers of marls and limestones of Pliensbachian age (Vale das Fontes Formation; Rocha et al., 1996; Duarte and Soares, 2002; Azerêdo et al., 2003), also having very good generation potential (e.g., Oliveira et al., 2006; Silva et al., 2010; Duarte et al., 2010; Spigolon et al., 2011). The open marine marly sedimentation gradually gave place to a predominance of limestones everywhere in the basin–Cabo Mondego Formation in the North (Azerêdo et al., 2003) and Candeeiros Group in the South (Witt, 1977). An overall regression gradually promoted shallower sedimentation, reaching emersion and depositional hiatus in the eastern border of the basin during the Callovian (Azerêdo et al., 2002, 2003). Late Jurassic sedimentation started in midOxfordian times, following a Callovian forced regression and emersion (Azerêdo et al., 2002) (Fig. 4). This situation is related with an important geodynamic reorganization of the basin (Wilson et al., 1989; Hiscott et al., 1990), resulting in a Late Jurassic depositional trough elongated northeast-southwest and open to the southwest. The first Oxfordian sediments correspond to a few hundred meters of laminated (mm scale) marly limestones deposited in coastal to transitional environments (Cabaços Formation; Azerêdo et al., 2002) containing organic-rich layers having very good generation potential (Spigolon et al., 2011; DPEP, 2013).A rapid marine invasion resulted in the accumulation of a few hundred meters of compact grey marine limestones containing marly intercalations towards the top (Montejunto Formation; Atrops and Marques, 1988). This marine carbonate sedimentation was suddenly interrupted by a major input of coarse siliciclastics all over the basin (Abadia Formation), reaching more than thousand meters thick in the basin depocenters (Pena dos Reis et al, 2000). This thick Kimmeridgian infill is C 4 3 7 Pena dos Reis and Pimentel 3 7 The evolution of the Lusitanian Basin basically ended during the Late Cretaceous. However, during the Tertiary, the area occupied by the basin was subjected to inversion and uplift, mainly along its northeastsouthwest central axis; i.e., the axis of the Late Jurassic depocenter. Tertiary basins developed on each side of this mainly carbonates mountain-chain–the Mondego Basin to the northwest and the Tejo Basin to the southeast (Figs. 2 and 3). EP M platform, known as Cacém Formation. These conditions continue until the Turonian (Callapez, 2008). In late Turonian times, the first signs of inversion in the passive margin are indicated by prograding siliciclastics in the northern sector and emersion/erosion in the southern sector. Inversion continues until the end of the Late Cretaceous, and sedimentation gradually becomes restricted to smaller areas in the north. Magmatic intrusions are known from this age, closely related with the instability caused by the evolution of the Biscay (Martins et al., 2010). Petroleum Systems’ Elements and Processes C total thickness around 75 m in the coastal outcrops of Peniche. The upper member is the “Marly Limestones with organic rich facies" having a thickness of about 30 m (Duarte et al., 2010) and TOC values range from 0– 25%. Both units are part of the Lower Jurassic successions which extend over the basin. However, due to paleogeographic conditions, it is expected the facies having higher potential is in the deeper parts of the basin’s homoclinal ramp, towards the northwest (Pena dos Reis et al., 2011; Duarte et al., 2012). The Late Jurassic source-rock is composed of marly limestones deposited in lacustrine, lagoonal, and coastal environments and have been studied by several authors (e.g., Spigolon et al., 2011; Silva et al., 2013). Total thickness of this unit is around 200 meters and TOC values in darker layers usually range from 2 to 5 %, with restricted layers reaching up to 10-30%. Kerogen types are variable; Type III predominates, Type I and IV are also present. Organic matter accumulation and preservation has taken place in restricted environments developed in most areas of the basin, related with coastal regions having continental inputs and ephemeral marine incursions. Overall, regional variations point to an important input of terrestrial plantdebris in the northern areas and to predominant algal mats development in the southern areas (Spigolon et al., 2011), although the heterogeneity of the deposits may eventually suggest a wider lateral variability (Silva et al., 2013). Although the richest layers are not strictly contemporaneous, depending on local highs and lows controlling the marine incursions, this sourcerock could be considered basin-wide and having a large variation of organic matter type (Silva et al., 2013). op yr ig ht 20 14 G The Lusitanian Basin contains several formations having source-rock potential (Figs. 3 and 5), which have been identified and studied since the beginning of exploration in Portugal (DPEP, 2013), including Silurian deep-marine black-shales, Carboniferous turbiditic shales, Lower Jurassic shaly marls, and Upper Jurassic marly limestones (Oxfordian). Other formations having source-rock potential include the Dagorda Formation (Hettangian), the Abadia Formation (Kimmeridgian) and the Cacém Formation (Cenomanian-Turonian). The Lower Jurassic source rock is composed of marly black shales deposited in a fully open marine environment (Duarte and Soares, 2002; Duarte et al., 2010, 2012; Silva et al., 2010, 2011). Total thickness of these deposits is about 100 m. Although there are several organic-rich layers, TOC values are highly variable. Kerogen is mainly of type II, III, although some intervals are Type I (Duarte et al., 2010; 2012; Spigolon et al., 2010). Accumulation and preservation of organic matter occurred in this setting particularly close to the “maximum flooding surfaces” of two distinct second-order sequences (Duarte et al., 2010). Those two organic-rich units have been studied in detail, regarding TOC, isotopes, palynofacies, etc. (Duarte et al., 2010, 2012; Silva et al., 2010, 2011; Poças Ribeiro et al., 2013) The lower organic-rich unit is the upper Sinemurian to lower Pliensbachian Água de Madeiros Formation, which is about 42 m in the coastal outcrops of São Pedro de Muel (Duarte et al., 2012). TOC values are mostly over 7 wt. %, reaching up to 22 wt. % (Duarte et al., 2012). The upper organic-rich unit is the Pliensbachian Vale das Fontes Formation, having a SS Source rocks C 4 3 7 Pena dos Reis and Pimentel 4 7 Maturation C SS EP M rifting phase. This phase is responsible for an increase in heat flow and, at the same time much overburden. In most places maturation has been attained in the Late Jurassic (Kimmeridgian to Tithonian) and it has been most prominent in the Oxfordian depocenters, namely the Central Sector’s sub-basins of Arruda, Bombarral, and Freixial (Teixeira et al., 2012, 2014). As a general statement considering vitrinite reflectance data (BEICIP-FRANLAB, 1996) and thermal basin modelling studies (Teixeira et al., 2012, 2014), it may be considered that the Lower Jurassic source-rock is mature for oil in the north sector of the basin and mature for gas in the south sector, whereas the Upper Jurassic source rocks may be not mature in the north sector and are mostly mature in the south sector. However, local depocenters are areas of increased overburden and maturation of the Lower Jurassic source-rock in the northern sector, which may be the case close to São Pedro de Muel (Porto Energy, 2012). The same kind of situation may have promoted maturation of Upper Jurassic source-rocks in northern depocenter areas. 14 G Both Jurassic source-rocks can be in the hydrocarbon generation window, although not everywhere in the basin, as a result of the highly heterogeneous basin’s subsidence and overburden, especially in the Late Jurassic. Non-mature Lower Jurassic source-rocks are known in outcrop, namely at the Peniche, Montemor-oVelho, and São Pedro de Muel sections (Oliveira et al., 2006; Silva et al., 2010; Spigolon et al., 2011; Duarte et al., 2012), but preliminary maturation modelling may suggest that the units have reached maturity in several exploration wells in the basin (Teixeira et al., 2012, 2014). These non-mature Late Jurassic sourcerocks are also present in different outcrops, such as Cabo Mondego or Montejunto (Spigolon et al, 2011), whereas they reached the oil-window in nearby wells such as SB-1, FX-1 and CP-1 (Teixeira et al., 2012, 2014). This situation points to a very important role of differential subsidence along the basin, both in time and space. Thermal modeling in different locations point to a crucial role played by the Late Jurassic intense siliciclastic input into the basin, related to the Oxfordian 20 Migration op yr ig ht Well and field data include non-commercial occurrences of oil and gas in many wells and a few oil shows in outcrops, proving the existence of maturation and subsequent migration of hydrocarbons. Biomarkers studies (Spigolon et al., 2011) point to a potential for two different oil systems related to the migration of hydrocarbons towards different reservoir units. A Lower Jurassic source rock provenance is identified in oil shows occurring in several outcrops around diapir walls in the northern sector of the basin. The oil is believed to have migrated from the Lower Jurassic marls along the faults created (or used) during the salt uplift, feeding a major sandstone reservoir of Aptian age (Figueira da Foz Formation) (Fig. 4). These pathways have been active probably since the Late Jurassic and should have been enhanced at major halokinetic events related with compression, namely in the Late Cretaceous (with documented extrusion; Pena dos Reis, 2000) and the late Miocene (with intense C 4 3 7 Pena dos Reis and Pimentel alpine uplift; Ribeiro et al., 1980), feeding the Cretaceous sandstones. Another pattern of migration corresponds to hydrocarbons of an Oxfordian provenance (Cabaços Formation) in Upper Jurassic reservoir units. This oil system is very frequently identified in oil-shows (DPEP, 2013) and also in some outcrops (Spigolon et al., 2010). This play is only evident in the southern sector, where post-Oxfordian successions are thick enough to have the necessary overburden. The source rocks are mid-Oxfordian marly limestones (Cabaços Formation) and the reservoir units include late Oxfordian fractured carbonates (Montejunto Formation) and Kimmeridgian turbiditic siliciclastics (Abadia Formation). This system comprises only Upper Jurassic units and its stratigraphical proximity explains the frequency of this kind oil shows in the Lusitanian Basin (Pena dos Reis and Pimentel, 2011). 5 7 Reservoirs C SS EP M reefal build-ups, both with good reservoir potential (Uphoff et al., 2010). Besides interparticle and vuggy porosity, these units may also be fractured reservoirs. The Upper Jurassic limestones of the Montejunto Formation may also contain porous (Uphoff et al., 2010) fractured reservoirs, enhanced by its stratigraphic and geometric proximity to the Upper Jurassic source-rock of the Cabaços Formation (Pena dos Reis and Pimental, 2011). This fact is particularly important close to diapiric structures promoting fractures and trapping, as seen in the Torres Vedras oil-seep (Spigolon et al., 2010). The fine- to coarse-grained turbiditic deposits of the Abadia Formation contains abundant sandy layers having reservoir potential. However, once again, carbonate cementation, especially where calciclastic particles are present, partially obliterates the intergranular porosity (Garcia et al., 2010). The following prograding fluviodeltaic sequence (Lourinhã Formation) is compositionally immature, resulting in interesting inter- and intragranular porosities, with values around 10 to 15%. Early diagenetic carbonate cementation has been incomplete, inhibiting fill compaction and preserving most of the primary porosity (Atlantis, 2010). Lower Cretaceous sedimentation includes fluvial and transitional to coastal deposits having some reservoir potential. The presence of infiltrated clays in fluvial units and irregular carbonate cementation in coastal units has diminished its intergranular porosity, resulting in an average around 5% (Atlantis, 2010). Locally, some coastal high energy or biohermal carbonates have good primary porosity (Dinis et al., 2008). Cenomanian transgression resulted in the marine flooding of the basin and deposition of shallow marine and reefal carbonate units that also have good reservoir properties (Dinis et al., 2008). The Cenozoic inversion resulted in basins uplift and locally to some intracontinental basins containing some hundreds of meters of mainly siliciclastic infill (Pais et al., 2012). Paleogene and Miocene infill include immature and matrix-rich clays that have low reservoir potential, but also transgression related bioclastic limestones that have good intergranular and moldic porosities. Cleaner sands were deposited in the basin during the late Miocene and Pliocene that could be reservoir properties provided a seal is present. op yr ig ht 20 14 G The Lusitanian Basin has a thick sedimentary infill and a very distinct facies, including a wide range of siliciclastic, carbonate, and mixed deposits (Fig. 3). Granular reservoirs are present in siliciclastic continental, transitional, and marine facies; porous reservoirs in some coastal carbonates; and fractured reservoirs in several shallow marine to deep marine carbonates of different ages (Pena dos Reis and Pimentel, 2010a, 2010b). Oil seeps and oil shows have been observed in siliciclastic and carbonate units of different ages, including Late Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous (DPEP, 2012). However, a comprehensive and systematic study of the several reservoir units hass yet to be produced and published, and most of the following considerations are based on sparse bibliographic references and in personal observations. The sedimentary record of the Lusitanian Basin includes abundant siliciclastic deposits related to phases of intense tectonic activity and subsequent erosion and accumulation. Many of those deposits were initially very porous, but in many cases diagenesis obliterated a significant part of it. However, is may be assumed that the basin included enough volume of siliciclastic rocks to contain all the oil that had been generated during the Mesozoic. The basal deposits of the basin are the Silves Group siliciclastics of Late Triassic age. Proximal to distal alluvial-fan red-beds have intergranular porosity partially filled by carbonate cementation (Atlantis, 2010), with values ranging from 16% to 23%, locally up to 70%. The Lower Jurassic sequence includes thick, compact, and dolomitized carbonate units, especially at the bordering areas of the basin, known in outcrop close to the basement to the east. The Dagorda Formation includes dolomites with up to 20% primary porosity (Uphoff, 2005), whereas at the Coimbra Formation intercrystalline and vuggy porosity with brecciation related to early meteoric diagenesis are important. From the Pliensbachian onward, the monotonous alternation of limestones and marls of the Brenha Group have low reservoir potential, although some fracture-related porosity may be present. Middle Jurassic units correspond to the Candeeiros Formation, which is predominantly shallow marine carbonates having high to moderate energy textures and some C 4 3 7 Pena dos Reis and Pimentel 6 7 Traps EP M with sandy layers, as is the case of the Upper Jurassic and Lower Cretaceous units. However, Upper Cretaceous and Tertiary shaly units may have acted as important seals, particularly in the more subsiding or distal areas of the basin. The behaviour of carbonate units as seals is highly dependent on the presence or absence of dense fractures that promote leakage. Most of the carbonate units of the Lower-Middle Jurassic and Upper Cretaceous may act as seals provided they have not been affected by intense fragile deformation, as is usually seen (for example) associated with diapiric outcropping structures. ig ht 20 14 G The knowledge about the characteristics of geological units having seal potential in the Lusitanian Basin is well behind what has been presented for the other petroleum system elements. The Dagorda Formation is probably the main effective seal in the basin, consisting of compact red clays containing variable amounts of gypsum and halite having thicknesses up to hundreds of meters. This thick shaly package is virtually impermeable and its plasticity confers the ability to deform and to pierce higher stratigraphic levels, controlling vertical migration and sealing different reservoirs. There are several other shaly units, but they cannot be perfect seals due to frequent intercalations SS Seals different source-rocks, reservoirs, and seals have been essential to promote migration and trapping of hydrocarbons (Fig. 4). The main tectonic events promoting the intense structuration of the basin took place during the Late Jurassic (rift-climax) and Late Cretaceous (beginning of the alpine inversion), frequently involving the Hettangian plastic evaporites, affecting the petroleum systems and creating multiple traps (Fig. 4). Alpine inversion during the Tertiary has also been important for deformation and creation of structural traps in many places of the basin (Ribeiro et al., 1980). However, the probable fracture network development may have also destroyed many traps’ integrity, enhancing leakage and even total loss of prior hydrocarbon accumulations. C Several stratigraphic traps may be present in the Lusitanian basin. The first one is the direct superposition of Hettangian clays and evaporites over Late Triassic sandstones, promoting accumulation of hydrocarbons both from underlying Palaeozoic units and from down-thrown Jurassic source-rocks (Figs. 3 and 4). Another favourable situation is the occurrence of biohermal build-ups in several places and during several times, namely the Middle Jurassic (e.g., at the Pataias cement quarry), Upper Jurassic (Amaral Formation) and Upper Cretaceous (Cenomanian reefs). Structural traps seem to have a predominant role in the Lusitanian Basin as a consequence from the intense tectonic deformation during the Mesozoic extension and Tertiary compression. Up-lift and subsidence of tectonic blocks bringing side-by-side yr Petroleum Systems and Plays op From the analysis of the petroleum system elements and its articulation in space and time, three main petroleum systems may be considered in the Lusitanian Basin (Pena dos Reis and Pimentel, 2010a, 2010b) (Fig. 5). A pre-salt petroleum system may be defined as sourced by meta-sedimentary Paleozoic rocks feeding Upper Triassic siliciclastic reservoirs and sealed by the Hettangian evaporitic clays. This kind of play has been initially described for the Silurian black-shales and the Silves Group sandstones (Uphoff, 2005). Those graptolitic black-sales have reached the oil and gas-window in Paleozoic times, before late Variscan uplift and erosion and may have kept some generative potential for C 4 3 7 Pena dos Reis and Pimentel further gas expulsion during the Mesozoic reburial (Uphoff, 2005). The same line of thought may be developed regarding other Palaeozoic units having source-rock potential, such as the Carboniferous turbidites of the Southern Portuguese Zone (Fernandes et al., 2012; McCormack et al., 2007; Barberes, 2013). The main conditioning factor seems to be the (over) maturation of such Lower and Upper Palaeozoic rocks. However, highly variable results have been reported, sometimes in outcrops a few meters apart (Uphoff, 2005; McCormack et al., 2007). This situation points to the role of late Variscan thin-skinned tectonics, resulting in thrust sheets bringing side-by-side units from different depths and structural settings. 7 7 C SS EP M impregnated the overlying Montejunto Formation limestones and the Abadia Formation turbidites (Spigolon et al., 2010; Uphoff et al., 2010; Pena dos Reis and Pimentel, 2011). The seal for this kind of play could be Cretaceous and/or Tertiary clays and siltstones. A fourth petroleum system may be present, corresponding to the accumulation of hydrocarbons in the Tertiary cover of the Lusitanian basin. Several source rocks might be involved depending on the sector of the basin, and the Tertiary deposits would act both as reservoirs and seals. Due to the generally thin sedimentary cover in the inversion-related Tertiary continental basins (a maximum of 800 meters) south of Lisbon (Ribeiro et al., 1979), this system should naturally be more prominent in the offshore areas, where the Tertiary prograding accumulations can reach greater thicknesses (Alves et al., 2003). To synthesize, we may consider that several petroleum systems and plays have been active and are proven in the Lusitanian basin, involving source-rocks and reservoirs of different ages and lithological characteristics (Fig. 5). Preliminary modelling attempts suggest that maturation has been promoted by intense subsidence and burial, mainly in Late Jurassic times, at different intensities in different sectors of the basin (Teixeira et al., 2012, 2014). As a general pattern, we may consider that in the North sector only the Lower Jurassic units have reached maturity for oil and eventually for gas, whereas in the Central and South sectors the Lower Jurassic entered the gas-window and the Upper Jurassic entered the oil-window (Teixeira et al., 2012, 2014). yr ig ht 20 14 G A second petroleum system is related with the Lower Jurassic source-rocks, namely the Sinemurian and Pliensbachian organic-rich marls (Água de Madeiros and Vale das Fontes formations). Its geochemical characteristics point to good oil generation potential (Duarte et al., 2010, 2012; Spigolon et al., 2011); in highly subsided areas of the basin, it has probably reached the oil-window and even the gaswindow (Teixeira et al., 2012, 2014). The intense movement of basement blocks affecting the Mesozoic and Tertiary infill and cover is responsible for many situations in which the Lower Jurassic units appear geometrically beside or above many of the potential reservoir units. Therefore, the Lower Jurassic source rocks may have laterally and vertically fed Jurassic and Cretaceous siliciclastic and carbonate units, as well as Upper Triassic siliciclastics. From the observation and analysis of unpublished geochemical data of several diapir-related oilseeps (e.g., Paredes de Vitória and Leiria; Atlantis, 2010), it seems that Lower Jurassic source-rocks were the main feeders, using the associated vertical faulting and brecciation as migration conduits along the diapirwalls. It may be speculated that in non-outcropping diapirs, the same situations led to oil accumulations, sealed by an unconformable Tertiary cover. A third petroleum system corresponds to the maturation and oil generation of the transitional to coastal marine Oxfordian Cabaços Formation. These marly rocks have been buried under kilometers of Oxfordian and Kimmeridgian rift-related siliciclastics (Abadia and Lourinhã formations), entering the oil window in most of the basin since the Early Cretaceous (Teixeira et al., 2012, 2014). This oil has abundantly Implications for Deep Offshore Exploration op From the compared analysis of onshore and offshore petroleum systems in the Lusitanian and Peniche basins, many analogies may be used to approach these plays, but differences are also important. Both basins have in common its geodynamic framework and evolution, but the specific proximal position of the Lusitanian Basin and the outer position of the Peniche basin, regarding crustal stretching and North Atlantic opening (Alves et al., 2006), has resulted in diachronic elements that must be addressed and understood (Table 1). Most of the plays that have been identified in the Lusitanian Basin may also be considered valid for the C 4 3 7 Pena dos Reis and Pimentel Peniche basin. These include (i) the pre-salt play, sourced by Silurian and/or Carboniferous rocks, feeding Upper Triassic redbeds, and sealed by Hettangian evaporites; (ii) the diapiric-related play, sourced by Lower Jurassic deep marine shales and marls, feeding Cretaceous fluvial sands, and sealed by Upper Cretaceous marls; (iii) the turbidite play, sourced by Upper Jurassic transitional marls and known in the Lusitanian Basin to have fed Upper Jurassic turbiditic sands (Abadia Formation) as well as fractured limestones. However, due to diachronic geodynamic evolution of the proximal and outer parts of this Atlantic margin, it may be speculated that in the Peniche Basin 8 7 C SS EP M Migration was highly dependent on faulting, related both to extension and compression. Considering the modelled late maturation timings, compression structures were probably more important as conduits, although many of them corresponded to the re-activation of previously extension structures. Mesozoic traps seem to be predominantly structural, although there are a few stratigraphic traps associated with bioherms. On the other hand, Tertiary traps may include many stratigraphic accumulations related to the presence of coarse-grained turbiditic channels and fine-grained over-bank deposits. Main unconformities may also act as traps, namely the one between deformed Mesozoic reservoir units and flatlying Tertiary sealing units. The influence of inversion issues must be stressed on any approach to the Peniche basin. Although it helped in creating folds and faulted migration pathways, its impact on seal integrity may have been critical. This pattern is quite evident in outcrop analogues in the Lusitanian basin, such as the Paredes de Vitória and Monte Real diapirs. Therefore, anticlinal closures associated with significant inversion features should be avoided or, at least, carefully looked examined. Understanding the onshore basins is a crucial starting point to approach the offshore basins. Due to its remarkable exposures and geological detailed studies, the Lusitanian Basin is well known and may be used as an analog to the Peniche Basin (Alves, 2009; Sagres, 2013). The same depositional packages and unconformities may be recognized in both basins and the different petroleum systems identified at the Lusitanian Basin may prove to be present at the Peniche Basin (Fig. 6). Farther south on the Western Iberian Margin, the outcrops of the southwestern Alentejo and western Algarve may also be used as analogues for the offshore Alentejo basin. The “analog approach” must be based on understanding the basin’s evolution—how each geodynamic context generates each petroleum system element and how they are articulated in space and time. De-risking strategies for the West Iberian margin offshore basins must include basin and petroleum systems analysis based on detailed outcrop studies. op yr ig ht 20 14 G the turbidite facies (equivalent to the Abadia Formation) have been deposited during the Lower Cretaceous as thick rift-climax related sediments (Alves et al., 2003, 2009). Reservoir potential of these deposits is therefore considered to be high, including deep sea fan geometries with channelized over-bank deposits and also re-sedimentation as contourites. A fourth play, absent in the onshore areas, may be considered in the deep offshore related to the accumulation of thick deep marine deposits corresponding to a Tertiary play: Jurassic source rocks feeding Upper Cretaceous to early Tertiary sands and sealed by Neogene clays. Based on recently acquired seismic lines of the Peniche Basin (Consortium Petrobras/GALP/Partex; DPEP, 2013), its seismic stratigraphic analysis and thickness modelling in pseudo-wells show that MesoCenozoic overburden has been sufficient to promote both maturation of the Jurassic source rocks and also sealing of the Upper Cretaceous to early Tertiary reservoirs (Sagres, 2013). All these plays have their own risks and many of the considerations previously presented about the relations between the Lusitanian and the Peniche basins are important to reduce the risk of the deep offshore exploration activities (Table 1). Lower and Upper Jurassic source-rock identification is rather confident, but its areal distribution is difficult to predict because paleogeographic reconstructions are, for the moment, incomplete at a regional-scale distribution. However, the patterns in the Lusitanian Basin (Pena dos Reis et al., 2011) may be extrapolated to larger areas, and probably both Jurassic source rocks are present in most of the areas of the Peniche basin. Moreover, both units most probably attained maturation for oil, although at different times (Sagres, 2013) (Table 1). It is crucial to understand the timing and location of maturation of petroleum systems as there are important differences between both basins. For example, riftclimax subsidence and related salt withdrawal at the Peniche Basin (Alves et al., 2003, 2009) occurs 10-15 My (?) later than the landward Lusitanian basin, it seems likely that in the Peniche Basin the kitchen areas and the migration pathways have been controlled mainly by the Cretaceous subsidence and diapirism. C 4 3 7 Pena dos Reis and Pimentel 9 7 Acknowledgments to important historical exploratory data and unpublished reports. Petrobras Portugal, namely Rudy Ferreira and Marisa Calhôa are also thanked for the access to data about the Peniche Basin and for their collaboration with the SAGRES project. Finally, individual collaborations must also be thanked, including Antônio Garcia for the coordination of the Atlantis Project and Ramón Salas, Hugo Matias, and Ricardo Pereira for many fruitful discussions. EP M This paper collects data and ideas from many years of research, during which several institutions and colleagues were most helpful. We thank CENPES/ Petrobras and particularly Edison Milani, Adriano Viana, and Gilmar Bueno for two financed research projects supporting this work (ATLANTIS, 2007-2010 and SAGRES, 2011-2013) and for their permanent collaboration. We also thank DPEP (the Portuguese oil agency) and Director Teresinha Abecasis for the access References C SS Zona Sul-Portuguesa: Coimbra University unpublished PhD. dissertation, 69 p. 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Matos, 2011, Geoquímica organica de rochas potencialmente geradoras de petróleo no contexto evolutivo da Bacia Lusitânica: Bol.Geociências da Petrobras, v. 19, nos. 1/2, p. 131-162. Teixeira, B.A., N. Pimentel, and R. Pena dos Reis, 2012, Regional variations in Source Rock maturation in the Lusitanian Basin (Portugal) – the role of rift events, subsidence, sedimentation rate, uplift and erosion: Abstracts III Atlantic Conjugate Margins Conference, p. 91-92. Teixeira, B. A., Pimentel, N. and Pena dos Reis, R., 2014 (acc.). Thermal modelling and maturation of Jurassic source rocks in the Lusitanian Basin (Northeast Atlantic, Portugal). Journal of Petroleum Geology. C 4 3 7 Pena dos Reis and Pimentel 13 7 Table 1. Conceptual identification of major exploration risks related with rift evolution in oceanic margins’ basins. Basin Stage / Main Petroleum System Risk Types In Oceanic Margin Basins Exploration 7 Processes Traps & Seal Integrity Inversion EP M (Antiforms and Faulting) Migration Uplift / Folding COMPRESSION / COLLISION CYCLE Post-rift Æ Drift Maturation & Seal SS (Overburden & Thermal evolution) Subsidence C POST-RIFT CYCLE Source Rock & Reservoir Syn-rift G (Sedimentary environments + Depositional thickness) Extension 14 Basement blocks RIFT CYCLES Thermal history Pre-Rift Lithologies Tectonic terranes COMPRESSION/ COLLISION CYCLE C op yr ig ht Basement 20 4 3 7 Pena dos Reis and Pimentel 14 4 3 7 Ireland Great Britain Atlantic Ocean 7 France Portugal EP M Spain GB C SS PB G Bb LB 14 PenB 20 Bb C op yr ig ht 100 km N AB P O R T U G A L SPAIN AlgB Figure 1. Study area showing the location of the Western Iberian Margin’s onshore and offshore basins; abbreviations are defined in the text. Pena dos Reis and Pimentel 15 4 3 7 C SS EP M 7 C op yr ig ht 20 14 G Figure 2. Geological framework of the Lusitanian Basin (onshore and offshore). Mesozoic based on LNEG; Paleozoic based on Pena dos Reis et al., 2012. AF– Arrife fault; LCF–Lousã-Caldas fault; VFF–Vila Franca fault. A and B dashed lines are seismic lines in Figure 4. Pena dos Reis and Pimentel 16 4 3 7 op yr ig ht 20 14 G C SS EP M 7 C Figure 3. Lithostratigraphic chart of the Lusitanian Basin including geodynamic events, cyclicity, seismic horizons, and main petroleum system elements (adapted from Pena dos Reis et al., 2011; partially based on Wilson, 1990; Azerêdo et al., 2003; Rey et al., 2006). Pena dos Reis and Pimentel 17 4 3 7 L CRET 7 U JURA LM JURASSIC TJ Salt EP M U TRIAS A Abadia Cab+Montej C TJ Salt SS SEISMIC HORIZONS Lourinhã LM JURASSIC G U TRIAS B H10 - Top Tithonian (Lourinhã) H9 - Top Kimmeridgian (Abadia) H8 - Top Oxfordian (Montejunto) H6 - Top Callovian (Candeeiros) H2 - Top Hettangian (Dagorda) H1 - Top Upper Triassic (Silves) C op yr ig ht 20 14 Figure 4. Interpreted seismic lines across the Lusitanian Basin (in Carvalho, 2013); see Figure 2 for location. Pena dos Reis and Pimentel 18 M E S O Z O I C PALEOZOIC Dev Carb Perm Jurassic M E CENOZOIC Cretaceous E L L Paleogene Neogene SS EP M Sil Triassic E M L RESERVOIR SEAL OVERBURDEN TRAP MAT/MIGR/ACC CRITICAL MOMENT G C HALOCINESIS SOURCE ROCK op y rig ht 20 14 Figure 5. Petroleum system events chart of the Lusitanian Basin (adapt. from Pena dos Reis and Pimentel, 2010b). C 4 3 7 Pena dos Reis and Pimentel 19 7 Lusitanian Basin Seismo-stratigraphic Units QUATERN. Upper TERT Lower TERT Upper CRET Lower CRET EP M Upper JURA L-M JURA U. TRIAS Rasmussen et al. 1998 Peniche Basin B A Campanian Aptian Callovian 14 TGS-NOPEC seismic line courtesy from PETROBRAS G C SS Unconformities op y rig ht 20 Figure 6. Seismic stratigraphic correlation between Peniche and Lusitanian basins. Both lines are presented at the same horizontal and vertical scales. The main unconformities are underlined. Note the significant thickness of the Tertiary sediments in the Peniche Basin. C 3 7 Pena dos Reis and Pimentel 20
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