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TABLE OF CONTENTS – 7
Table of contents
Key findings .................................................................................................................................... 15
The labour market integration of immigrants and their children in Austria
Executive summary .................................................................................................................. 33
The labour market integration of immigrants and their children in Norway
The labour market integration of immigrants and their children in Switzerland
Chapter 1. The labour market integration of immigrants and their children in Austria ........ 45
Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 46
1.1. A first glance at the labour market outcomes of immigrants and their children ........................ 47
1.2. The framework for integration ................................................................................................... 53
1.3. Migrants’ position in the labour market: some key issues ......................................................... 70
1.4. Integration policy ....................................................................................................................... 81
1.5. The labour market integration of the children of immigrants .................................................... 85
1.6. Sources of persisting disadvantage across generations – and possible remedies....................... 99
Summary and recommendations ..................................................................................................... 106
Notes .............................................................................................................................................. 116
Bibliography ................................................................................................................................... 122
Annex 1.A1. Supplementary tables and figures ............................................................................. 127
Glossary ........................................................................................................................................ 133
Chapter 2. The labour market integration of immigrants and their children in Norway ..... 135
Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 136
2.1. A first glance at the labour market outcomes of immigrants in international comparison
and their evolution over time ................................................................................................. 138
2.2. The framework for integration ................................................................................................ 144
2.3. Migrants’ position in the labour market .................................................................................. 151
2.4. Characteristics of the Norwegian labour market and links with integration ........................... 164
2.5. Integration policy in Norway .................................................................................................. 173
2.6. The labour market integration of the children of immigrants ................................................. 181
2.7. Sources of persisting disadvantage across generations – and possible remedies .................... 185
Summary and recommendations .................................................................................................... 190
Notes .............................................................................................................................................. 199
Bibliography .................................................................................................................................. 203
Annex 2.A1. Supplementary tables and figures ............................................................................ 208
Glossary ......................................................................................................................................... 213
JOBS FOR IMMIGRANTS – VOL. 3: LABOUR MARKET INTEGRATION IN AUSTRIA, NORWAY AND SWITZERLAND © OECD 2012
8 – TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter 3. The labour market integration of immigrants and their children in Switzerland . 215
Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 216
3.1. A first glance at the labour market outcomes of immigrants and their children
in international comparison and their evolution over time ..................................................... 217
3.2. The framework for integration ................................................................................................. 223
3.3. Key issues in the labour market integration of immigrants ..................................................... 236
3.4. The labour market integration of immigrants’ offspring ......................................................... 258
Summary and recommendations .................................................................................................... 272
Notes .............................................................................................................................................. 280
Bibliography .................................................................................................................................. 286
Annex 3.A1. Supplementary tables and figures.............................................................................. 290
Glossary ......................................................................................................................................... 297
Figures
Figure 0.1. Size and composition of the immigrant population in Austria, Norway and
Switzerland in comparison with the other countries under review, 2009-10 ........................ 17
Figure 1.1. Evolution of the employment/population ratio of native-born and immigrants
aged 15-64 in Austria since 2004, by country of birth ........................................................... 50
Figure 1.2. Evolution of the unemployment rate in Austria since 2004, by country of birth,
people aged 15-64................................................................................................................... 51
Figure 1.3. Employment rates of the native-born children of immigrants and the children
of natives, selected OECD countries, people aged 20-29 and not in education,
around 2007 ............................................................................................................................ 52
Figure 1.4. Population “at risk” among native-born children of immigrants and the children
of native-born aged 20-29, by gender, around 2007............................................................... 53
Figure 1.5. Net migration and unemployment of nationals and foreigners in Austria
since 1977 .............................................................................................................................. 60
Figure 1.6. Evolution and composition of the foreign population in Austria, absolute numbers
and share in the total population, 1961-2010.......................................................................... 61
Figure 1.7. Permanent inflows into selected OECD and non-OECD countries, as a percentage
of the total population, by category of entry, 2009 ............................................................... 62
Figure 1.8a. Percentage-point difference in the employment rates of immigrants aged 15-64
compared with the native-born in selected OECD countries, by duration of residence
and gender, 2008/09 ............................................................................................................... 73
Figure 1.8b. Percentage-point difference in the employment rates of immigrants aged 15-64
compared with the native-born for different immigrant groups in Austria, by duration
of residence and gender, 2004/05 and 2008/09 ...................................................................... 73
Figure 1.9. Percentage-point differences in employment rates of foreign- and native-born,
by educational level, people aged 15-64 not in education, 2008/09 average ......................... 76
Figure 1.10. Unemployment rates by migration background and gender, youth aged 15-24
and not in education, 2008-10 ................................................................................................ 92
Figure 1.11. Employment rate by highest educational attainment, children of natives
vs. native-born children of immigrants aged 15-34 and not in education, 2009/10 ............... 93
Figure 1.12. Public awareness about legal anti-discrimination provisions, selected OECD
countries, 2007 ..................................................................................................................... 102
Figure 1.13. Percentage of the population believing that persons of a different ethnic
background face disadvantages in chances of employment, training and promotion;
and percentage of the population that supports measures to provide equal opportunities
for persons with a different “ethnic background”, selected OECD countries, 2007 ............ 105
Figure 1.A1.1. Population structure by age, migrant status and gender, 2009/10 ..................... 129
Figure 2.1. Evolution of the employment/population rate of the native-born and immigrant
aged 16-74 in Norway since 1991 ........................................................................................ 142
Figure 2.2. Evolution of the unemployment rate of the native-born and immigrant
aged 15-64 in Norway since 2002, selected origin countries, by gender ............................. 143
Figure 2.3. Median wages of immigrants relative to the native-born, 2005/06 ........................ 143
Figure 2.4. Evolution of the immigrant population in Norway since 1970 .............................. 144
Figure 2.5. Inflows of asylum seekers and unemployment in Norway since 1989 .................. 145
Figure 2.6. Composition of permanent-type migration to OECD countries, 2007 ................... 146
Figure 2.7. Percentage-points differences in employment rates between native- and
foreign-born aged 15-64 and the impact of the qualification structure, 2006/07 ................. 153
Figure 2.8. Percentage-points gaps in the employment rate of immigrants compared with
the native-born by duration of residence, people aged 15-64, 2006/07 average .................. 158
Figure 2.9. Evolution of the employment-population ratios for the 1998 and 2002 cohorts,
by migration motive ............................................................................................................ 160
Figure 2.10. Evolution of the unemployment rate for native-born and immigrants
aged 16-74 in Norway, 1989-2008 ....................................................................................... 161
Figure 2.11. Composition of total income in Norway, native-born and various immigrant
groups, by gender, population aged 16-74, 2006 ................................................................. 165
Figure 2.12. Low-skilled employment as a percentage of total employment, selected
OECD countries, 2007/08 average ....................................................................................... 166
Figure 2.13. Employment of foreign-born aged 15-64 in the public administration
in selected OECD countries, 2006/07................................................................................... 169
Figure 2.14. Employment rates of the native-born children of immigrants and the children
of natives, selected OECD countries, people aged 20-29 and not in education .................. 181
Figure 2.15. Percentage without upper secondary degree and not in employment,
children of natives vs. native-born children of immigrants aged 20-29 and not in
education, selected OECD countries .................................................................................... 182
Figure 2.16. Percentage of children of natives and native-born children of immigrants born
in 1980 who are either in employment or in education, by gender, 2001-07 ....................... 183
Figure 2.A1.1. Population structure by age, migrant status and sex ......................................... 210
Figure 2.A1.2. Employment rates by duration of residence and migration category in
Norway, 2006 ....................................................................................................................... 210
Figure 2.A1.3. Index of sectoral disparity between native-and foreign-born employment
for selected OECD countries, people aged 15-64, 2006/07 average .................................... 211
Figure 2.A1.4. Share of selected sectors in total foreign-born employment by duration
of residence and relative to the native-born, people aged 15-64, 2006/07 ........................... 212
Figure 2.A1.5. Distribution of wages for the native- and foreign-born in Norway,
people aged 15-64 and not in education ............................................................................... 213
Figure 3.1. Evolution of the employment rate since 2003 by country of birth,
people aged 15-64................................................................................................................. 220
Figure 3.2. Evolution of the unemployment rate since 2003 by country of birth,
people aged 15-64................................................................................................................. 221
Figure 3.3. Employment-population ratios for children of natives and native-born children
of immigrants, by gender, people aged 20-29 and not in education, around 2008 ............... 222
Figure 3.4. Population “at risk” (the NEET group) among the native-born children
of immigrants and the children of native-born aged 29-29, by gender, around 2007........... 222
Figure 3.5. Size and composition of the native-born children of immigrants, by origin
and age, 2008/09 .................................................................................................................. 223
Figure 3.6. Evolution and composition of the foreign population in Switzerland,
absolute numbers and share in the total population, 1950-2009 .......................................... 225
Figure 3.7. Evolution of permanent-type migration to Switzerland, by main category of entry,
1987-2009 ............................................................................................................................ 226
Figure 3.8. Asylum seekers and the labour market situation in Switzerland ............................ 227
Figure 3.9. Permanent-type migration flows into selected OECD and non-OECD countries
by category of entry, 2009 .................................................................................................... 227
Figure 3.10. Percentage-point differences in employment rates of foreign- and native-born,
by educational level, people aged 15-64 and not in education, 2008/09 average................. 237
Figure 3.11a. Differences in the employment rates of immigrants aged 15-64 vis-à-vis
native-born by year of residence, origin group and gender, 2003/04 and 2008/09 .............. 243
Figure 3.11b. Differences in the employment rates of immigrants aged 15-64 from
lower-income countries vis-à-vis the native-born, by year of residence and gender,
selected OECD countries, 2008/09....................................................................................... 243
Figure 3.12. Estimated evolution of the employment rate of immigrants aged 15-64
who arrived around 2003 ..................................................................................................... 244
Figure 3.13. Percentage of native-born children of immigrants from lower-income countries
who have the host-country nationality, people aged 20-29 and not in education,
around 2007 .......................................................................................................................... 256
Figure 3.14. Parental socio-economic background and PISA reading scores in 2000,
by migration background and country of origin ................................................................... 261
Figure 3.15. Participation rates in formal care and pre-school for children aged 3 and 4 years,
selected OECD countries, 2008 ............................................................................................ 262
Figure 3.16. Share of persons without upper-secondary education, seven years after the end
of obligatory schooling (PISA 2000 cohort) ........................................................................ 265
Figure 3.17. Share of youth in NEET seven years after the end of obligatory schooling,
by parental origin and educational attainment ...................................................................... 267
Figure 3.18. Transition from education to employment, children of natives and native-born
children of immigrants (PISA 2000 cohort) ......................................................................... 267
Figure 3.19. Channels through which 20-29 year-olds found their first jobs, by migration
background (PISA 2000 cohort) ........................................................................................... 268
Figure 3.A1.1. Distribution of the gross hourly wage for the full-time employed
in Switzerland, people aged 15-64 and not in education, 2009 ............................................ 292
Figure 3.A1.2. Main origin countries of the current migrant population, 2008 ....................... 293
Figure 3.A1.3. Immigrant population by region and main migrant groups, as a percentage
of total population, 2009....................................................................................................... 294
Figure 3.A1.4. Distribution of immigrants aged 15-64 from the former Yugoslavia by year
of arrival and region of residence, 2009 ............................................................................... 295
Figure 3.A1.5. Employment of foreign-born aged 15-64 in the public sector in selected
OECD countries, 2006/07 .................................................................................................... 295
Tables
Table 0.1. Main labour market outcomes for immigrants in Austria, Norway and Switzerland
compared with the OECD average, population aged 15-64, by gender, 2009/10 ................. 17
Table 0.2. Labour market outcomes of native-born children of immigrants and children of
native-born in Austria, Norway and Switzerland compared with the OECD
average, population aged 20-29, by gender, around 2008 ..................................................... 18
Table 0.3. Origin of highest educational degree and labour market outcomes for immigrants
in employment, selected European OECD countries, 2008 .................................................. 24
Table 0.4. Assessment, recognition and labour market outcomes for immigrants in employment,
selected European OECD countries, 2008 ............................................................................. 26
Table 0.A1.1. Origin of highest educational degree and labour market outcomes for
immigrants in employment, immigrants from lower-income countries vs. immigrants
from high-income countries, selected European OECD countries, 2008 .............................. 31
Table 0.A1.2. Assessment, recognition and labour market outcomes for immigrants in
employment, immigrants from lower-income countries vs. immigrants from high-income
countries, selected European OECD countries, 2008 ............................................................ 32
Table 1.1. Labour force characteristics of immigrants and native-born aged 15-64,
selected OECD countries, 2008/09 average ........................................................................... 47
Table 1.2. Composition of the immigrant population by main countries of birth,
as a percentage of the total foreign-born population .............................................................. 56
Table 1.3. Association between childbearing and the employment of immigrant women
aged 15-64 in Austria, 2009/10 .............................................................................................. 74
Table 1.4. Distribution of the native and foreign-born population aged 25-54, by educational
level, selected high-income countries, around 2008/09.......................................................... 75
Table 1.5. Percentage-point differences in the probability of being in highly-skilled employment
for highly-educated persons aged 15-64 in Austria, by origin of the qualification, 2008 ...... 78
Table 1.6. Achievement of a higher degree abroad and efforts to have it formally recognised
in Austria for foreign-born aged 15-64 with post-secondary education and above, 2008...... 80
Table 1.7. Participation in selected labour market programmes and employment rates
three months after programme participation, 2009................................................................. 82
Table 1.8. PISA 2009 results for the children of immigrants, point differences in reading
scores compared with the children of natives ........................................................................ 86
Table 1.9. Percentage-point difference in the transition rate of 14-year-olds from lower
to upper secondary education, students with a foreign first language, compared with
students whose first language is German, 2009/10 ................................................................ 89
Table 1.10. Percentage-point difference for the probability to leave the education system
without an upper secondary degree, children of immigrants vs. children of native-born
aged 15-34, by gender, 2009 ................................................................................................. 90
Table 1.11. Employment/population ratios and unemployment rates by immigrant status
and gender, people aged 15-24 and 25-34 not in education, 2009/10 .................................... 93
Table 1.12. Percentage-point difference in labour market outcomes by type of highest
qualification, native-born children of immigrants vs. children of native-born aged 15-34,
2009/10 ............................................................................................................................... 94
Table 1.13. Percentage of “early school leavers” and population “at risk” (low-educated
NEET) in the overall population, by migration background, youth aged 15-24, 2009 .......... 95
Table 1.14. Percentage-point differences in the probability to be low-educated, population
with a migration background vs. population without a migration background, people
aged 20-29 and 45-54 and not in education, 2009/10............................................................. 96
Table 1.15. Percentage-point differences in the probability to be in employment, population
with a migration background vs. population without a migration background, people
aged 20-29 and 45-54 not in education, 2009/10 ................................................................... 97
Table 1.A1.1. Education level and labour market outcomes by country of origin and gender
in Austria, people aged 15-64, 2009/10 average .................................................................. 129
Table 1.A1.2. Labour market outcomes of immigrants in Vienna and the remainder of
Austria, people aged 15-64, 2008-10.................................................................................... 130
Table 1.A1.3. Labour market outcomes of the children of immigrants in Vienna
and the remainder of Austria, people aged 20-29, 2008-10 ................................................. 131
Table 1.A1.4. Distribution of the labour force between different economic sectors in Austria,
by country of birth and gender, people aged 15-64, 2009/10 average.................................. 132
Table 1.A1.5. Percentage-point differences in the employment rate between foreign-born
and native-born, by gender and educational attainment, people aged 15-64 and not
in education, 2008/09 ........................................................................................................... 133
Table 1.A1.6. Labour market outcomes of highly-educated population aged 15-64
in selected high-income countries, 2008/09 ......................................................................... 134
Table 2.1. Labour force characteristics of native- and foreign-born aged 15-64,
selected OECD countries, 2007/08 average ......................................................................... 140
Table 2.2. Labour market characteristics in Norway by region of origin, population
aged 16-74, 2007 .................................................................................................................. 141
Table 2.3. Native- and foreign-born aged 25-54 by education level in selected OECD
countries, 2006/07 ................................................................................................................ 152
Table 2.4. Percentage-points differences in the employment rate between native and
foreign-born aged 15-64, by gender and educational attainment, 2006/07 .......................... 153
Table 2.5. Labour market outcomes of highly-educated people aged 15-64 in selected
OECD countries, 2006/07 .................................................................................................... 154
Table 2.6 Percentage-point differences in the probability of being in highly-skilled
employment for highly-skilled people aged 15-64 in Norway and OECD .......................... 155
Table 2.7. Participation in “real competence” assessments in Norway, 2007 .......................... 157
Table 2.8. Employment rates by migration category in Norway and the Netherlands,
one year and three years after arrival.................................................................................... 159
Table 2.9. Share of self-employment among the total employment of foreign-born and
native-born aged 15-64 in selected OECD countries, 2007/08 average ............................... 163
Table 2.10. Differences in the mean literacy scores between low-qualified native- and
foreign-born aged 15-64, by gender ..................................................................................... 167
Table 2.11. Employment rates for native Norwegian women in comparison with non-OECD
immigrants and native-born children of immigrants by marital status and children
for persons aged 25-34, 2006 ............................................................................................... 171
Table 2.12. Kindergarten attendance by age, all children and “language minority” children,
2007 .................................................................................................................................... 172
Table 2.13. Participation of migrants in the various active labour market programmes
in Norway, 2008 .................................................................................................................. 179
Table 2.A1.1. The ten main countries of origin of immigrants in 1988, 1998 and 2008 .......... 209
Table 2.A1.2. Employment rates of foreign-born aged 15-64 from OECD and non-OECD
countries, by gender, 2007/08 average ................................................................................. 209
Table 3.1. Labour force characteristics of immigrants and native-born aged 15-64,
selected OECD countries, 2008/09 average ......................................................................... 217
Table 3.2. Distribution of the native and foreign-born populations aged 25-54,
by educational level, selected high-income countries, 2008/09 ........................................... 237
Table 3.3. Percentage-points differences in the probability of being in highly-skilled
employment for highly-educated persons aged 15-64 in Switzerland, foreign-born
compared to native-born, 2008 ............................................................................................ 239
Table 3.4. Origin of qualifications and participation in recognition, highly-qualified
freign-born aged 15-64, 2008 ............................................................................................... 240
Table 3.5. Labour market outcomes and educational profile of recent arrivals in Switzerland,
people aged 15-64, by origin, 2008/09 average.................................................................... 245
Table 3.6. Labour market outcomes and education level of humanitarian migrants
in Switzerland, people aged 15-64, 2008 ............................................................................. 248
Table 3.7. Determinants of the employment of immigrant women aged 15-64 in Switzerland,
2009... ................................................................................................................................... 251
Table 3.8. Estimated number of applications to be sent by different immigrant groups
in order to receive an invitation to a job interview, relative to an otherwise equivalent
native Swiss candidate ........................................................................................................ 253
Table 3.9. Estimated higher probability of employment in a high-skilled occupation
associated with naturalisation, people aged 15-64, around 2007 ......................................... 257
Table 3.10. PISA point differences in reading scores for the children of immigrants
compared with the children of natives, 2009 ........................................................................ 259
Table 3.11. Differences in probability in percentage points of successfully completing
upper-secondary education that qualifies for university attendance, by gender
(PISA 2000 cohort)............................................................................................................... 264
Table 3.12. Difference in the probability of having completed an apprenticeship, children
of immigrants relative to children of Swiss-born parents by migration background, 2007
(PISA 2000 cohort)............................................................................................................... 265
Table 3.13. Difference in the probability to be neither in education nor in employment
(NEET), seven years after the end of obligatory schooling (PISA 2000 cohort) ................. 266
Table 3.14. Employment-population ratios and unemployment rates by migration background
and gender, people aged 20-29 not in education, 2009 ........................................................ 269
Table 3.A1.1. Wages of recent arrivals aged 15-64 by origin compared with the native-born,
by gender, 2008 .................................................................................................................... 296
Table 3.A1.2. Labour market outcomes of highly-educated population aged 15-64
in selected OECD countries, 2008/09................................................................................... 297
Table 3.A1.3. Employment and unemployment rates of migrants aged 15-64 from the former
Yugoslavia, by gender and arrival, 2009 ............................................................................. 298

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