Interviewing the Embodiment of Political Evil - Inter

Transcrição

Does death and suicide sound like the music you hear?
Oliveira, A. & Rodrigues, R.
Abstract
We have addressed some aspects related to music, its meanings, roles and
effects, as well as its closeness with emotions, during adolescence. Mood
swings are typical at this stage of life. In which music is essential; just as
much as the questioning of life and death, in a creative process involving
parents, colleagues, friends, idols and all of those that help in gaining
autonomy, values and identity.1 The conspiracy of silence surrounding death
may be corrupted by the loss of a celebrity, such as Kurt Cobain who could
represent any desperate adolescent, facing unbearable pain and pressure, who
finds in music a reason for living and for trying to be accepted.
Our empirical research, developed in two phases (an extensive exploratory
research and a set of three experiments), was framed on the theory of social
representations (SR).2 SR facilitates the analysis of the complex subjectivities
that involve the imaginary relation with death, suicide and some practices
(where music occupies a central place).
We verified, on a (total) population of 1226 adolescents (comprehending both
phases) that musical preferences articulate with the thoughts, feelings, beliefs
and symbolic imaginary associated with life, death and suicide, with suicide
ideation, the will to die or to live, suicidal and parasuicidal behaviour. Girls
tend to prefer soft sounds and music to dance, and boys rather prefer 'harder'
music, such as grunge, rock or metal. The younger (15-16 years old) listen to
harder music that the older (17-18 years old). Musical preferences can also be
associated to risk-taking and self-harm behaviours.
Key Words: Adolescence, Death, Life, Music, Social Representations.
*****
1.
Introduction
Everything is energy. Everything vibrates. Life itself is motion that
generates sound, thus life is sound. So, in a certain sense, everything is music
and it is natural to communicate through sound.
In a simple definition, music organizes the relations between
sonorities through the course of time. Sounds (and silences) are combined
and threaded forming rhythms, melodies and harmonies.3 Music acts by the
intimate content present in the expression of sound.4 It is everything that
remits us to the sumptuous manifest order of our cosmos.5 As a universal
phenomenon that all humanity can understand, it is, at the same time, an art
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and a science.6 That’s why we should appreciate the music through the
emotions and understand it through the intelligence.7 Can we move towards
life without referring to music?
Usually we prefer to listen to what is in affinity with ourselves at a
moment. Music is strongly related to our SR8, namely about life, death and
suicide.9 Music can help us live moments of great satisfaction or to relief
tensions.10 It can also influence behaviour, emotional and psychological state,
given its closeness to emotions or feelings like euphoria, melancholy, joy or
sadness.11 Music always relates to feelings, thoughts and even proceedings.
The lyrics of the songs and its latent contents, as rhythm, melody or musical
style, also have a large importance in what is experienced.
Adolescence is, in a large way, a typical age of emotions, where
advances, retreats and periods of balance and instability, occur progressively.
Music, as a primordial ally, follows intensely the everyday life of teenagers.12
Thus, who better than adolescents will emphasize the feelings that arise with
music? How can we understand them if we don’t know the music they listen
to?
In adolescence we try to answer to the greatest psychosocial
questions, in a process of construction that involves parents, peers, friends,
idols (namely musicians) and all those that, in some way, help in the conquest
of autonomy, in the definition of values and of an identity.13 Teenagers think
a lot about death and suicide.14 Searching for references and values, in a
society hidden under the shadow of death, a teenager can take risks beyond
the social norms, breaking its own security to see how far can he go or what
can he achieve.15
The risk is glorified by adolescents and, also, by a society obsessed
by youth and the (illusory) domain of life and death. Certain risks are
symbolic of certain kinds of social identity.16
To grow implies taking risks, test ourselves, to find new
limits, overtake them and amplify consciences, (...) the
search for these emotions, where the young can quickly
debate, simultaneously, between living or dying, reveals a
predominantly symbolic character of closeness to death and
rises a sense of renewed identity. 17
Defying death can provide a strong reason to live.18 Here lies one of
the reasons for parasuicide behaviour, especially risk-taking behaviour, in
which one can risk life without intending to die. This differs from the suicide
behaviour, which clearly indicates a will to die. But both can be faced as
survival strategies.19
Risk-taking behaviour is considered a form of assertion, valorisation
and social recognition, particularly with the group of peers, improving self-
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esteem and providing some meaning to life.20 Therefore, parasuicide - namely
risk-taking and self-mutilation or self-harm behaviours - is increasingly
frequent in our societies.21
Music is essential in the development of adolescents’ identity,
socialization and sociability.22 Adolescents search for authenticity,
integration and to be socially distinguished.
Their musical tastes, as their feelings, can vary significantly. More
than a preference for a musical style, it is important the way preferences are
mixed and the contexts in which they are most evident. Even when an
adolescent doesn’t identify himself with singers or doesn’t know all the
lyrics, music can influence his cognitive, psychosocial and emotional
development, and his personal history.23
In Portugal, for more than 90% of youngsters, music is important or
very important in their lives.24 It has been observed a relation between
vulnerability to suicide and the preference for certain styles, especially heavy
metal, also associated with risk-taking behaviours.25 Musical preferences are
important as an indicator for health professionals, helping them in primary
care.26 Music evidences many of the typical adolescents’ representations of
feelings, death, suicide, and life.27
In the history of music, we can find various themes associated to
death or suicide, including lyrics used in suicide notes; however, there's no
evidence of a suicide due to the negative content of a theme.28 Can a musical
style influence the ideas, feelings and behaviour of a youngster? Does the
youngster choose to listen to something related to what he is experiencing?29
Music may be associated to personal, familiar or social factors. In
any situation, thinking of suicide, imagining death, is naturally linked to an
inner strong will to reach to something different, and to find a way to
survive.30
Most of the studies on this area, assume that listening to a predefined
style (as heavy metal) can induce suicide. Others have focused their attention
in the feelings of adolescents when facing certain types of music, arguing that
the way they feel determines their tastes. In our research, we consider
pertinent to study significant associations, rather than causalities, between
musical preferences31 and other aspects like suicide ideation and parasuicide.
2.
Some notes about the empirical research
The theory of social representations (SR), as proposed by
Moscovici, focuses on the way that human beings think and create their
shared realities, as well as their content.32 SR are structures that combine, in
an integrated and organized form, cognitions, affections and actions,
generated in a given social context, connecting individuals with their
environment, status, positions, groups and social belongings, by correlated
processes of objectification and anchoring.33
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Here we present some of the most relevant results of an extensive
empirical research focused on the SR of death, music and suicide in
adolescence.34
This research enclosed two parts, the first one, exploratory and the
second, experimental.
From the results obtained in the exploratory part, we extracted, in
great extent, the indicators used to construct the questionnaires for the
subsequent experiments.35
In the second part we have conducted three experiments that had
some independent variables in common, namely gender, age, and
experimental context.36
In the first two experiments we have focused, particularly, in the
representations of death and suicide. And, in the third, in the representations
of suicide and music, relating them to feelings, musical preferences and other
indicators, such as the death ideation, suicidal ideation, suicide attempt and
parasuicide behaviours.
Among the main goals, this research aimed to: apprehend and
analyse the SR of death, suicide and music amongst an adolescent
population; explore the associations between the experimental contexts and
these representations; understand how SR vary according to gender and age;
articulate the musical preferences with the thoughts, feelings, beliefs and the
symbolic imaginary associated to death and suicide.
In this paper we will centre our attention on the third experiment.
3.
Method and Materials
Participants
A population of 26837 Portuguese adolescents, 51% girls, 49% boys;
50% in each age group (15-16 years old and 17-18 years old).
Variables
We considered experimental context38, sex and age as the main
independent variables, and the SR of death, suicide and music, as well as the
musical preferences, as dependent variables.
Instruments and procedure
We developed a questionnaire with seven groups of items on closed
questions, followed of ordinal scales (1 to 5) based on the results obtained on
previous studies.39 The data was collected in a class context, having each
student answered it anonymously and individually.
Different techniques were applied for the data analysis, such as,
principal component analysis, invariable and multivariable variance analysis
and correlation analysis.
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4.
Results
Among the most significant representations of suicide, we point out
the discomfort, sadness, unhappiness and fear, the compassion with the
suicidal person and the fragility that is associated, the external causes of
suicide, and the perception of suicide as a resolution or violent death. The
suicidal gesture reveals a cry for help, a solution or escape from difficulties
or problems, a given up or denial of life. It is, simultaneously, an act of
despair and a (final) wish to survive.
In what respects to music, we point out dimensions which are
especially related to well-being, pleasure, affections, relaxation, fun and life,
but also, in a less extent, to discomfort, sadness and depression. Music is
important for the good and the bad moments. In fact, it is related to thoughts,
feelings and pictures that are both positive and negative.40
We have found many representations according to the social
belongings of adolescents.
For example, girls, more than boys, point out feelings or thoughts of
compassion, fear, loss and discomfort, and a ritualistic meaning in death;
experience greater sadness, fear and compassion towards suicide; and
highlight music as fun and pleasure, but also as apprehension, a source of
affective relationships and sociability. Boys, in the majority of situations,
reveal higher motivation for life than girls.
Adolescents of 17-18 years old express more proximity,
compassion, fear and discomfort, towards death (and particularly suicide),
than the 15-16 years old.
Among the musical choices of adolescents, we observed variations
according to the moment in which data were gathered.41 But the essential is
to understand what music transmits, in terms of sound, lyrics or poems.
Between 1999 and 2007, along with the results from different studies, we
found some preferences that can be denominated as non-circumstantial or
convict preferences: bands like Nirvana, Pearl Jam, U2, Offspring, Smashing
Pumpkins, Green Day, Metallica, REM, Queen or The Doors, always
appeared among the 25 higher preferences of adolescents, which shows
certain continuity.42
We found that the more consensual 'music styles'43 are rock/grunge,
punk/rock, and pop/rock. The biggest fans of pop rock and trip-hip/pop also
appreciate other styles, but the ones who prefer new metal/punk and
rock/metal, only appreciate grunge 44 and don’t like pop music.
Generally, boys prefer metal, rock/metal, and new metal/punk better
than girls. Like the youngsters that never thought about suicide, girls are
bigger fans of pop, dance/pop and trip-hop/pop - these preferences45 are
associated to a decrease in risk-taking behaviors.
As suicide ideation becomes more frequent, the weaker is the choice
for dance/pop and the greater is the preference for heavy music, rock/grunge
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and metal/new metal - this result is especially evident between the youngest,
particularly among boys.46
However, between the youngsters who never imagined suicide, the
choice for (metal or) harder music tends to decrease as they approach
adulthood and become more mature, while adolescents who continue to have
suicidal ideation tend to maintain this preference.
As the choice for harder music persists, the more frequent become
self-harm behaviors.47 A larger preference for rock/grunge also underlines a
larger wish to die48 and eventual suicide attempts, being therefore more
associated with tension, discomfort, fear, as well as for compassion with
suicide - viewed as a resolution or way out.49
5.
Conclusions
Nowadays, we hardly may talk about death, in particular a death by
suicide, our biggest taboo.50 Every death exposes and confronts us, in a
society that depreciates imagination but urges to easy pleasure, illusory
happiness and temporary glory, where it is more important 'appear to be' than
to 'be'.
We found that death is more represented as 'an end' (distant and
unknown), than as 'the end' (too final). Suicide stands as a 'feared end' or
resolution to despair. And music stands in everywhere, every moment.
Kurt Cobain51, who is still one of the greatest references (or idol)
among adolescents52, can represent any desperate youngster that finds in
music some reason to live and, eventually, to die.53
For a youngster, surrounded by doubts with the inherent pressure to
grow and 'be someone', in the search of values and references, a way to
discover and to know is trying to do 'something else', appealing to others and
to a shamed society in the shadow of death, testing, taking risks beyond the
social norms and transgressing his own safety to find other limits and beyond.
Therefore, the adolescent’s risk is glorified, in the friends' circle and in a
society obsessed for youth and immortality.
In time, the parasuicide gesture can turn into a suicidal attempt. The
suicidal adolescent, in the edge of disharmony, reveal us an intolerable inner
pain of someone who lost hope and can’t endure tension anymore, unable to
find motivation. In desolation, avid for an existential solution and a definition
for himself, he challenges death with his behaviours, and risks to die, to feel
some strength and a right to live.54
In the anguish to understand a meaning for his life, from euphoria to
melancholy, from exalted share to isolation, it can be just a small step, replete
of multiple events, oscillations and transformations. Everything can assume
exaggerated dimensions that influence the physical, cognitive and social
development.55 Sometimes, the only friends that support him on his demand
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for answers can be found in a poem, a book... or inside a CD or an mp3 file,
maybe continuously heard.56
Therefore, the adolescents' musical preferences and the way they
think and feel about music, can give us important clues about the way they
represent life, death and suicide.57
Music reflects a lot about who composes it and no less on who refers
or listens to it, mindfully. Music can communicate what words, emotions and
thoughts cannot. As it was mentioned by Aldous Huxley, music is, after
silence, the best form to express the inexpressible. But, even the silence
vibrates... Or, has the musician John Cage claims, total silence doesn't exist
because there is always something that transmits a sound... And it’s that
sound that we can try to listen, even in a distant adolescent' glimpse,
unveiling an apprehensive or desperate mind, someone that hesitate to talk.
We may facilitate the communication with a youngster if we are
prepared to listen to him. And to the music he hears!
Notes
1
D Sampaio, Ninguém Morre Sozinho, Caminho, Lisboa, 2002; V
Strasburger, Adolescents and the media - Medical and psychological impact,
Sage Publications Inc., CA, 1995.
2
S Moscovici, La psychanalyse, son image et son public. Presses
Universitaires de France, Paris, 1961/1976.
3
C Costa, O despertar para o outro: Musicoterapia, Sumus, São Paulo,
1989.
4
J James, The Music of the Spheres. Abacus, London, 1993.
5
H Reeves, Um pouco mais de azul. Círculo de Leitores, Lisboa, 1986.
6
R Stewart, Música e psique. Cultrix, São Paulo, 1996.
7
O Károlyi, Introdução à Música. Salvat Editores, Rio de Janeiro, 1988.
8
By the way we think, feel and behave before objects and social realities.
9
A Oliveira, Ilusões na Idade das Emoções - representações sociais da
morte, do suicídio e da música na adolescência. Fundação Calouste
Gulbenkian, Lisboa, 2008a.
10
M Pavlicevic, Music therapy in context: Music, meaning and relationship.
Jessica Kingsley Publishers, London and Philadelphia, 1997.
11
C Gard, ‘Music’n’Moods’. Current Health, vol. 2, 1997, pp. 24-26; K
Scheel & J Westfeld, ‘Heavy metal music and adolescent suicidality: an
empirical investigation’. Adolescence, vol. 134, 1999, pp. 253-273.
12
P Abreu, ‘Práticas e consumos de música(s): ilustrações sobre alguns
novos contextos da prática cultural’. Revista crítica de ciências sociais, vol.
56, 2000, pp. 123-147; C Barros, Música e juventude. Vulgata, Lisboa, 2000;
8
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C Borralho, Música, preferências musicais e a ideação suicida na
adolescência. Monografia, ISPA, Lisboa, 2002; A Oliveira, Ilusões na Idade
das Emoções - representações sociais da morte, do suicídio e da música na
adolescência; C Richards, Teen Spirits - Music and Identity in Media
Education. UCL Press, London, 1998; C Richards, Teen Spirits - Music and
Identity in Media Education. UCL Press, London, 1998.
13
K Geldard D Geldard, Counselling Adolescents. SAGE, London, 2000; N
Sprinthall & W Collins, Psicologia do Adolescente - Uma abordagem
desenvolvimentista. F. C. Gulbenkian, Lisboa, 1999.
14
P Crepet, A dimensão do vazio. Âmbar, Porto, 2002; R Frankel, The
adolescent psyche. Routledge, London, 1999; D Sampaio, Ninguém morre
sozinho (12ª ed.). Caminho, Lisboa, 2002.
15
morte, do suicídio e da música na adolescência; A Oliveira, O desafio da
Morte (2ª ed.). Âncora Editora, Lisboa, 2008b; X Pommereau, L’adolescent
suicidaire. Dunod, Paris, 2001.
16
C Lightfoot, The culture of adolescent risk-taking. Guilford Press, New
York, 1997.
17
A Oliveira, L Amâncio & D Sampaio, ‘Da desesperança ao desafio da
morte… e à conquista da vida: Olhar sobre o adolescente suicida’.
Psychologica, vol. 35, 2004, p. 75.
18
A Oliveira, SobreViver. Âncora Editora, Lisboa, 2001; A Oliveira, Ilusões
na Idade das Emoções - representações sociais da morte, do suicídio e da
música na adolescência; D Sampaio, Ninguém Morre Sozinho, Caminho,
Lisboa, 2002.
19
M Laufer, O adolescente suicida. Climepsi, Lisboa, 2000; A Macfarlane &
A McPherson, Adolescentes: da agonia ao ecstasy. Publ. Europa-América,
Lisboa, 2001; R O’Connor & N Sheehy, Understanding suicidal behaviour.
British Psychological Society, London, 2000.
20
morte, do suicídio e da música na adolescência.
21
C Saraiva, Para-Suicídio. Quarteto, Coimbra, 1999.
22
P Abreu, ‘Práticas e consumos de música(s): ilustrações sobre alguns
novos contextos da prática cultural’; V Strasburger, & B Wilson, Children,
Adolescents & the media. SAGE London Publications, Thousand Oaks, 2002.
23
D Buckingham & Sefton-Green, 'Series Editors’ Preface', in Teen Spirits Music and Identity in Media Education. C. Richards (ed.), UCL Press,
London, pp. ix-xii, 1998.
24
C Barros, Música e juventude; M Cabral & J Pais (eds.). Condutas de
risco, práticas culturais, e atitudes perante o corpo: resultados de um
inquérito aos jovens portugueses em 2000. Celta/IPJ, Oeiras, 2003.
9
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25
R Kendall, 'Adolescent Emotional Response to Music and its Relationship
to Risk-Taking Behaviours'. Journal of Adolescent Health, 23, 1998, pp. 4954; K Scheel & J Westfeld, ‘Heavy metal music and adolescent suicidality:
an empirical investigation’.
26
E Brown & W Hendee, ‘Adolescents and their music: insights into the
health of adolescents’. Journal of the American Medical Association, vol.
262, 1989, pp. 1659-1663.
27
A Oliveira, O desafio da Morte; D Reanney, After death: A new future for
human consciousness. Avon Science, New York, 1991; R Rodrigues, O Som
e os Outros na Vida e na Morte - Percepções da vida e da morte na
adolescência. Tese de Mestrado, ISCTE-IUL, Lisboa, 2009.
28
S Stack, 'Heavy Metal, Religiosity and Suicide Acceptability'. Suicide and
Life-Threatening Behaviour, 28, 4, 1998, pp. 388-394.
29
30
Ibid.; D Sampaio, Ninguém Morre Sozinho; E Shneidman, Suicide
Thoughts and Reflections, 1960-1980. Human Sciences Press, London, 1981.
31
Questioning them directly which authors or groups they prefer to listen to,
without any previous categorization in styles, types or musical preferences.
32
S Moscovici, La psychanalyse, son image et son public; S Moscovici, ‘On
social representations’, in Social Cognition-perspectives on everyday
understanding. J. P. Fargas (ed.), Academic Press, London, 1981, pp. 181210.
33
S Jovchelovitch, 'In defense of representations'. Journal for the theory of
Social Behaviour, vol. 26, 1996, pp. 121-135; S Moscovici, ‘On social
representations’; S Moscovici, 'The Phenomenon of Social Representations',
in R. Farr & S. Moscovici (Eds.), Social Representations. Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge, 1984, pp. 3-70.
34
35
In the exploratory phase we have gathered the musical preferences of the
participants, and we determined, by free association of words and Factorial
Analysis of Correspondences, the significant SR of death, suicide, music and
life. The sadness was the only significant dimension relevant in all the
categories of representations found, emphasizing the intense emotional way
of living and the typical worries on adolescence. The music emerged as a
privileged way to express and share emotions, being associated with a
hedonistic view of life, where there is an overvaluation of pleasure, happiness
and fun, family relationships, friends and love, but, also mentioning the
difficulties related to sadness, work, death and the daily problems.
10
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36
The experimental contexts were operated trough images (three small films
that show the death of a person in different situations: surrounded by family
or friends, in a private context; surrounded by health professionals, in a
public context; and alone after shooting over herself, in a suicidal context) in
the first experience; texts (two suicide notes, one of a anonymous young
person, in an unknown context; and the other of Kurt Cobain, in a context of
a known person) in the second; and music (two themes previously tested:
one, Beautiful Day, from U2, associated to a positive ideation of life; and the
other, Jeremy, from Pearl Jam, associated to a negative ideation of life and
suicide) in the third experience. In any of the studies, beside the conditions in
which the participants had these stimuli, there was also a control group which
answered to the proposed questionnaire without previous stimuli (film,
suicide note or music).
37
In a total of 1226 adolescents, comprehending all studies on this research.
38
As described (on the previous note) for the third experiment.
39
40
K Scheel & J Westfeld, ‘Heavy metal music and adolescent suicidality: an
empirical investigation’.
41
Music preferences reflect what: we hear at home; the group of school peers
or friends like; we hear from the internet, mp3, radio, television or any other
source of media; we hear in parties, bars, clubs, etc; the top songs; music (in
some cases the author or the group) that we can identify or relate to; etc.
42
Other bands have been named in almost all studies (like Marilyn Manson,
for example), and many appear occasionally, relating occasional preferences.
43
We didn't define musical styles a priori. We questioned adolescents about
their preferences, and from their answers constructed a list with their favorite
bands and musicians, that was included in the instruments we used in the
experiments - this list was updated after each study. From those answers we
'reconstructed' musical styles according to the meanings and characteristics
associated to the groups, the type of music and the intrinsic message. So, we
admit that some musicians may naturally belong to more than one 'music
style';
A Oliveira, Ilusões na Idade das Emoções - representações sociais da morte,
do suicídio e da música na adolescência.
44
For those styles are more associated to stress, contesting or ideological
speeches.
45
Pop, in general, is a lighter, more cheerful, danceable and romantic type of
music.
46
C Borralho, Música, preferências musicais e a ideação suicida na
adolescência; K Roberts et al., 'Adolescent emotional response to music and
its relationship to risk-taking behaviours'. Journal of Adolescent Health, 23
11
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(1), 1998, pp. 49-54; K Scheel & J Westfeld, ‘Heavy metal music and
adolescent suicidality: an empirical investigation’.
47
(e.g., Kendall, 1998; Strasburger, 1995) R Kendall, 'Adolescent Emotional
Response to Music and its Relationship to Risk-Taking Behaviours'; V
Strasburger, Adolescents and the media - Medical and psychological impact.
Sage Publications Inc., CA, 1995.
48
Punk rock is also associated with discomfort and death rituals.
49
We point out that about 40% of our population claimed that they already
had risk-taking behaviors, close to 35% declared they had self-mutilation (or
self-harm) behaviors, 7% have committed at least one suicide attempt and
about half have had suicide ideation (in 30% of cases several times), and also,
closeness to suicide situations - about 45% know a person that committed or
tried suicide.
50
M Bradbury, Representations of death. Routledge, London, 1999; R
Kastenbaum, Death, society and human experience. (7ª ed.). Allyn & Bacon,
Boston, 2001; A Oliveira, O desafio da Morte.
51
The suicide of someone like Kurt Cobain, that was not physically present
in the life of these adolescents, is still outstanding; he certainly provided,
through his music, a 'smell' of euphoria, rage, admiration, compassion and
isolation moments; Kurt was, since his disturbed childhood, a very lonely and
melancholic person, that slowly lost the hope in his life.
52
53
As a 17 year-old girl told us "Suicide is the only exit when a person is in an
unknown world and when the only 'music' listened is the loneliness".
54
A Oliveira, SobreViver.
55
Any adolescent can, frequently, feel anxious or depressed, but that doesn´t
mean that he wants to die or kill himself. Kurt Cobain suggested that in a
simple question 'Hello, how low?'
56
A voice may encourage, appease, comfort or understands him, just like: "I
don't question, our existence, I just question, our modern needs" (from Eddie
Vedder, Pearl Jam).
57
Musical preferences can also allude to attitudes that reinforce some shared
representations, prevalent in what distinguishes individuals and subcultures,
offering identification models, integration or social differentiation. For
instance, going to a concert, more than a socialization act becomes a ritual of
unequalled magnitude.
Bibliography
12
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Abreu, P., ‘Práticas e consumos de música(s): ilustrações sobre alguns novos
contextos da prática cultural’. Revista crítica de ciências sociais, vol. 56,
2000, pp. 123-147.
Barros, C., Música e juventude. Vulgata, Lisboa, 2000.
Borralho, C., Música, preferências musicais e a ideação suicida na
adolescência. Monografia, ISPA, Lisboa, 2002.
Bradbury, M., Representations of death. Routledge, London, 1999.
Brown, E. & Hendee, W., ‘Adolescents and their music: insights into the
health of adolescents’. Journal of the American Medical Association, vol.
262, 1989, pp. 1659-1663.
Buckingham, D. & Sefton-Green, 'Series Editors’ Preface', in Teen Spirits Music and Identity in Media Education. C. Richards (ed.), UCL Press,
London, pp. ix-xii, 1998.
Cabral, M., & Pais, J. (eds.). Condutas de risco, práticas culturais, e atitudes
perante o corpo: resultados de um inquérito aos jovens portugueses em 2000.
Celta/IPJ, Oeiras, 2003.
Costa, C., O despertar para o outro: Musicoterapia. Sumus, São Paulo,
1989.
Crepet, P., A dimensão do vazio. Âmbar, Porto, 2002.
Frankel, R., The adolescent psyche. Routledge, London, 1999.
Gard, C. ‘Music’n’Moods’. Current Health, vol. 2, 1997, pp. 24-26.
Geldard, K. & Geldard, D., Counselling Adolescents. SAGE, London, 2000.
James, J., The Music of the Spheres. Abacus, London, 1993.
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15
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Stewart, R., Música e psique. Cultrix, São Paulo, 1996.
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Abílio Oliveira is an Assistant Professor at ISCTE-Lisbon University
Institute and a Researcher at CIES-IUL Centre for Research and Studies in
Sociology (Lisbon). He is the author of several books, namely ‘Ilusões Na
Idade das Emoções - Representações Sociais da morte, do suicídio e da
música na adolescência’ and 'O Desafio da Morte'.
[email protected]
Rute Rodrigues is a Social Psychologist currently working on Suicide
Symbolisms and Representations as a Research Assistant at CIES-IUL Centre
for Research and Studies in Sociology (Lisbon).
[email protected]

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