ifda dossier 28 - Online Burma Library

international foundation for development alternatives
fundacion internacional para alternativas de desarrollo
fondati'on internationale pour un outre dkveloppernent
Pages
INTRODUCTORY NOTE :
Beyond Yalta
2
B U I L D I N G BLOCKS
Another development in Poland (Piotr Zeydler-Zborowski)
Tradition and modernity in the development of Non-European
national cultures (Attila Agh)
The world as a trading place - On cultural presuppositions
and effects of the Lome Convention (Wolf-Dieter Just)
.
.
.
The arms race is incompatible with the NIEO (Inga Thorsson)
The antinuclear-war movement (George Kennan)
Nuclear weapons and the end of democracy (Richard Falk)
MARKINGS
.
Development and justice (Alfredo Novak)
INTERACTIONS
.
.
.
.
.
The role of financial policies in the transition to socialism
(Stephany Griffith-Jones)
Strategies alternatives de developpement de la region
mediterraneenne - Relations entre les strategies nationales,
regionales et mondiales (Samir Amin)
Native Americans' struggle for survival (Mario de Cautin)
Lokayan
Disarm or die
FOOTNOTES
/
NOTES
/
NOTAS
MATERIALS RECEIVED
71
74
81
84
87
89
95
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of a copy mould be appreciated. IFDA Dossier i s published bi-monthly.
executive committee ismail-sabri obdolla, ahmed ben salah, qamani corea, rnohbub ul haq, enrique iglesiaS, jan rneljer,
marc nerfin (president}, justinion t rweyemomu, ignacy sachs, Juan somavla, maurtce f, strong, Inga thorsson
CO-choirmen 1981-1982 : ternando henrique cardoso, ernst mlchanek
secretariat: 2. place du march& ch-1260 nyon, switzerland; telephone 41 (22) 61 8 2 8 2 ; telex 28840 lfda c h ; cable tipad, geneva
BEYOND YALTA
T h i s i s s u e o f t h e IFDA D o s s i e r i n c l u d e s , among o t h e r s , p a p e r s on
two c r i t i c a l i s s u e s :
P o l a n d , and t h e n u c l e a r t h r e a t .
l i n k e d by what one m i g h t c a l l t h e l o g i c o f Y a l t a .
They a r e
I n t h i s town of
Crimea, i n 1945, R o o s e v e l t and S t a l i n , l e a d e r s o f t h e two s u p e r powers which were a b o u t t o emerge v i c t o r i o u s from a s i x - y e a r w a r ,
c a r v e d up what t h e y c o n s i d e r e d t h e w o r l d .
P e o p l e were n o t i n a
position t o react.
The w o r l d h a s r a d i c a l l y changed s i n c e t h e n , w i t h t h e d e c o l o n i s a t i o n
o f t h e T h i r d World and t h e emergence o f t h e Non-aligned movement,
a s w e l l a s t h e r e a p p e a r a n c e o f Europe.
Yet t h e super-powers,
now
e q u i p p e d w i t h t h e most d e a d l y weaponry which e v e r e x i s t e d on t h i s
p l a n e t , c o n t i n u e t o a c t a s i f t h e w o r l d were s t i l l t h e i r s .
They
i n t e r p r e t t h e endogenous s o c i a l movements f o r l i b e r a t i o n i n t e r m s
of t h e i r r i v a l r y .
They e x e r c i s e t h e i r hegemony i n what t h e y con-
s i d e r t h e i r immediate p r o v i n c e s
-
t h e Americas o r E a s t e r n Europe;
t h e y i n t e r v e n e t o c o n s o l i d a t e and expand i t e l s e w h e r e .
The p e r s i s t e n c e o f t h e l o g i c o f Y a l t a h i n d e r s autonomous s o c i a l
movements, and b r i n g s c l o s e r t h e d a n g e r o f n u c l e a r w a r .
But t h e l o g i c o f Y a l t a i s n o t t h e l o g i c o f t h e p e o p l e .
On 2 5 J a n -
u a r y , i n S a n t i a g o , C h i l e , h a l f a m i l l i o n f e a r l e s s younq women and
men d e m o n s t r a t e d , on t h e o c c a s i o n o f t h e f u n e r a l o f f o r m e r P r e s i d e n t
F r e i , t h e i r o p p o s i t i o n t o t h e US-backed m i l i t a r y j u n t a and t h e i r
hope f o r a n o t h e r C h i l e .
A s dark a s t h e P o l i s h predicament appears,
t h e P o l i s h w o r k e r s , p e a s a n t s and s t u d e n t s u n i t e d i n S o l i d a r n o S E
w i l l n o t g i v e up. Nor w i l l t h e p e o p l e o f C e n t r a l America.
In
Western E u r o p e , beyond t h e s o c i a l i s t v i c t o r i e s i n F r a n c e and G r e e c e ,
a m a s s i v e p o p u l a r movement r e s i s t s t h e n u c l e a r t h r e a t . Never s i n c e
Y a l t a have s o many p e o p l e i n s o many c o u n t r i e s e x p r e s s e d t h e i r w i l l
f o r autonomous c h a n g e .
I f t h e r e i s any ' m u t u a l i t y o f i n t e r e s t ' on t h i s p l a n e t , i t i s i n
t h e overcoming o f t h e l o g i c o f Y a l t a , t h e s e a r c h f o r disarmament
and f o r s o c i a l l i b e r a t i o n i n t h e s p i r i t o f democracy and c u l t u r a l
pluralism.
B U I L D I N G BLOCKS
ANOTHER DEVELOPMENT I N POLAND
by Piotr Zeydler-Zborowski
This paper, so full of optimism, was delivered in Budapest, at
the Conference of the European Association of Development
Institutes, in November 1981. One month later, its dreams had
been crushed by a military coup. We publish it as it was
written, because of its documentary interest, and as a manifestation of our solidarity with the Polish people.(Editorls note)
Original language: English
Abstract: State power structure versus people's power is the issue underlying
the birth and development of Poland's Solidarno66. Through a series of "trial
and error" in mobilization efforts (1956, 1968, 1970, 1976) the workers gained
experience on coping with suppression and reprisals. The events at the Lenin
shipyard in Gdansk in August 1980 marked the beginning of occupational strikes
by workers who were not ready to surrender their action until their demands
were met and institutional guarantees agreed upon by the authorities. Such
action spread all over country and resulted in the creation of free trade unions
everywhere - which finally merged into one - Solidarn066 - which became a mass
movement responding to society's demands for renewal.
In part 11, the author analyzes the situation of Poland in the light of the
postulates of another development: the satisfaction of ne.^Js; endogeneity and
self reliance; harmony with the environment; the need for structural transformations; and necessary action towards-the achievement of these goals.
UN AUTRE DEVELOPPEMENT EN POLOGNE
Le conflit entre la structure de pouvoir gtatique et le pouvoir populaire est
sous-jacent ii la naissance et au developpement de Solidarnogii. Au travers d'une
serie d'experiences d'auto-mobilisation populaire (1956, 1968, 1970, 1976), les
travailleurs ont acquis une experience unique. Les Gvenements survenus au chantier naval Lgnine 2 Gdansk, en ao6t 1980, ont marque le commencement de grsves
sur le tas, par lesquelles les travailleurs ont montre leur volonte de ne pas
ceder jusqu'2 ce que leurs revendications soient satisfaites et des garanties
institutionelles acceptees par les autorites. Ce mouvement s'est repandu dans
tout le pays et a result6 dans la creation de syndicats libres partout, jusqu'ii
leur fusion au sein de SolidarnoU, lequel est devenu un mouvement de masse traduisant la volonte sociale de renouveau.
La seconde partie de cet article analyse la situation de la Pologne 2 la lumisre
des postulats d'un autre developpement: satisfaction des besoins; endogeneite
et autonomie; harmonie avec l'environnement; transformations des structures;
et l'action necessaire 2 la realisation de ces objectifs. (Espa%ol, pag. 22.)
ANOTHER DEVELOPMENT LN POLAND
1 5 months a g o (on 14 August 1980) an unemployed e l e c t r i c i a n jumped
o v e r t h e f e n c e o f L e n i n S h i p y a r d i n Gdafisk, c l i m b e d on a c a r t t h a t
s t o o d n e a r b y and s a i d t o t h e w o r k e r s who had g a t h e r e d i n t h e y a r d :
" I d e c l a r e an occupational s t r i k e : " .
A f t e r one y e a r , t h a t f o r m a l l y p o o r l y - e d u c a t e d f e l l o w was one of t h e roost s e r i o u s l y c o n s i d e r e d c a n d i d a t e s f o r t h e Nobel p e a c e p r i z e and h i s name i s w e l l
known t o p r o b a b l y h a l f of t h e w o r l d ' s p o p u l a t i o n (China i n c l u d e d ) .
1 5 months ago t h e development p a t t e r n o f a n a t i o n l o c a t e d somewhere i n E a s t e r n Europe had h a r d l y provoked any i n t e r e s t w i t h i n
t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l development community. A f t e r one y e a r i t wouldn ' t b e an e x a g g e r a t i o n t o s p e a k o f e x c i t e m e n t i n t h e same c i r c l e s
when a word o f l o n g - f o r g o t t e n meaning, " s o l i d a r i t y " ( S o l i d a r n o s g
i n P o l i s h ) , i s mentioned.
What h a s happened? What i s t h e n a t u r e o f t h e changes o c c u r r i n g i n
P o l a n d ? I t i s n o t e a s y t o f o r m u l a t e a f i n a l answer. Most s u c c i n c t l y : we a r e t r y i n g t o s o c i a l i z e t h e s t a t e . I t i s a p r o c e s s ,
an u n f i n i s h e d p r o c e s s , some would e v e n s a y t h e v e r y b e g i n n i n g of
a l o n g , l e t ' s hope s u c c e s s f u l , s t o r y .
C e r t a i n l y , it i s n o t p o s s i b l e t o give a d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n ,
e v e n t by e v e n t , i n a p a p e r t h a t must n o t b e t o o l o n g , a l t h o u g h I
d o n ' t t h i n k it i s a wrong p l a c e and t i m e t o d i v e a s much i n s i d e
information a s possible.
One who f o l l o w s West o r E a s t European
mass media s h o u l d n o t f e e l w e l l i n f o r m e d . T h e r e i s s o much b i a s
and m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g on b o t h s i d e s ! B u t , a s we now know i n
For
P o l a n d v e r y w e l l - t o o w e l l , I would s a y - t h e r e a r e l i m i t s .
a paper a l s o .
T h e r e f o r e , t h e o t h e r o p t i o n f o r me was t o p r e p a r e s o m e t h i n g o f a
s y n t h e s i s . However, t o k e e p it c o h e r e n t , s u c h a s y n t h e s i s s h o u l d
b e b a s e d on a few key e l e m e n t s , s h o u l d p i v o t upon one c e n t r a l
theme.
Thus an i d e a came t o my mind t h a t a l l around w e a r e l o o k i n g - North o r S o u t h , E a s t o r West, a l l d i s a p p o i n t e d - f o r a n o t h e r ,
b e t t e r development. What h a s h e l p e d i n my d e c i s i o n t o c o n c e n t r a t e
on a n o t h e r development a s a c o r e e l e m e n t o f t h i s p a p e r i s t h e matu r e e x i s t e n c e o f s u c h an i d e a w i t h i n t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l community.
Owing t o t h e e f f o r t s of p e o p l e l i n k e d w i t h t h e Dag Hammarskjold
F o u n d a t i o n and t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l F o u n d a t i o n f o r Development
A l t e r n a t i v e s , t h e c o n c e p t of a n o t h e r development h a s been w e l l
e l a b o r a t e d and p r e s e n t e d i n widely-known p u b l i c a t i o n s . L /
'
-
"What Mow - Another Development", The 1975 Dag Hannnarskj6ld Report on
Development and I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o o p e r a t i o n , U p p s a l a , Sweden, and
Development Dialogue and IFDA D o s s i e r - p e r i o d i c a l s p u b l i s h e d by t h e
above mentioned i n s t i t u t i o n s , o r b e t t e r - groups ( n o t INSTITUTIONS).
-
-
B e f o r e a n a l y z i n y o u r o t h e r development o r
more p r e c i s e l y
our
would-be o t h e r development, a few words s h o u l d b e s a i d a b o u t t h e
b a s i c s o f t h e Solidarno&5 movement,
I
The Emergence o f S o l idarnoSC
LESSONS FROM RECENT H I S T O R Y
The main q u e s t i o n t h a t one meets a l m o s t everywhere i s :
"What
r e a l l y i s S o l i d a r n o 5 E ? " . I t i s d i f f i c u l t t o answer t h i s q u e s t i o n
p r e c i s e l y , b u t a q u i c k g l a n c e a t t h e h i s t o r i c a l background o f t h e
e v e n t s t h a t e r u p t e d i n summer 1980 would h e l p t o u n d e r s t a n d some
of t h e f e a t u r e s o f t o d a y ' s s i t u a t i o n .
The whole 37-year post-war p e r i o d c o u l d b e c h a r a c t e r i z e d a s one
o f c o n t i n u o u s s e a r c h by s o c i e t y f o r a development p a t t e r n t h a t
s u i t s o u r a s p i r a t i o n s and s t e m s from o u r c u l t u r a l h e r i t a g e .
Today
we may s a y t h a t o u r p a s t a u t h o r i t i e s , which o n l y o v e r v e r y s h o r t
i n t e r v a l s r e p r e s e n t e d a m a j o r i t y of o u r s o c i e t y , d i d n o t unders t a n d t h e n e c e s s i t y o f m e e t i n g t h o s e two c o n d i t i o n s .
The o r i g i n s o f t o d a y ' s t r o u b l e s r e a c h a s f a r back a s 1948. Even
b e f o r e t h a t , j u s t a f t e r t h e war, t h e s i t u a t i o n w a s n ' t rosy s i n c e
a new s o c i a l s y s t e m had been i n t r o d u c e d by means o f r e v o l u t i o n ,
and r e v o l u t i o n i s n e v e r a c c e p t e d by t h e whole o f s o c i e t y , p a r t i c u l a r l y when it comes m o s t l y from a b r o a d . But t h e r e was much
e n t h u s i a s m among l a r q e s t r a t a o f s o c i e t y , t o whom a new, b e t t e r
s y s t e m seemed t o b e i n s i g h t .
I t s h o u l d be added t h a t s o c i a l i s m
a s an i d e a h a s had l o n g r o o t s i n P o l a n d and h a s had many f o l l o w e r s
s i n c e t h e mid-19th c e n t u r y .
However t h i n g s changed f o r t h e worse i n 1948. I t was a y e a r when
s o - c a l l e d s t a l i n i s t s g r a b b e d e x c l u s i v e power, imposing a l i e n t development p a t t e r n s upon o u r s o c i e t y - i n o u r c u l t u r a l , s o c i a l ,
p o l i t i c a l and economic l i f e . And a l t h o u g h some g o a l s p r o c l a i m e d
by t h e r u l i n g g r o u p c o u l d s a t i s f y q u i t e a s u b s t a n t i a l p a r t of
s o c i e t y , o u r c u l t u r a l h e r i t a g e was a l m o s t t o t a l l y n e g l e c t e d , i f
n o t condemned.
1956: Change must come from t h e p e o p l e
structure )
( n o t from t h e power
A f t e r s e v e r a l y e a r s , it became a p p a r e n t t h a t g o a l s were s t i l l o n l y
g o a l s , t h a t r e a l i t y was much worse t h a n i n t h e S i x - y e a r P l a n , and
t h a t t h e p r i c e which s o c i e t y h a s been p a y i n g was t o o h i g h . A s a
r e s u l t we had t h e f i r s t m i l e s t o n e i n o u r post-war w o r k e r s ' movement - t h e 1956 Poznafi p r o t e s t .
The r e a s o n s f o r t h a t p r o t e s t were
a l m o s t t h e same a s t h o s e o f l a s t y e a r , e x c e p t t h a t p o o r l i v i n g
c o n d i t i o n s and a b u s e o f power had h i t p e o p l e t h e n w i t h g r e a t e r
force than recently.
The w o r k e r s were s o s p o n t a n e o u s i n t h e i r
p r o t e s t , s o p o o r l y o r g a n i z e d and s o i n e x p e r i e n c e d i n s u c h an a c t i o n , t h a t t h e i r p r o t e s t a g a i n s t t h e t o t a l i t a r i a n s t a t e could
y i e l d o n l y one r e s u l t - t e n s o f them (some s a y o v e r a h u n d r e d )
were k i l l e d ,
Later i n t h a t year, t h e "destalinizatton" process s t a r t e d o f f i d a l l y and tn P o l a n d i t went u n d e r t h e Banner o f " t h e P o l i s h
r o a d t o s o c i a l i s m " . Nladyslaw Gomulka, j u s t r e l e a s e d from p r i s o n
by h i s s u d d e n l y f r i e n d l y comrades, g o t a l m o s t u p c o n d i t i o n a l suppo r t from t h e s o c i e t y . Workers a s w e l l a s i n t e l l e c t u a l s were
f u l l of hopes f o r t h e f u t u r e . And t h e f i r s t y e a r s , o r r a t h e r
months, t h a t f o l l o w e d t h e " P o l i s h O c t o b e r " were f u l l o f s i g n s o f
a change i n p o l i c y t h a t would have been c l o s e t o t h e a s p i r a t i o n s
and t h e c u l t u r a l h e r i t a g e of P o l e s . Economic d e c e n t r a l i z a t i o n ,
t h e b e g i n n i n g s o f w o r k e r s ' c o u n c i l s ( b a s e d on Yugoslav e x p e r i e n c e ) ,
t h e abandonment o f many s u p e r f l u o u s d o c t r i n a l axioms ( l i k e t h a t
l i n k e d w i t h t h e land ownership q u e s t i o n ) , t h e r e h a b i l i t a t i o n of
many previously-condemned p a t r i o t s , t h e improvement i n r e l a t i o n s
between t h e s t a t e and t h e c h u r c h ( i n c l u d i n g t h e r e l e a s e of o u r
p r i m a t e , t h e l a t e c a r d i n a l Wyszyfiski) and t h e growing o p e n e s s o f
a l l t h e s e gave grounds f o r w e l l - f o u n d e d
t h e system t o p-luralism
hopes f o r t h e c f t m o c r a t i z a t i o n o f t h e way o u r s o c i e t y was g o v e r n e d .
Some were e v e n h o p e f u l t h a t o u r s o c i e t y would g r a d u a l l y govern
itself.
-
J u s t a few weeks a g o we c e l e b r a t e d t h e 2 5 t h a n n i v e r s a r y o f t h a t
" P o l i s h O c t o b e r " . But it was a b i t t e r a n n i v e r s a r y . We d i d n o t
i n f a c t c e l e b r a t e i t , we mourned i t ! There i s no d o u b t t h a t w e
l o s t t h e c h a n c e w e had i n 1956. Most o f t h e p r o m i s e s and hopes
d i e r e l a t i v e l y q u i c k l y ( t h e w o r k e r s ' c o u n c i l s had o n l y 2 y e a r s
o f weak e x i s t e n c e ) ; some l a s t e d l o n g e r , b u t v e r y few of them
were f u l f i l l e d .
However, w e l e a r n e d an i m p o r t a n t l e s s o n from o u r e x p e r i e n c e d u r i n g
t h e Gomutka p e r i o d . Today, w h i l e s e e k i n g whom t o blame f o r o u r
f a i l u r e t h e n t o b u i l d a new development p a t t e r n , some o f u s p o i n t
t o t h e a u t h o r i t i e s , t o Gomu&kals s y s t e m o f e x e r c i s i n g power. And
s u c h an answer i s c o r r e c t , o f c o u r s e . But t h e blame i s more t o b e
l a i d on o u r s e l v e s , on t h e r u l e d o n e s .
I t was o u r t a s k t o make
u s e of t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s and c r e a t e a new, P o l i s h , s o c i a l i s m t h a t
would have been a t t r a c t i v e t o t h e m a j o r i t y o f u s , n o t o n l y t o t h e
b u r e a u c r a t s , a s i t happened. T h i s c o n v i c t i o n t h a t we s h o u l d t a k e
o u r f a t e i n t o o u r own h a n d s was t h e most i m p o r t a n t r e s u l t o f t h a t
e x p e r i e n c e a s f a r a s t h e c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f s o c i e t y and s u b s e q u e n t
events a r e concerned,
1970:
Workers a r e p o w e r f u l i n t h e i r f a c t o r i e s ( n o t on t h e s t r e e t s )
During t h e p e r i o d 1956-1970, t h e economy s t a g n a t e d , and t h e s o c i a l
and p o l i t i c a l s i t u a t i o n worsened.
There were some s p o r a d i c p r o t e s t s , m o s t l y by i n t e l l e c t u a l s , b u t w i t h o u t any h e l p from o t h e r
g r o u p s o f s o c i e t y . They were e a s i l y s u p p r e s s e d ( l i k e t h e 1968
p r o t e s t by w r i t e r s , s t u d e n t s and s c h o l a r s ) . The a u t h o r i t i e s i n t e n s i f i e d t h e i r erroneous p o l i c i e s , t h u s a l i e n a t i n g themselves
a l m o s t c o m p l e t e l y from t h e s o c i e t y ,
Once a g a i n , An 1970, t h e w o r k e r s c o u l d n ' t s t a n d t h e s i t u a t i o n any
more and t h e r e were s t r i k e s on t h e B a l t i c c o a s t . These s t r i k e s
and d e m o n s t r a t i o n s ended t h e same way a s i n 1 9 5 6 . The a u t h o r i t i e s r e s o r t e d t o arms and a g a i n t e n s (some s a y o v e r a h u n d r e d ) o f
p r o t e s t i n g w o r k e r s were k i l l e d . Next, a change i n t h e t o p l e a d e r s h i p was made and Edward G i e r e k s t a r t e d h i s t e r m w i t h t h e t h e n
famous v i s i t t o t h e s h i p y a r d and by a s k i n g w o r k e r s t h e well-known
question:
" W i l l you h e l p me?", which g o t a p o s i t i v e r e s p o n s e
from a s t i l l - t r u s t i n g l a r g e p a r t o f s o c i e t y ,
T h a t y e a r we l e a r n e d a n o t h e r l e s s o n : n e v e r go o u t i n t o t h e
s t r e e t s . Workers have power a s l o n g a s t h e y a r e i n t h e i r working
i n the plants not i n the streets.
environment
-
1976:
Change must b e i n s t i t u t i o n a l ( n o t p e r s o n a l )
A s i n 1 9 5 6 , t h e new l e a d e r s a c c e p t e d t h e p r o t e s t by a d m i t t i n g
t h a t it w a s n ' t - a s t h e o u s t e d l e a d e r s claimed - a counter-revolu-
t i o n a r y o r a n t i - s o c i a l i s t r e b e l l i o n , b u t a f u l l y j u s t i f i e d workers'
a c t i o n a g a i n s t p o o r l i v i n g c o n d i t i o n s . And t h e w o r k e r s a g r e e d
t h a t t h e y were n o t a g a i n s t t h e s y s t e m b u t a g a i n s t t h e way s y s t e m
was r u n .
The change o f t h e group a t t h e t o p , however, d i d n ' t mean a change
o f t h e method o f government, which remained v i r t u a l l y u n a l t e r e d ,
w i t h a few m o d i f i c a t i o n s n o t always f o r t h e b e t t e r .
Society still
had a l m o s t n o t h i n g t o s a y i n t h e m a t t e r s c o n c e r n i n g i t s e l f , l o s i n g
what remained o f i t s c o n t r o l o v e r t h e b u r e a u c r a c y whose power
i n c r e a s e d enormously. One o f t h e w o r s t f e a t u r e s o f t h e 1970s was
t h a t a d e g e n e r a t i n g a u t o c r a t i c s y s t e m promoted p e o p l e who were
c o r r u p t , i n c o m p e t e n t , d i s h o n e s t and p o l i t i c a l l y s c h i z o p h r e n i c
i e . t h a t t h e y d e c l a r e d s o c i a l i s t i d e o l o g y and a c t e d q u i t e t o t h e
c o n t r a r y ) . The t y p e met most o f t e n among t h e r u l i n g group was
c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a l m o s t u n l i m i t e d d r i v e f o r m a t e r i a l goods and
t o t a l l a c k o f m o r a l v i r t u e s . And s u c h an a t t i t u d e , l i k e a c a n c e r ,
slowly p e n e t r a t e d t h e t i s s u e of t h e nation.
G i e r e k ' s team made a few g e s t u r e s t o w a r d s s o c i e t y , m o s t l y a s f a r
a s economic w e l l - b e i n g was c o n c e r n e d - l i k e s t i m u l a t i n g consumer
a s p i r a t i o n s and m e e t i n g a few o f them.
I t l a t e r appeared t h a t
t h o s e a s p i r a t i o n s were a c t i v a t e d m o s t l y among t h o s e g r o u p s o f
s o c i e t y which were l i n k e d somehow w i t h t h e r u l i n g e l i t e and were
f u l f i l l e d i n t h e most s h o r t s i g h t e d way - j u s t by t a k i n g c r e d i t s
from a b r o a d and e a t i n g them up.
The f a u l t s i n economic p o l i c y s p e a k f o r t h e m s e l v e s b u t a l m o s t
e q u a l l y g r a v e m i s t a k e s were made i n o t h e r s p h e r e s o f s o c i e t a l
l i f e , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n c u l t u r e . Our h i s t o r y i n t h e s c h o o l t e x t books was f a l s i f i e d , o u r b e s t w r i t e r s banned from p u b l i s h i n g , o u r
emigrant scholars forgotten.
The main s o u r c e f o r f u l f i l l i n q
c u l t u r a l a s p i r a t i o n s was s u p p o s e d t o b e t e l e v i s i o n , o v e r l o a d e d
w i t h p r i m i t i v e propaganda,
The f i r s t w a r n i n g o f p o p u l a r d i s c o n t e n t came i n 1976 when t h e
w o r k e r s i n Radom and Ursus p r o t e s t e d a g a i n s t p r i c e i n c r e a s e s .
Brutal p o l i c e i n t e r v e n t i o n and. a s l a n d e r campaign h e l p e d t o
suppres-p t h e p r o t e c t once m o r e , The b u r e a u c r a c y was u n a b l e t o
l e a r n a n y t h i n g from t h a t p r o t e s t ;
it j u s t p r e t e n d e d t o i g n o r e
t h e warning, On t h e o t h e r hand, 1976 i s s e e n a s a b r e a k t h r o u g h
i n a s t r u g g l e which s o c i e t y had been f i g h t i n g f o r y e a r s . From
t h a t y e a r o n , a n a l l i a n c e between w o r k e r s and i n t e l l e c t u a l s was
formed and which f i n a l l y l e d t o t h e e v e n t s o f August 1980. And
s o c i e t y d e f i n i t e l y c e a s e d t o t r u s t i t s g o v e r n o r s who came from
t h e same p o l i t i c a l c i r c l e s a s t h e i r p r e d e c e s s o r s and a c t e d w i t h i n t h e same mechanism.
Thus t h e c o n c l u s i o n was a l s o r e a c h e d t h a t t h e change o f names a t
t h e t o p , i f i t i s n o t accompanied by i n s t i t u t i o n a l r e f o r m s w i t h
e n t r e n c h e d g u a r a n t e e s , i s n o t a r e a l change and c a n ' t be a c c e p t e d .
And i t was o u r t h i r d and f i n a l l e s s o n . So it can n o t be s a i d
the c l a s s lasted f o r a
t h a t we l e a r n e d o u r l e s s o n s q u i c k l y
q u a r t e r o f a c e n t u r y a t l e a s t - b u t we l e a r n e d them w e l l .
-
The c r i s i s o f 1980
The z i t u a t i o n by t h e e n d o f t h e decade 1970-1980 was e x t r e m e l y
c r i t i c a l and it was c r i t i c a l i n a l m o s t e a c h s e c t i o n o f o u r s o c i e t y
Our economic s t a t i s t i c s r e c o r d e d a
and e a c h s p h e r e o f i t s l i f e .
n e g a t i v e growth r a t e i n 1979, something l i k e - 2 . 5 % , i f t h e s t a t i s t i c s t o l d t h e whole t r u t h .
T h a t was an e x c e p t i o n a l f i g u r e f o r a
p l a n n e d economy.
But b e h i n d t h e f i g u r e s s e v e r e market problems
were h i d d e n ;
a s a l w a y s , s u p p l y c o u l d n ' t c a t c h up w i t h demand,
b u t t h e gap had been w i d e n i n g r a p i d l y .
Economic mismanagement
and w a s t e and i n c r e a s i n g f o r e i g n d e b t (which l i k e o t h e r v i t a l
economic i n f o r m a t i o n was k e p t s e c r e t ) was f e l t by p e o p l e who
w i t n e s s e d t h e g r a d u a l d i s a p p e a r a n c e of goods which e i t h e r were
i m p o r t e d o r produced w i t h i m p o r t e d components. But t h e w o r s t f o r
s o c i e t y was t h e c o n v i c t i o n t h a t we were g o i n g nowhere. The s i t u a t i o n o f t h e l a t e 1970s h a s been r e c e n t l y d e s c r i b e d by o u r econom i s t s a s a t o t a l d i s i n t e g r a t i o n o f economy.
A t t h e same t i m e , t h e a l i e n a t i o n o f t h e b u r e a u c r a c y r e a c h e d i t s
height.
A l l d e c i s i o n s were t a k e n by t h e p a r t y and s t a t e b o d i e s
which c o m p l e t e l y e v a d e d s o c i a l c o n t r o l , p r o t e c t i n g t h e m s e l v e s
a g a i n s t any c r i t i c i s m by c e n s o r s h i p .
Decisions concerning t h e
most v i t a l t h i n g s i n o u r l i f e were made w i t h o n l y one aim:
to
s a t i s f y o r accommodatecircles o r l o b b i e s w i t h i n t h e c e n t r a l i z e d
power s t r u c t u r e .
The " n o m e n k l a t u r a " s y s t e m , i e . t h e e x c l u s i v e
r i g h t o f t h e p a r t y t o nominate i t s own p e o p l e t o t h e t h o u s a n d s o f
more o r l e s s i m p o r t a n t p o s t s i n a l l s p h e r e s o f l i f e , was a p p l i e d
t o m a i n t a i n power.
T h i s s y s t e m , d i s r e g a r d i n g q u a l i f i c a t i o n s and
f a v o u r i n g narrow i n s t i t u t i o n a l l o y a l t y , b r o u g h t a b o u t heavy
l o s s e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n o u r economy,
And i n o p p o s i t i o n t o such a d e g e n e r a t e d power s t r u c t u r e we had
by t h e e n d o f t h e 1970s a s o c i e t y which had l e a r n e d i t s l e s s o n s
from p a s t p r o t e s t s , and which was e d u c a t e d , h a v i n g h i g h a s p i r a t i o n s , and u n i t e d i n i t s d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h t h e p r e v a i l i n g
s i t u a t i o n and t h e whole s y s t e m o f e x e r c i s i n g power.
People f e l t
a l s o e n c o u r a g e d and t o some e x t e n t o b l i g e d t o a c t i o n by t h e f a c t
t h a t one of t h e h i g h e s t moral a u t h o r i t i e s i n t h e world - t h e
Pope - was from P o l a n d ,
A l t h o u g h i t i s e a s y t o s e e t h i n g s t h i s way t o d a y , i t c a n b e s a i d
t h a t i t was n o wonder t h a t t h e p r o t e s t o f 1 9 8 0 t o o k t h e f o r m i t
d i d , t h a t workers l e a r n i n g from t h e p a s t o r g a n i z e d s t r i k e s withi n f a c t o r y p r e m i s e s , t h a t t h e y were determined t o c o n t i n u e t h e i r
p r o t e s t u n t i l i n s t i t u t i o n a l c h a n g e s w e r e g u a r a n t e e d . They w a n t e d
c h a n g e s w h i c h would n o t o n l y p r o t e c t a u t h o r i t i e s a g a i n s t making
f u r t h e r " s o r r y m i s t a k e s " (which h i t n o t them b u t t h e w h o l e s o c i e t y )
b u t a l s o h e l p t o t r a n s f e r power t o t h e w o r k e r s o r , more g e n e r a l l y ,
t o s o c i e t y . And t h i s t i m e t h e a u t h o r i t i e s r e c o g n i z e d t h e p r o t e s t
from t h e v e r y beginning.
The w o r k e r s l e f t n o i l l u s i o n s a s t o
t h e i r d e t e r m i n a t i o n and t h e i r m i s t r u s t o f v e r b a l p r o m i s e s .
If
t h e new p a r t y l e a d e r ( s i n c e e a c h wave o f s t r i k e s a l w a y s b r o u q h t
a change of l e a d e r ) were t o a s k t h e workers a g a i n :
" W i l l you
h e l p m e ? " , t h e o n l y a n s w e r h e c o u l d e x p e c t would b e : " ~ e f i n i t e l ~
n o t , w e ' l l make i t by o u r s e l v e s , a n d we mean i t ! "
The a i m s o f S o l i d a r n o s f i
The wave o f o c c u p a t i o n a l s t r i k e s s t a r t e d i n J u l y , t h e n s p r e a d
r a p i d l y t h r o u g h o u t P o l a n d , b u t t h e h e a r t o f t h e movement was a t
L e n i n S h i p y a r d i n Gdansk w h e r e , a f t e r 1 8 d a y s o f t e n s i o n a n d
u n c e r t a i n t y and a l s o d e t e r m i n a t i o n a n d s u p p o r t f r o m a l l o v e r t h e
c o u n t r y , t h e I n t e r f a c t o r y S t r i k e Committee l e d by Lech Watesa and
a i d e d by a g r o u p o f e x p e r t s s i g n e d w i t h a g o v e r n m e n t a l commission
a n a g r e e m e n t known t o d a y a s The Agreement.
Out o f 21 a l r e a d y
h i s t o r i c a l p o s t u l a t e s o n e was p u t i n f r o n t - i t was t h e demand t o
c r e a t e f r e e t r a d e u n i o n s , i n d e p e n d e n t f r o m t h e p a r t y and t h e
state.
The u n i o n s t h e n mushroomed t h r o u g h o u t t h e c o u n t r y a n d
f i n a l l y merged i n t o o n e w h i c h t o o k i t s name a f t e r t h e L e n i n
Shipyard's S t r i k e b u l l e t i n - "Solidarnose".
And t h a t u n i o n a s w e l l
a s t h e r i g h t t o s t r i k e appeared a s our i n s t i t u t i o n a l guarantee
t h a t p a s t mistakes w i l l never be repeated again.
So t r y i n g t o a n s w e r t h e i n i t i a l q u e s t i o n "what r e a l l y i s
' S o l i d a r n o s e ? ' " , t h e a n s w e r c l o s e s t t o t h e t r u t h would b e t h a t
" S o l i d a r n o S 6 " i s a m a s s , p o p u l a r s o c i a l movement, w h i c h came i n t o
e x i s t e n c e a s a t r a d e union b u t soon a f t e r w a r d s - r e s p o n d i n 9 t o t h e
s o c i e t y ' s demand - h a s become a n o r g a n i z a t i o n w i t h w h i c h l i e t h e
hopes o f m i l l i o n s o f P o l i s h people, hopes f o r a b e t t e r l i f e , f o r a s we s a y i t - r e n e w a l .
The programme p a s s e d a t i t s f i r s t C o n g r e s s s a y s :
" A t t h e b e g i n n i n g of o u r Union t h e r e were s i m p l y needs o f common men, t h e i r
s u f f e r i n g s and d i s i l l u s i o n s , hopes and y e a r n i n g s . Our Union h a s grown o u t
of t h e r e b e l l i o n o f P o l i s h s o c i e t y , experienced over t h r e e decades of breaki n g human and c i v i l r i g h t s ; o u t of t h e r e b e l l i o n a g a i n s t i d e o l o g i c a l d i s I t h a s been a p r o t e s t a g a i n s t t h e
c r i m i n a t i o n and economic e x p l o i t a t i o n .
e x i s t i n g system o f e x e r c i s i n g power.
"But we d i d n o t mean l i v i n g c o n d i t i o n s o n l y , a l t h o u g h l i f e was bad, work h a r d
and v e r y o f t e n f r u i t l e s s . H i s t o r y h a s t a u g h t u s t h a t t h e r e i s no b r e a d w i t h o u t freedom. So we a l s o meant j u s t i c e , democracy, t r u t h , law o b s e r v a n c e ,
human d i g n i t y , freedom of i d e a s , r e p a i r of. our country - n o t only b r e a d ,
Economic p r o t e s t has had t o be a s o c i a l p r o t e s t a t
b u t t e r and sausage ( . . . l
t h e saqe t i m e , and s o c i a l p r o t e s t has had t o be a moral p r o t e s t a t t h e same
time. "
To c o n c l u d e t h i s s h o r t i n t r o d u c t i o n t o f u r t h e r a n a l y s i s , i t c a n
b e s a i d t h a t o v e r t h e p o s t - w a r p e r i o d we h a v e h a d a n e v o l u t i o n a r y
p r o c e s s i n t e n s i f i e d by r e v o l u t i o n a r y o u t b r e a k s o f a n g e r a n d hamp e r e d by t h e r e s i s t a n c e o f b u r e a u c r a c y , whose s t r e n g t h v a r i e d o v e r
time.
The t r e n d h a s b e e n q u i t e c l e a r - i t i s a s l o w , t i r e s o m e and
p a i n f u l b u t s t e a d y p r o c e s s u n d e r w h i c h power h a s b e e n g r a d u a l l y not without obstacles
s h i f t i n g from t h e h a n d s o f few t o t h e
h a n d s o f many (we c a l l i t a g a i n i n g o f s u b j e c t i v i t y by s o c i e t y ) .
And t h o s e "many" w a n t t o work o u t a P o l i s h p a t t e r n o f d e v e l o p m e n t
which i s g e a r e d t o t h e f u l f i l l m e n t o f a l r e a d y h i g h a s p i r a t i o n s and
r o o t e d i n c u l t u r a l t r a d i t i o n , b u t which f i r s t and foremost i s f o r
p e o p l e who l i v e h e r e a n d now, i n P o l a n d , a t t h e t u r n o f t h e 2 0 t h
c e n t u r y , i n o t h e r words - f o r r e a l p e o p l e .
And t h e y d o n ' t mind
c a l l i n g such a system "socialism".
-
A t t h e b e g i n n i n g we h a d a n e x o One f i n a l remark s h o u l d b e made.
q e n o u s d e v e l o p m e n t p a t t e r n , imposed upon s o c i e t y a n d m a i n t a i n e d
with the help of external forces.
But a s time p a s s e d , t h e p a r t
t h o s e e x t e r n a l f a c t o r s p l a y e d h a s g r a d u a l l y been d i m i n i s h i n g and
r e p l a c e d by i n t e r n a l f o r c e s .
I n p a r t i c u l a r , i t seems t h a t s i n c e
1956 o u r s o c i e t y c o u l d h a v e d o n e much more t h a n it d i d t o d e t e r mine i t s own d e v e l o p m e n t p a t t e r n , w h i c h would b e t t e r f i t o u r s o c i e t y a n d would n o t a n t a g o n i z e o u r n e i g h b o u r s .
I t i s a p i t y t h a t we
t o o k s u c h a l o n g t i m e t o r e a l i z e t h i s a n d t o l e a r n how t o d o i t .
I1
Prospects for Another Development in Poland
I t now seems u s e f u l t o r e v i e w o u r e n e r q i n g d e v e l o p m e n t o a t t e r n t o
c h e c k i f i t i s r e a l l y g o i n g t o b e d i f f e r e n t from w h a t we h a d u n t i l
t h e b i r t h o f SolidarnoSE.
The a n a l y s i s i s b a s e d p r e d o m i n a n t l y on
i d e a s a n d documents o r i g i n a t e d i n u n i o n c i r c l e s o r c l o s e t o them.
The a u t h o r s o f t h e c o n c e p t o f a n o t h e r d e v e l o p m e n t , a s i t h a s b e e n
d e s c r i b e d i n "What NOW"^/, p o i n t t o f i v e p i l l a r s o f a n o t h e r d e v e l o p m e n t , w h i c h would b e :
1)
geared t o t h e s a t i s f a c t i o n o f needs, beginning with t h e e r a d i c a t i o n o f poverty;
2)
e n d o g e n o u s a n d s e l f - r e l i a n t , t h a t i s r e l y i n g on t h e s t r e n g t h
o f t h e s o c i e t y which u n d e r t a k e s i t ;
and
3)
i n harmony w i t h t h e e n v i r o n m e n t ;
4)
a n o t h e r development r e q u i r e s s t r u c t u r a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s and
5)
immediate a c t i o n towards it is n e c e s s a r y and p o s s i b l e .
'
"What NOW"o p . c i t . ,
-
p.28
An a t t e m p t w i l l now be made t o a n a l y z e , p o i n t by p o i n t , i f a c c o r d i n g t o t h e above c r i t e r i a changes which a r e o c c u r r i n g i n Poland
now a r e l e a d i n g u s t o a n o t h e r development,
The p r e s e n t s i t u a t i o n
I t i s d i f f i c u l t t o make an o b j e c t i v e a n a l y s i s o f t h e d e g r e e t o
which n e e d s have been s a t i s f i e d o v e r t h e l a s t t h r e e d e c a d e s i n
Poland.
The r e a s o n s a r e numerous. A m a j o r one i s t h a t t h e problem, owing t o i t s p o l i t i c a l c o n t e n t , h a s n e v e r been h o n e s t l y
and p u b l i c l y r e s e a r c h e d . O f f i c i a l s c l a i m e d t h a t , e v e n when t h i n g s
were n o t good enough, t h e y were c e r t a i n l y improving. The p e o p l e
d i d n o t always t h i n k t h e same. The i s s u e o f need s a t i s f a c t i o n
a p p e a r e d h e r e and t h e r e , m o s t l y i n development p l a n s , b u t t h e r e a l
f u l f i l m e n t o f t h o s e p l a n s was r a r e l y a c c o u n t e d f o r . P o v e r t y
was t o o shameful a phenomenon t o be acknowledged. However, des p i t e t h e l a c k o f r e l i a b l e s t a t i s t i c a l d a t a , i t can be s a i d t h a t
p o c k e t s o f p o v e r t y have been e x i s t i n g i n P o l a n d , The l a t e s t f i g u r e s , r e v e a l e d r e c e n t l y , g i v e an e s t i m a t e o f p o v e r t y - s t r i c k e n
p e o p l e - t h o s e below a s o c i a l minimum l i n e - a t s e v e r a l m i l l i o n s .
(The a u t h o r hopes t h a t i t i s u n d e r s t o o d t h a t n e i t h e r needs n o r
p o v e r t y i n Poland a r e comparable t o t h o s e i n r e a l l y poor c o u n t r i e s
of t h e w o r l d . )
Food s h o r t a g e h a s been a r e c u r r i n g problem f o r u s . Meat s h o r t a g e s ,
i n p a r t i c u l a r , have been a c o n s t a n t e l e m e n t i n o u r e v e r y d a y l i f e
I t i s w o r t h n o t i n g t h a t a l l t h e above-mentioned
f o r years.
p o l i t i c a l c r i s e s i n Poland were h a s t e n e d by i n c r e a s i n g d i f f i c u l t i e s f a c e d i n o b t a i n i n g food by t h e m a j o r i t y of p e o p l e (owing t o
i n a d e q u a t e s u p p l i e s and p r i c e i n c r e a s e s ) . Although no one h a s
gone hungry, i t c a n ' t be d e n i e d t h a t m e e t i n g o f t h i s need
h a s n e v e r been an e a s y t a s k f o r m i l l i o n s o f f a m i l i e s . P o s t u l a t e
no. 1 0 o f t h e Agreement c a l l s  ¥ f op r i o r i t y f o r s a t i s f y i n g d o m e s t i c
demand f o r f o o d , and o n l y t h e n t o e x p o r t food s u r p l u s e s . And
P o s t u l a t e no. 11 demands temporary i n t r o d u c t i o n o f meat r a t i o n i n g
coupons which i t was hoped would s o l v e t h e u n b e a r a b l e meat s i t u a t i o n o f t h e l a t e 1970s. And t h e s e P o s t u l a t e s r e f l e c t t h e a c t u a l
s i t u a t i o n b e t t e r than a l l s t a t i s t i c s .
H a b i t a t i s w i t h o u t any d o u b t t h e need which i s l e a s t s a t i s f i e d i n
Poland.
The s t a r t i n g p o i n t i n t h e whole i d e a o f h a b i t a t i s a
shelter:
t h e a v e r a g e w a i t i n g t i m e f o r an a p a r t m e n t w e l l e x c e e d s
1 0 y e a r s and i t n e v e r was s i g n i f i c a n t l y s h o r t e r . Even t h e o f f i c i a l
s t a t i s t i c s show a b l e a k p i c t u r e h e r e . The f e e l i n g o f s o c i e t y i s
r e f l e c t e d by P o s t u l a t e no. 19 which c a l l s f o r s h o r t e n i n g o f t h e
waiting period f o r accomodation.
H e a l t h s e r v i c e s have been s e v e r e l y c r i t i c i z e d f o r
-quality
o f s e r v i c e s i n p a r t i c u l a r l e a v e s much
I n r e c e n t y e a r s t h e n e g l e c t of t h i s s e c t o r , which
received inadequate investment, r e s u l t e d i n acute
medical e s s e n t i a l s .
a long time.
t o be d e s i r e d .
a s "unproductive"
s h o r t a g e s of
I t should be mentioned t h a t , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e l a s t decade,
h e a l t h s e r v i c e s and housing were e x t r e m e l y u n e q u a l l y d i s t r i b u t e d
among s o c i e t y , While t h e s i t u a t i o n o f t h e m a j o r i t y d e t e r i o r a t e d
f r o m y e a r t o y e a r , c e r t a i n g r o u p s t h a t made u p r u l i n g e l i t e e n j o y e d a " h o u s i n g boom", t h a t i s t h e y w e r e e n c o u r a g e d t o b u i l d
p r i v a t e v i l l a s and c o u n t r y houses f u r n i s h e d w i t h l u x u r i e s .
Simil a r l y , h e a l t h s e r v i c e s w e r e p r o v i d e d f o r a few a t a l e v e l u n h e a r d
o f by t h e m a j o r i t y .
P o s t u l a t e no. 1 6 s a y s :
"Working c o n d i t i o n s i n h e a l t h s e c t o r h a v e
t o b e improved i n o r d e r t o p r o v i d e f u l l m e d i c a l c a r e f o r w o r k i n g
people".
Education i s t h e most d i f f i c u l t need t o a s s e s s .
Once t h e b a s i c
e d u c a t i o n i s provided f o r a l l and t h e q u a n t a t i v e i n d i c e s a r e s a t i s a f c t o r y , t h e n i t i s a complex t a s k t o a n a l y z e t h e q u a l i t y o f t h e
e d u c a t i o n a l s y s t e m . One n e e d s t o h a v e a s e t o f c r i t e r i a f o r
j u d g i n g t h e s y s t e m . And i t i s n o t e a s y t o t e l l , i n t h e s e t i m e s ,
w h i c h c r i t i c a l r e m a r k s a r e j u s t i f i e d a n d which j u s t f o l l o w t h e
t i d e of general criticism.
The f e e l i n g i s , h o w e v e r , t h a t s c h o o l
h a s h a r d l y b e e n c r e a t i v e a n d h a s aimed i n s t e a d a t p r e p a r i n g unc r i t i c a l , o b e d i e n t c i t i z e n s . T h a t impression h a s been deepened
by s u c h f a c t s a s t h e f a l s i f i c a t i o n o f s o c i a l s c i e n c e s i n t h e s c h o o l
text-books (mainly h i s t o r y ) t h e l a c k o f humanities i n c u r r i c u l a ,
e t c . A s with the h e a l t h s e c t o r , education has received i n s u f f i c i e n t investment and t e a c h e r s a r e underpaid.
I t can b e assumed, t h e r e f o r e , t h a t a l t h o u g h need s a t i s f a c t i o n i s a
dynamic c o n c e p t w h i c h c h a n g e s o v e r t i m e a n d i s s u b j e c t t o t h e i n f l u e n c e o f many f a c t o r s ( l i k e , f o r i n s t a n c e , t h e d e m o n s t r a t i o n
e f f e c t t h a t p u s h e s t h e l i n e o f s a t i s f a c t i o n f u r t h e r away) a n d
although t h e r e a l policy over t h a t i s s u e has fluctuated i n t h e
p a s t - b a s i c needs have n o t been f u l l y met.
And w h a t a r e t h e
c h a n c e s f o r improvement i n t h i s a r e a ?
The S o l i d a r n o s f i programme
I n t h e S o l i d a r n o s c programme ( p a s s e d a t t h e u n i o n ' s F i r s t C o n g r e s s
i n October 1981) t h e i s s u e o f b a s i c needs h a s been t r e a t e d v e r y
s e r i o u s l y . The n e e d f o r a d e q u a t e E s u p p l i e s i s s t r e s s e d a n d t h e
whole q u e s t i o n o f p r o p e r n u t r i t i o n o f s o c i e t y h a s r e c e i v e d p r i o r i t y
among t h e U n i o n ' s g o a l s .
S i n c e no one i n Poland c h a l l e n g e s t h e
i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e f o o d i s s u e , i t m i g h t b e hoped t h a t t h e s i t u a t i o n
I t is only a matter of
would i m p r o v e c o n s i d e r a b l y i n t h e f u t u r e .
time.
The g u a r a n t e e s a r e c o n s t i t u t e d by c e r t a i n s t r u c t u r a l c h a n g e s
w h i c h a r e s t a r t i n g t o b e made i n t h e r u r a l a r e a s .
Notwithstanding t h e poor performance o f t h e s t a t e s e c t o r i n a q r i c u l t u r e , it h a s been e n l a r g e d and p r o v i d e d w i t h i n p u t s which exc e e d e d by f a r t h e i n p u t s a l l o c a t e d t o t h e p r i v a t e f a n n e r s . Now
t h e s e farmers h a v e g u a r a n t e e s t h a t i n d i v i d u a l a g r i c u l t u r e w i l l b e
a p e r m a n e n t e l e m e n t i n o u r e c o n o m i c l a n d s c a p e . T h i s means t h a t t h e y
w i l l n o t b e t r e a t e d a s something t h e s t a t e wants t o g e t r i d o f a s
s o o n a s c i r c u m s t a n c e s would a l l o w ,
They a r e e n s u r e d o f e q u a l
t r e a t m e n t w i t h t h e s t a t e s e c t o r a s f a r a s i n p u t s a r e concerned and
t h e y a r e p r o m i s e d t h a t t h e i n d u s t r y would s t a r t t o p r o d u c e n e c e s s a r y a g r i c u l t u r a l machines and equipment,
(Only 4 % o f i n d u s t r i a l p r o d u c t i o n was f o r a g r i c u l t u r a l p u r p o s e s i n r e c e n t y e a r s ) .
Independent p e a s a n t t r a d e u n i o n s a r e t o a c t a s t h e watchdogs o v e r
t h e c h a n q e s . The b i g g e s t o f t h e s e , S o l i d a r n o 5 E o f I n d i d i v u a l
F a n n e r s , h a s c l o s e t i e s w i t h t h e main S o l i d a r n 0 5 5 o r g a n i z a t i o n .
The housl-nq p r o b l e m i s t r e a t e d s e r i o u s l y a l s o . However, t h e c h a n c e s f o r improvement a r e n o t a s good a s i n a g r i c u l t u r e ,
Solidarnde
seeks a solution f o r the c r i t i c a l situation of millions of people'
w a i t i n g f o r t h e i r own a p a r t m e n t i n a r e a n i m a t i o n o f p e o p l e ' s i n i tiative a t the local level.
I t can be s a i d t h a t t h e "small is
b e a u t i f u l " s l o g a n s h o u l d b e p a r t i c u l a r l y recommended f o r o u r construction sector.
P r e v i o u s g o v e r n m e n t a l h o u s i n g p o l i c y was b a s e d
on i m p o r t e d t e c h n o l o q y and s o - c a l l e d " h o u s e f a c t o r i e s " w h i c h p r o d u c e b i g e l e m e n t s t o b e a s s e m b l e d on c o n s t r u c t i o n s i t e s . T h i s
k i l l e d the small construction sector, local brick factories, small
d e s i g n o f f i c e s and s o f o r t h .
T h e r e f o r e i t i s hope t h a t , a f t e r r e m o v i n g some l e g a l b a r r i e r s , i t
w i l l b e p o s s i b l e t o c r e a t e a " h o u s i n g boom" f o r a l l .
The r e g i o n a l
c h a p t e r s o f t h e union have been o b l i g e d t o e x e r c i s e s o c i a l c o n t r o l
over t h e r e a l i z a t i o n o f housing policy.
I n t h e f i e l d of h e a l t h , S o l i d a r n o s e s t r e s s e s t h e need t o i n c r e a s e
s u p p l i e s o f medical equipment, t h e need t o r e o r g a n i z e h e a l t h s e r v i c e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y by making them more a c c e s s i b l e t o t h e p u b l i c ,
and t h e importance o f p r e v e n t i v e medicine.
The e m p h a s i s i s l a i d
o n t h e p r o t e c t i o n o f m a t e r n i t y and t h e h e a l t h o f t h e young q e n e r a tion.
To r e a c h t h e s e g o a l s , t h e u n i o n p r o p o s e s t o e n t r u s t t e r r i t o r i a l s e l f - g o v e r n i n g b o d i e s w i t h t h e power o f d e c i s i o n a n d c o n t r o l o v e r h e a l t h c a r e i n l o c a l communities.
I t is a l s o considered
n e c e s s a r y t o r a i s e t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l e t h i c s of employees i n t h i s
sector.
And f i n a l l y e d u c a t i o n . The u n i o n i s d e t e r m i n e d t o p r o t e c t t h e
e d u c a t i o n a l s y s t e m f r o m s u b o r d i n a t i o n t o t h e p o l i t i c a l , economic
and i d e o l o g i c a l i n t e r e s t s o f s t a t e and p a r t y a u t h o r i t i e s .
S o l i d a r n o s E i n t e n d s t o a c h i e v e t h i s by e n a b l i n g p a r e n t s t o i n f l u e n c e t h e g o a l s , c o n t e n t s and methods o f t h e e d u c a t i o n o f t h e i r
children.
Economic a n d s o c i a l r e f o r m s h a v e t o b e made n o t o n l y t o
improve t h e m a t e r i a l s t a n d a r d s of s o c i e t y b u t a l s o t o develop
c u l t u r e a n d e d u c a t i o n , s a y s t h e programme.
To make up f o r t h e
l o s s e s i n t h i s s e c t o r , c a u s e d by e r r o n e o u s b u r e a u c r a t i c p o l i c i e s ,
i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o draw up a s o c i a l programme t o r e s c u e n a t i o n a l
c u l t u r e a n d e d u c a t i o n . To t h a t e n d , a l l l o c a l s p a c e i n i t i a t i v e s
w i l l fce s u p p o r t e d by S o l i d a r n o g E w h i c h c o u n t s on i n d e p e n d e n t o r g a n i z a t i o n s (associations, clubs, s o c i e t i e s ) a s important forces i n
t h e p r o c e s s o f s o c i a l i z i n g c u l t u r e and e d u c a t i o n .
I t a l s o demands
a n i n c r e a s e i n t h e s h a r e o f t h i s s e c t o r i n i n v e s t m e n t s , which
l a t e l y have been r a t h e r s m a l l ,
I n t h e d i s c u s s i o n about c u l t u r e and e d u c a t i o n , a yearning f o r
t r u t h appears almost everywhere.
To w r i t e a n d s p e a k t h e t r u t h i s
s e e n a s a n e c e s s a r y c o n d i t i o n f o r t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f s o c i a l conI t may b e
s c i o u s n e s s and f o r p r e s e r v a t i o n o f n a t i o n a l i d e n t i t y .
s a i d t h a t t h e s o c i e t y h a s waged a t o t a l war a g a i n s t l i e s i n a l l
s p h e r e s of l i f e ,
There a r e many v o i c e s now i n t h e w o r l d s a y i n g t h a t c u l t u r e i s t h e
most i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r i n t h e p r o c e s s of 'development. Such a view
seems t o be v a l i d and a p p l i e s t o t h e P o l i s h s i t u a t i o n a s w e l l ,
where t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f c u l t u r e and e d u c a t i o n i s now i n d i s p u t a b l e .
To q u o t e t h e Pope: " H i s t o r y shows t h a t o u r n a t i o n , b e i n g doomed
f o r d e a t h many t i m e s , p r e s e r v e d i t s i d e n t i t y n o t by p h y s i c a l f o r c e
b u t s u p p o r t e d s o l e l y by i t s c u l t u r e . "
Prospects
The c h a n g e s p r o p o s e d by S o l i d a r n 0 5 6 c a r r y p r o m i s e s o f b e t t e r l i f e
f o r a l l by p a y i n g much a t t e n t i o n t o b a s i c n e e d s .
Not a l l t h e demands a r e new and many o f them a p p e a r e d i n v a r i o u s forms i n t h e
p a s t o f f i c i a l development p l a n s . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , many o f t h e p l a n
p r o m i s e s were n e v e r r e a l i z e d . Very o f t e n t h e y had t o be postponed
i n f a v o u r of o t h e r p l a n t a r g e t s , m o s t l y t h o s e which r e s u l t e d from
a model t h a t gave p r i o r i t y t o heavy i n d u s t r y . The r e a l l y new
e l e m e n t s a r e c o n t a i n e d i n t h e p a r t o f t h e programme t h a t d e a l s
It i s clear t h a t the p a s t educational
w i t h c u l t u r e and e d u c a t i o n .
and c u l t u r a l s y s t e m r u n by and f o r t h e b u r e a u c r a c y c a n n o t be continued.
Should a l l t h e aims be f u l f i l l e d , we would w i t n e s s a
g r e a t t u r n t o a n a l t e r n a t i v e s y s t e m of e d u c a t i o n which would b r i n g
a b o u t many b e n e f i c i a l c h a n g e s . However, t h i s p r o s p e c t i s c o n d i t i o n e d v e r y s t r o n g l y by p o l i t i c a l developments.
I f t h e system
p r o g r e s s e s , a s we hope, towards g r e a t e r p l u r a l i s m and d i v e r s i t y
t h e n , no d o u b t , c u l t u r e and e d u c a t i o n would g a i n i n autonomy. I n
f a c t , t h e e v o l u t i o n of t h e p o l i t i c a l s y s t e m i s a p r e c o n d i t i o n f o r a l l
Solidarn056 s o l u t i o n s . The u n i o n i n t e n d s t o h e l p p e o p l e t o o b t a i n
what t h e y need p r i n c i p a l l y by r e a n i m a t i n g people..'^ i n i t i a t i v e , by
h a v i n g power e x e r c i s e d by l o c a l s e l f - g o v e r n e d and s e l f - r e l i a n t
t e r r i t o r i a l c o u n c i l s , - i e . by r e p l a c i n g h i e r a r c h i c a l , v e r t i c a l
l i n k s with h o r i z o n t a l , interdependent ones.
So t h e c a r e f u l t h e s i s c a n be p u t forward t h a t t h e f i r s t p i l l a r o f
a n o t h e r development i s on a good way t o be e r e c t e d and t h a t i t i s
g o i n g t o be s t r o n g , a l t h o u g h t h e f o u n d a t i o n s f o r t h a t p i l l a r a r e
n o t r e a d y y e t . And t h e y w i l l n o t be r e a d y by tomorrow e i t h e r .
On t h e o t h e r hand, i t must be remarked t h a t a l l n e e d s o t h e r t h a n
e d u c a t i o n a r e d i s c u s s e d now m o s t l y i n q u a n t a t i v e t e r m s . And i t i s
no wonder t h a t , i n view o f t h e r e c e n t l e v e l o f t h e i r s a t i s f a c t i o n ,
a more s o p h i s t i c a t e d v i s i o n would n o t a p p e a l t o t h e p e o p l e . L e t
u s hope t h a t once q u a n t i t a t i v e s a t i s f a c t i o n i s a c h i e v e d , h i g h e r
v a l u e s would s t a r t t o p r e v a i l i n t h e a r e a o f consumption. And,
l e a r n i n g from t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f o t h e r c o u n t r i e s , we may w e l l a v o i d
problems t h e y have nowadays.
(2 ) Endogene l t y and s e l f - r e li ance
The second p i l l a r o f a n o t h e r development, e n d o g e n i t y and s e l f r e l i a n c e , i s t h e o n e which i s p r o b a b l y most c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f o r t h e
S o l i d a r n o S P movement i n P o l a n d .
T r y i n g t o f i n d i t s i d e n t i t y and
i t s r o o t s i n P o l i s h c u l t u r e a n d h i s t o r y , t h e movement a p p e a l s t o
patriotism a s a uniting factor.
Some would e v e n s a y t h a t t h e r e
i s t o o much n a t i o n a l i s m . B u t t h o s e now f r e q u e n t l y met s y m b o l s :
w h i t e a n d r e d f l a g s , w h i t e a n d r e d arm-bands and r i b b o n s , t h e r e d
Solidarnosi3 l o g o a g a i n s t a w h i t e background, t h e n a t i o n a l anthem
and o t h e r p a t r i o t i c songs - e x p r e s s p e o p l e ' s l o n g i n g t o c o n t i n u e
t h e h e r i t a g e o f o u r c u l t u r e . Our n a t i o n a l a n t h e m was e v e n s u n g
a t t h e p a r t y c o n g r e s s l a s t summer, w h i c h was q u i t e new f o r s u c h a
meeting.
A p p a r e n t l y P o l i s h s o c i e t y w a n t s t o draw f r o m i t s t h o u - '
s a n d - y e a r - o l d c u l t u r a l t r e a s u r y . And w e draw a l s o from t h a t p a r t
o f i t w h e r e s o c i a l i s t i d e a s and t h e names o f p e o p l e who l o n g a g o
f o r m e d s o c i a l i s t i d e o l o g y i n o u r c o u n t r y h a v e b e e n s t o r e d and n o t
u s e d o f f i c i a l l y , b e c a u s e t h e y b e l o n g e d t o t h e "wrong" f a c t i o n .
The o t h e r f e a t u r e i s t h e mass a p p e a r a n c e o f r e l i g i o u s s y m b o l s .
The p i c t u r e o f t h e Pope was hung on t h e L e n i n S h i p y a r d ' s g a t e d u r i n g t h e s t r i k e and mass c e l e b r a t e d t h e r e , t o o .
Anytime t h e r e i s
a l o n g e r s t r i k e one can be q u i t e s u r e t h a t sooner o r l a t e r people
would r e q u e s t a p r i e s t t o come a n d c e l e b r a t e f i e l d m a s s ;
some
s e r m o n s h a v e b e e n e x t r e m e l y good.
P e o p l e e x p r e s s i n s u c h a way
t h e i r f e e l i n g t h a t r e l i g i o n has been an i n t e g r a l p a r t of our h i s t o r y a n d c u l t u r e a n d t h a t t h e Church h a s p r e s e n t e d o v e r t h e y e a r s
c e r t a i n s t a b l e moral v i r t u e s , which were a b s e n t i n t h e p u b l i c l i f e
i n p a s t decades.
And i t i s n o t t h a t n a t i o n a l s y m b o l s w e r e f o r b i d d e n b e f o r e o r t h a t
p e o p l e w e r e d i s c o u r a g e d t o show them.
Nothing l i k e t h a t .
And
t h i s outburst of patriotism is not pointed, directly o r indirectly,
It is d i r e c t e d a g a i n s t propaganda,
a g a i n s t any o t h e r n a t i o n .
against the f a l s i f i c a t i o n of our history, against the decline of
m o r a l i t y , a g a i n s t t h e v a g u e n e s s t o w a r d s which o u r s o c i e t y h a d b e e n
d r i f t i n g b e f o r e A u g u s t 1 9 8 0 . The a i m i s f o r t h e p e o p l e a n d t h e
n a t i o n a s a w h o l e t o r e g a i n t h e i r i d e n t i t y a n d t o k e e p t h e movement u n i t e d .
P a t r i o t i c and r e l i g i o u s v a l u e s a r e t h e o n l y ones
which can g u a r a n t e e t h o s e g o a l s f o r t h e t i m e b e i n g .
The same t e n d e n c y i s t o b e s e e n i n t h e r e t u r n t o o l d h i s t o r i c a l
names o f s m a l l towns a n d v i l l a g e s l o c a t e d i n t h e a r e a s p o p u l a t e d
by m i n o r i t i e s .
Those h i s t o r i c a l names w e r e s e n s e l e s s l y ' p o l o n i z e d '
i n t h e 1 9 7 0 s . The S o l i d a r n o S f i r e g i o n a l c h a p t e r s b e a r a l s o o l d
t r a d i t i o n a l a n d a l m o s t f o r g o t t e n names o f t h o s e r e g i o n s .
In the
w o r d s o f a p o p u l a r s o n g " l e t P o l a n d b e P o l a n d " , w i t h a l l h e r good
and bad, b u t t h u s a l i v e and r e a l .
I s s u c h a movement a n e n d o g e n o u s o n e ? The a n s w e r m u s t b e p o s i t i v e .
And t h e a u t h e n t i c i t y o f t h e movement h a s b e e n f i r s t a n d f o r e m o s t
p r o v e d b y t h e way t h e u n i o n came i n t o e x i s t e n c e .
People, o u t o f
t h e i r i n n e r n e e d , formed t h o u s a n d s o f l o c a l f r e e t r a d e u n i o n s i n
f a c t o r i e s and h o s p i t a l s , a t t h e u n i v e r s i t i e s and p o s t o f f i c e s .
They h a d n o r e a d y f o r m u l a s a n d t h e y c o u l d n o t e x p e c t much h e l p
from o u t s i d e .
B u t t h e y overcame c o u n t l e s s p r o b l e m s , d r i v e n j u s t
by t h e f e e l i n g o f s o l i d a r i t y w i t h o t h e r s .
The o t h e r q u e s t i o n i s i f , a s t h e r e s u l t o f t h e movement, a s e l f r e l i a n t s o c i e t y w i l l b e c r e a t e d i n t h e n a t i o n a l and l o c a l s p a c e s .
One c a n a l s o g i v e a p o s i t i v e answer. But i t t a k e s t i m e t o r e a l i z e
t h e changes.
I n t h e l a s t s e c t i o n o f t h e p a p e r more w i l l be s a i d
a b o u t self-management and s e l f - g o v e r n m e n t which a r e s e e n a s key
elements i n ensuring people's self-reliance.
Anyway, t h e p a s t
1 5 months have shown t h e t e n d e n c y q u i t e c l e a r l y .
The whole movement, from i t s v e r y b e g i n n i n g , h a s been s e l f - r e l i a n t .
I t i s a s i m p l e t r u t h b u t i n d e e d we have had t o r e l y on o u r s e l v e s
o n l y . And t h a t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f e a t u r e o f t h e union i s a g u i d i n g
p r i n i c p l e f o r e a c h i n d i v i d u a l member, and f o r e a c h f a c t o r y o r r e g i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n . We have t o r e l y on o u r s e l v e s b u t t h e r e a r e
t e n m i l l i o n o f u s u n i t e d by t h e s p i r i t of s o l i d a r i t y . So members
o f t h e u n i o n c a n r e l y on o t h e r s a l s o , a t l e a s t a s l o n g a s t h i s
s p i r i t i s a l i v e . (The p r i n c i p l e o f s o l i d a r i t y h a s been p l a c e d i n
Union's s t a t u t e s ) .
S e l f - r e l i a n c e i s w i d e l y p r a c t i c e d w i t h i n t h e u n i o n . The powers
of f a c t o r y organizations a r e q u i t e v a s t .
For many p e o p l e , m o s t l y
o l d e r o n e s , u s e d t o o l d v e r t i c a l l i n k s , t h e new s i t u a t i o n i s somet i m e s d i f f i c u l t t o comprehend.
I f t h e r e i s a n y t h i n g t o be d o n e ,
members o f t h e Union have t o o r g a n i z e t h e m s e l v e s a r o u n d t h a t t a s k ,
a t t h e l e v e l which t h e y deem a p p r o p r i a t e f o r i t s p e r f o r m a n c e , and
t h e y j u s t do i t . They may a s k f o r a s s i s t a n c e from a h i g h e r l e v e l
o f t h e u n i o n , b u t t h e i n i t i a t i v e and main b u r d e n o f t h e job l i e
upon them.
SolidarnoSfi i s a l o o s e f e d e r a t i o n o f r e g i o n a l c h a p t e r s ,
which i n t u r n have n o t v e r y much t o s a y o v e r l o c a l developments
a t t h e f a c t o r y l e v e l . T h a t i s why many p r o t e s t i n g a c t i o n s have
been o r g a n i z e d i n d e p e n d e n t l y , j u s t by p e o p l e who h a v e s e n s e d a
wrong o r have been u n a b l e t o s o l v e t h e i r problems i n a n o t h e r way.
T h a t l o o s e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e h a s been a l t e r e d r e c e n t l y t o
s t r e n g t h e n t h e g o v e r n i n g body o f t h e Union, b u t i t h a s n o t a f f e c t e d t h e r a n k and f i l e much.
Some would s a y t h a t s e l f - r e l i a n c e w i t h i n t h e u n i o n was t o a l a r g e
d e g r e e f o r c e d upon i t by t h e c o n d i t i o n s u n d e r which SolidarnoSfi
s t a r t e d . Facing t h e h o s t i l e a t t i t u d e o f t h e b u r e a u c r a t i c apparat u s , and t h e r e f o r e b e i n g u n a b l e t o c o u n t on a n y t h i n g b u t i t s own
s t r e n g t h , t h e u n i o n had t o become s e l f - r e l i a n t .
The s p o n t a n e i t y
It remains t o be seen i f
o f i t s b i r t h h e l p e d t o t h a t end a l s o .
t h i s f e a t u r e w i l l n o t v a n i s h a s t h e u n i o n g a t h e r s more s t r e n g t h , i f
t h e u n i o n g a t h e r s enough w i l l t o f i g h t b u r e a u c r a c y w i t h i n i t s own
organization.
Nowadays, h a e v e r s e l f - r e l i a n c e w i t h i n t h e union i s u n d e n i a b l e . An
i n t e r e s t i n g example o f s e l f - r e l i a n c e a t t h e s u p r a r e q i o n a l l e v e l i s
t h e r i s e o f "Network" (9
i n P o l i s h ) . A network o f l e a d i n g
p l a n t s w i t h i n t h e i n d e p e n d e n t union came i n t o b e i n g i n e a r l y S p r i n g
o f 1981. O r i g i n a l l y c o n c e i v e d a s t h e "Network f o r C o o p e r a t i o n and
I n f o r m a t i o n Exchange", it c o m p r i s e s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s from t h e
c o u n t r y ' s m a j o r i n d u s t r i a l e s t a b l i s h m e n t s . The need f o r s u c h a
s t r u c t u r e was f i r s t s e n s e d i n t h e Gdafisk s h i p y a r d l a s t J a n u a r y
when t h e q u e s t i o n o f S a t u r d a y s o f f work emerged. A t t h a t t i m e ,
p e o p l e s t i l l t e n d e d t o t h i n k t h a t d e c i s i o n s had t o come from above
and Union l e a d e r s , e s p e c i a l l y from s m a l l e r e n t e r p r i s e s , u n c e r t a i n
a s t o what t o t e l l t h e i r r a n k and f i l e ( i e . w h e t h e r t h e y s h o u l d
t u r n up f o r work o r n o t ) k e p t c a l l i n g on t h e y a r d ' s p e o p l e a b o u t
the issue.
But t h e y a r d p e o p l e had nowhere t o phone. The i d e a
was mooted t h e r e f o r e t o c o n s u l t o t h e r b i g e n t e r p r i s e s a c r o s s t h e
country.
The f i r s t f o r m a l c o n t a c t s were made and i n A p r i l r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of t e n major f a c t o r i e s met i n Gdansk s h i p y a r d . From
t h a t m e e t i n g on t h e y have been k e e p i n g r e g u l a r c o n t a c t s and a r e
one o f t h e m a j o r f o r c e s t h a t s h a p e and i n f l u e n c e s o c i e t y ' s views
on many i s s u e s . The Network's m a j o r a c t i v i t y f i e l d i s a w i d e l y
u n d e r s t o o d economic r e f o r m .
Another i m p o r t a n t e l e m e n t i n t h e a r e a o f s e l f - r e l i a n c e a r e t h e
" T e r r i t o r i a l Commissions f o r C o o p e r a t i o n " . I n one d i s t r i c t o f a
c i t y , the Solidarno5c organization of t h e biggest l o c a l f a c t o r y
assumes a l e a d i n g r o l e and o r g a n i z e s around i t s e l f o t h e r l o c a l
u n i o n b r a n c h e s w i t h t h e aim o f a c t i n g j o i n t l y o v e r c e r t a i n i s s u e s .
Those t e r r i t o r i a l commissions w i l l undergo a c r i t i c a l t e s t t h i s
w i n t e r , when l a c k o f e n e r g y , f o o d , t r a n s p o r t , e t c . w i l l make l o c a l
s e l f - r e l i a n t a c t i v i t i e s n e c e s s a r y . Much more i m p o r t a n t i n t h i s
c o n t e x t would be c o o p e r a t i o n i n t h e h o u s i n g d i s t r i c t s , b u t a s t h e
whole movement i s b a s e d on i n d u s t r i a l e n t e r p r i s e s i t w i l l t a k e
t i m e f o r p e o p l e t o o r g a n i z e on a n o t h e r b a s i s .
I t must be rememb e r e d t h a t p e o p l e had been d i s c o u r a g e d from s u c h i n i t i a t i v e s f o r
y e a r s and i t t a k e s time t o l e a r n t h e "know-how" needed f o r genu i n e s o c i a l c o o p e r a t i o n , w i t h o u t o r d e r s and a s s i s t a n c e from above.
N a t u r a l s e l f - r e l i a n c e i s t o be a c h i e v e d l a t e r . The r e a l i z a t i o n o f
s e l f - g o v e r n e d s o c i e t y , which i s t h e m a j o r g o a l o f t h e S o l i d a r n 0 5 6
programme, would b r i n g a b o u t n a t i o n a l s e l f - r e l i a n c e . However, one
o f t h e c o n d i t i o n s towards t h i s e n d i s a s i g n i f i c a n t improvement
o f o u r economic p e r f o r m a n c e . O t h e r w i s e , we w i l l have t o r e l y
h e a v i l y on o u r n e i g h b o u r s and on Western c r e d i t o r s f o r many y e a r s
t o come.
Our endogenous and s e l f - r e l i a n t development w i l l r e q u i r e o u r
n e i g h b o u r s t o accommodate t o t h e new s i t u a t i o n i n P o l a n d . B u t ,
s i n c e m a j o r p o l i t i c a l and s o c i a l f o r c e s i n t h e c o u n t r y have a l r e a d y
e x p r e s s e d t h e i r w i l l t o m a i n t a i n c l o s e and f r i e n d l y t i e s w i t h o u r
n e i g h b o u r s , e v e n a s s u r i n g them t h a t s u c h a f r i e n d s h i p would have
b r o a d e r s u p p o r t from s o c i e t y t h a n i t h a s had u n t i l now, t h e r e i s
n o r e a s o n t o t h i n k t h a t o u r r e c e n t changes s h o u l d c a u s e any s e r i o u s
nervousness a c r o s s our borders.
(3) Harmony with the environment
A t t h e f i r s t u n i o n C o n g r e s s , among t h e amendments p a s s e d t o i t s
c o n s t i t u t i o n , one c o n c e r n s p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e p r o t e c t i o n o f t h e environment.
The s t a t u t o r y g o a l s o f t h e union have b e e n , i n t e r a l i a ,
supplemented by " u n d e r t a k i n g o f a c t i v i t i e s f o r t h e p r o t e c t i o n o f
man's n a t u r a l e n v i r o n m e n t " . T h a t p o i n t i s developed f u r t h e r i n t h e
programme, u n d e r t h e head "The Union f i g h t s f o r an e f f e c t i v e p r o t e c t i o n o f m a n ' s e n v i r o n m e n t " . The word " e f f e c t i v e " i s i m p o r t a n t
h e r e , s i n c e t h e r e i s a common o p i n i o n i n Poland t h a t we have had
v e r y good laws i n t h e f i e l d o f e n v i r o n m e n t p r o t e c t i o n b u t t h a t
t h o s e laws have n o t been o b s e r v e d . The c o m p l a i n t s a b o u t t h e a l a m i n g s t a t e o f e n v i r o n m e n t , a b o u t c a s e s o f w a t e r and a i r p o l l u t i o n ,
about t h e poisonous chemical substances p r e s e n t i n b u i l d i n g materi a l s and i n f o o d , e t c . were a l l k e p t s e c r e t from t h e p u b l i c by t h e
c e n s o r s h i p . When t h e s e were r e v e a l e d , s o c i e t y was shocked. T h i s
i m m e d i a t e l y r e s u l t e d i n c l o s i n g down a b i g aluminium works i n
S o u t h e r n P o l a n d , which was p r o v e d t o b e a m a j o r s o u r c e o f p o l l u t ion.
The movement f o r t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n o f n a t u r e , a l t h o u g h s t i l l s c a t t e r e d , i s s l o w l y g a i n i n g s t r e n g t h and many o r g a n i z a t i o n s which have
e n v i r o n m e n t a l p r o t e c t i o n i n c l u d e d among t h e i r g o a l s hope now t o
b e a b l e t o a c t more e f f e c t i v e l y .
I n t h e U n i o n ' s programme, i t i s
s a i d t h a t , t o p r o t e c t t h e environment, t h e s u p e r i o r i t y of s o c i a l
g o a l s o v e r p r o d u c t i v e o n e s must b e r e c o g n i z e d .
Accordingly, a l l
environmental i s s u e s should be included i n t h e forthcoming economic r e f o r m , e x i s t i n g laws s h o u l d b e amended and e n f o r c e d , s o c i a l
o r g a n i z a t i o n s d e a l i n g with t h e p r o t e c t i o n o f environment should be
r e p r e s e n t e d a t a l l l e v e l s o f e l e c t i v e b o d i e s . Worthy o f n o t e a r e
demands f o r o b l i g a t o r y p u b l i c a t i o n o f f u l l i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e s t a t e
of environment and, p a r t i c u l a r l y , f o r i n c l u s i o n of environmental
issues i n educational curricula.
The e f f e c t o f t h e s e demands r e m a i n s t o b e s e e n . N e v e r t h e l e s s , i t
i s a p o s i t i v e s i g n t h a t t h e union h a s t a k e n t h o s e i s s u e s u n d e r
i t s wing b e c a u s e an e f f e c t i v e way o f p r o t e c t i n g t h e e n v i r o n m e n t i s
t o c u r b p o l l u t i o n , and p o l l u t i o n o r i g i n a t e s m o s t l y a t t h e f a c t o r y
l e v e l . , which i s t h e u n i o n ' s m a j o r a r e a o f i n f l u e n c e . T h e r e f o r e
i t i s hoped t h a t f a c t o r y S o l i d a r n 0 5 6 o r g a n i z a t i o n s would t a k e
c h a r g e o f l o c a l e n v i r o n m e n t a l p r o t e c t i o n by c o n t r o l l i n g u t i l i z a t i o n o f t h e c l e a n i n g a p p a r a t u s , by a c t i v e p r o t e s t i n g a g a i n s t
p a r t i c u l a r l y damaging t e c h n o l o g y and by e v e r y d a y c a r e . I n t h e i r
a c t i o n , t h e y c a n c o u n t on a s s i s t a n c e from t h e S o l i d a r n o S c r e g i o n a l
commissions f o r e n v i r o n m e n t p r o t e c t i o n which h a v e been s e t up
recently.
The p o s s i b i l i t y o f p r o t e c t i n g n a t u r e by m o b i l i s i n g
m i l l i o n s o f p e o p l e t h r o u g h t h e u n i o n ' s c h a n n e l s opens a g r e a t
c h a n c e f o r improvement i.n t h i s f i e l d .
But t h e s i d e - e f f e c t o f t h e
p r o p o s e d economic r e f o r m t e m p e r s t h a t o p t i m i s m , s i n c e t h e r e f o r m
would make e n t e r p r i s e s s e l f - f i n a n c e d and c o n s e q u e n t l y t h e h i g h
c o s t of e n v i r o n m e n t a l p r o t e c t i o n would push self-management i n t h e
d i r e c t i o n o f m i n i m i z i n g i t . Some c o n f l i c t s seem t o be i n e v i t a b l e
and a l o t h a s t o b e done i n t h i s f i e l d by e d u c a t i o n .
Summing u p , one c a n s a y t h a t w e a r e n o t g o i n g t o l i v e a t once i n
f u l l harmony w i t h t h e e n v i r o n m e n t b u t a t l e a s t f u r t h e r p o l l u t i o n
o f i t w i l l b e checked. An e n v i r o n m e n t a l lobby i s b e i n g formed
( P o l i s h E c o l o g i c a l Club h a s come i n t o e x i s t e n c e ) , many p e o p l e a r e
aware o f t h e problem a n d , on a c c o u n t a l s o o f t h e s t r e n g t h o f t h e
Union and c h a n g e s underway, t h i n g s m i g h t t u r n f o r t h e b e t t e r q u i t e
soon.
(4)
Structural transformations
Two main a r e a s a r e u n d e r g o i n g s t r u c t u r a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s i n P o l a n d
- t h e economic and t h e p o l i t i c a l s t r u c t u r e s .
I n t h e s p h e r e o f economy, t h e most i m p o r t a n t development i s an i n i t i a t i o n o f t h e p r o c e s s t o w a r d s t r u e s o c i a l i z a t i o n o f t h e means o f
production.
S i g n i f i c a n t c h a n g e s a r e a l s o e x p e c t e d from t h e economic r e f o r m which i s due t o s t a r t by t h e b e g i n n i n g o f 1982. The
main a d v o c a t e f o r economic t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s i n t h e economic f i e l d
is t h e "Network", mentioned above.
Since i t s i d e a s a r e most
m a t u r e d and t h e y i n f a c t r e f l e c t t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e b i g g e s t i n d u s t r i a l e n t e r p r i s e s i n P o l a n d - t h e main f o r c e o f t h e movement
a s h o r t d e s c r i p t i o n o f " N e t w o r k ' s " s t a n d seems t o b e u s e f u l . i /
-
The Network s t a r t s i t s a n a l y s i s by a s s e r t i n g t h a t t h e c e n t r a l i i z e d
s o c i a l i s t economy h a s c e a s e d t o f u n c t i o n .
Directives are not
r e a c h i n g t h e i r p r o p e r d e s t i n a t i o n s and t h e b u r e a u c r a t i z e d adminis t r a t i o n i s incapable o f s o l v i n g t h e s i m p l e s t problems.
Therfore
i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o b r e a k t h e c h a i n s r e s t r a i n i n g economic i n i t i a t i v e s and t o r e s t o r e r e s p e c t f o r well-organized l a b o u r .
To c u r e t h e economy o f i t s p a r a l y s i s r e q u i r e s f a r - r e a c h i n g t r a n s formations both i n t h e c e n t r a l a u t h o r i t i e s and i n t h e e n t e r p r i s e s .
I t r e q u i r e s t h e a b o l i t i o n of t h e p r e s e n t system o f c e n t r a l i z e d
planning, of rewarding e n t e r p r i s e s f o r meeting planned t a r g e t s , o f
d i s t r i b u t i n g raw a n d i n t e r m e d i a t e m a t e r i a l s , i n v e s t m e n t a n d f i n a n c i a l means a c c o r d i n g t o t h e p l a n o f employment a n d wage c e i l i n g s ,
o f p r i c e s e t t i n g and s o f o r t h .
The e n t e r p r i s e s h a v e t o b e s e l f - d e p e n d e n t , s e l f - m a n a g e d a n d s e l f financing.
Those a t t r i b u t e s a r e a l s o t h e f o u n d a t i o n s o f economic
reform'.
The s e l f - d e p e n d e n c e o f e n t e r p r i s e s c a n o n l y b e a t t a i n e d by a f a r reaching reorganization of the central administration.
The m i n i s t r i e s o f i n d i v i d u a l i n d u s t r i e s m u s t b e e l i m i n a t e d a n d r e p l a c e d by
o n e M i n i s t r y o f I n d u s t r y and T r a d e .
E n t e r p r i s e s must n o t be run
by t h e c e n t r a l p l a n n i n g body.
I n s t e a d o f t h e minute planning o f
e v e r y t h i n g important and unimportant, t h e c e n t r a l p l a n should d e a l
e x c l u s i v e l y w i t h t h e mapping o u t o f s t r a t e g i c g o a l s f o r t h e e n t i r e
n a t i o n a l economy. T h i s p l a n w i l l b e o n l y f o r t h e g o v e r n m e n t , n o t
f o r t h e e n t e r p r i s e s , w h i c h w i l l b e a b l e t o work o u t t h e i r own
i n d e p e n d e n t p l a n s b u t t h e i r p e r f o r m a n c e w i l l b e g o v e r n e d by e c o nomic e f f i c i e n c y a n d n o t b y p l a n n e d t a r g e t s s e t by b u r e a u c r a t i c
bodies.
Government w i l l h a v e t h e r i g h t t o d i r e c t t h e a c t i v i t y o f
e n t e r p r i s e s towards t h e achievement o f t h e c e n t r a l p l a n ' s s t r a t e g i c
t a r g e t s , b u t o n l y t h r o u g h economic m e a s u r e s .
As f a r a s p r i c e s a r e
c o n c e r n e d , t h e e n t e r p r i s e s s h o u l d h a v e f u l l f r e e d o m t o s i g n cont r a c t s a t market p r i c e s .
The s t a t e s h o u l d r e t a i n t h e r i g h t t o s e t
maximum p r i c e s o n l y f o r a few c o m m o d i t i e s ( s u c h a s b r e a d , m i l k ,
school textbooks).
By t h e e n d o f 1 9 8 1 t h e w h o l e m i d d l e l e v e l i n
t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e (bureaucracy!) o f o u r i n d u s t r y must
b e e l i m i n a t e d a n d r e p l a c e d by t h e v o l u n t a r y i n d u s t r i a l e n t e r p r i s e s
associations.
Self-management i n a n e n t e r p r i s e means t h a t t h e w o r k e r s a n d t h e i r
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s - t h e workers' councils
a r e t h e h i g h e s t governi n g body.
The o r g a n i z a t i o n a l a n d o f f i c i a l d e p e n d e n c e o f t o p management on a d m i n i s t r a t i v e b o d i e s and t h e p a r t y ' s "nomenklatura"
system must be abolished.
The p r i n c i p l e m u s t b e i n t r o d u c e d t h a t
o n l y t h e w o r k e r s ' c o u n c i l c a n n o m i n a t e a n d r e c a l l t h e m a n a g e r , who
i n t u r n must b e s u b o r d i n a t e d t o it and must implement i t s r e s o l u t i o n s w h i l e r u n n i n g t h e e n t e r p r i s e on a day-to-day b a s i s .
The
-
l/
P a r t of t h i s s e c t i o n i s based on t h e a r t i c l e "Network p o s i t i o n " t h a t appeared
i n t h e Solidarnose newspaper Congress P o s t (no. 11) i s s u e d on t h e occasion of
t h e F i r s t National Congress of t h e Union.
t h e w o r k e r s ' c o u n c i l , c h o s e n by a l l t h e e m p l o y e e s i n a p o p u l a r ,
d i r e c t and s e c r e t e l e c t i o n , w i l l map o u t t h e s t r a t e g i c g o a l s o f t h e
enterprise.
Among i t s t a s k s a r e d e c i s i o n s c o n c e r n i n g t h e e n t e r p r i s e ' s l i n e s o f a c t i v i t y and development, p l a n s , s t r u c t u r e , regul a t i o n s , personnel p o l i c y , d i s t r i b u t i o n o f p r o f i t s , t h e nomination
o f t h e g e n e r a l manager a n d u n l i m i t e d c o n t r o l o v e r t h e e n t e r p r i s e ' s
economic a c t i v i t y .
A s f a r a s t h e s e l f - f i n a n c i n g i s concerned t h e p r a c t i c e o f s u b s i -
d i z i n g "planned d e f i c i t s " should b e replaced with s e l f - f i n a n c i n g ,
w h i c h means t h a t a n e n t e r p r i s e ' s income ( o r bank c r e d i t ) h a s t o
cover a l l i t s expenses.
Those e n t e r p r i s e s w h i c h work w e l l w i l l b e
a b l e t o s u r v i v e , a n d t h e uneconomic o n e s w i l l b e t h r e a t e n e d w i t h
collapse.
Wages must become r e l a t e d t o a n e n t e r p r i s e ' s p r o f i t s s o t h a t t h e
w o r k e r s c a n d i r e c t l y b e n e f i t from t h e i r own work.
T h i s , however,
means t h a t w o r k e r s i n u n r e m u n e r a t i v e e n t e r p r i s e s would e a r n l e s s ,
o r t h a t t h e i r l i v e l i h o o d could even be t h r e a t e n e d .
Therfore, t o
d e f e n d t h e i n t e r e s t s o f w o r k i n g p e o p l e a g u a r a n t e e d minimum wage
must be introduced.
Such a minimum wage would b e f i x e d i n t h e
work c o n t r a c t , w i t h t h e r e m a i n d e r o f a n e m p l o y e e ' s e a r n i n g s dep e n d e n t on p r o f i t s .
The minimum wage a n d t h e a d m i s s s i b l e wage
b r a c k e t s , a s w e l l a s i n d e x i n g t h e minimum wage t o t h e c o s t o f l i v i n g , w i l l be determined i n n e g o t i a t i o n s with t r a d e unions.
According t o t h e Network's s t a n d t h e b a s i c t y p e of e n t e r p r i s e w i l l
be t h e s o c i a l e n t e r p r i s e .
These w i l l b e t h e o l d s t a t e e n t e r p r i s e s
g i v e n f u l l self-dependence, self-management and s e l f - f i n a n c i n g .
The m a j o r i t y o f m u n i c i p a l e n t e r p r i s e s m u s t f u n c t i o n o n t h i s p r i n c i p l e too.
The t e r m " s t a t e e n t e r p r i s e " s h o u l d b e r e s e r v e d f o r
t h o s e w h i c h w i l l o p e r a t e w i t h i n t h e framework o f t h e s o - c a l l e d
economic i n f r a s t r u c t u r e ( r a i l w a y s , p o s t a l s e r v i c e s , e t c . ) .
Their
self-dependence w i l l be l i m i t e d .
Like t h e commercial banks and
r e g i o n a l b r a n c h e s o f t h e N a t i o n a l Bank, t h e y w i l l a l s o h a v e s e l f management c o u n c i l s , whose p o w e r , h o w e v e r , w i l l b e l i m i t e d .
T h e s e f a r - r e a c h i n g p r o p o s a l s by t h e Network c a u s e d a p r o f o u n d s h c o k
w i t h i n t h e o l d b u r e a u c r a t i c system. A t t h e b e g i n n i n g t h e y were
a l m o s t a l l r e j e c t e d and numerous a c c u s a t i o n s i n t h e s t a t e - c o n t r o l l e d mass media a p p e a r e d s u c h a s i t was a u n i o n ' s a t t e m p t t o
t a k e o v e r power, t h a t o n l y a t o t a l c h a o s c o u l d r e s u l t from i n t r o d u c t i o n o f s e l f - m a n a g e m e n t , c h a t it would n o t b e a s o c i a l b u t a
g r o u p o w n e r s h i p a n d t h e r e f o r e s o c i a l i n t e r e s t s would b e e n d a n g e r e d a n d s o f o r t h . However, s o c i a l p r e s s u r e was s o s t r o n g , p a s t
e x p e r i e n c e s s o bad and t h e arguments f o r self-management a s t h e
o n l y way o u t s o r e a s o n a b l e , t h a t g r a d u a l l y many r e s e r v a t i o n s w e r e
w i t h d r a w n a n d f i n a l l y a compromise h a s b e e n r e a c h e d o v e r t h e i s s u e
a n d o u r P a r l i a m e n t p a s s e d t h e l a w s on s t a t e ( n o t s o c i a l ? ) e n t e r p r i s e s and self-management o f s t a t e e n t e r p r i s e .
I n t h e compromise,
b o t h s i d e s g a v e some g r o u n d . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e l a w s , w o r k e r s h a v e
t h e r i g h t t o e l e c t t h e management a n d t h e a u t h o r i t i e s h a v e t h e
r i g h t t o a p p o i n t d i r e c t o r s o f such p l a n t s a s t h o s e s u b o r d i n a t e t o
t h e m i n i s t r i e s o f d e f e n c e , j u s t i c e , f i n a n c e and t h e l i k e .
The f u l l
l i s t o f t h o s e e n t e r p r i s e s w i l l b e drawn up j o i n t l y l a t e r . The l a w
w i l l a l s o n o t apply t o t h e s t a t e railways, a i r l i n e s , p o s t a l
s e r v i c e s , s t a t e i n s u r a n c e company, e t c .
A s a p r i n c i p l e , both
s i d e s - t h e w o r k e r s ' c o u n c i l s and t h e government - h a v e a r i g h t
o f v e t o o v e r t h e a p p o i n t m e n t o f d i r e c t o r s and f i n a l l y may a p p e a l
t o the court.
A l t h o u a h t h e new l a w s do n o t f u l l y meet t h e s o c i a l e x p e c t . a t i o n s ,
they c o n s t i t u t e a major breakthrough i n t h e process of s t r u c t u r a l
I t seems t h a t w o r k e r s now p o s s e s s much more
transformation.
e c o n o m i c power t h a n t h e y e v e r d i d b e f o r e , and on t h e o t h e r s i d e
b u r e a u c r a c y h a s l o s t a n i m p o r t a n t s p h e r e o f i n f l u e n c e - maybe t h e
m o s t i m p o r t a n t . G r e a t h o p e s f o r r e c o v e r y and l a s t i n q improvement
i n o u r economy a r e l i n k e d t o t h i s c h a n g e .
One t h i n q i s f o r s u r e t h e r e i s n o r e t u r n t o t h e o l d , i n e f f e c t i v e way o u r economy was
managed, t h e r e i s n o r e t u r n t o t h e o m n i p r e s e n c e o f b u r e a u c r a c y i n
t h e economic l i f e .
And a l t h o u g h t h e new l a w s h a v e b e e n i n e f f e c t
o n l y s i n c e O c t o b e r t h e r e a r e many s i q n s t h a t t h e s e l f - m a n a g e m e n t
movement i s g a i n i n g momentum.
Developments i n t h e p o l i t i c a l a r e n a p r o c e e d a t a much s l o w e r p a c e .
Most o f t h e p r o p o s e d c h a n g e s a r e s t i l l p r o p o s a l s o n l y , a n d some
o f them seem t o b e i n t e r e s t i n g f o r t h e r e a l i z a t i o n o f a n o t h e r development.
The S o l i d a r n o S t programme d e v o t e s a w h o l e s e c t i o n t o
t h e problematique of a "Self-governed Country".
Emphasis i s l a i d
I t may be
on s o c i a l i z a t i o n , o n s e l f - o r g a n i z a t i o n o f s o c i e t y .
added t h a t , a l t h o u g h i t i s a s e c t i o n d e a l i n g w i t h p o l i t i c a l s t r u c t u r e , i t makes q u i t e c l e a r t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n S o l i d a r n o s e and
any p o l i t i c a l p a r t y .
Whereas a p a r t y p o l i t i c a l programme s e e k s
t o c o n v i n c e e l e c t o r s t h a t o n l y t h e p a r t y would improve t h e i r w e l l b e i n g a n d f u l f i l 1 a s p i r a t i o n s , S o l i d d r n o S E l a v s o u t a programme o f
n a t i o n a l r e c o v e r y by t h e s e l f - o r q a n i z a t i o n o f s o c i e t y .
There i s a deep need f o r a t o t a l reform o f p u b l i c l i f e i n Poland,
s a y s t h e programme.
Democracy i n a s e l f - g o v e r n e d s o c i e t y s h o u l d
b & b a s e d on i d e o l o g i c a l , s o c i a l , p o l i t i c a l and c u l t u r a l p l u r a l i s m .
To t h a t e n d a l l i n d p e n d e n t a n d s e l f - g o v e r n e d i n s t i t u t i o n s would
enjoy f u l l union support i n a l l s p h e r e s o f s o c i e t y ' s l i f e .
The
m o s t i m p o r t a n t a g e n t f o r t h e c h a n g e t o w a r d s democracy i s a qenC r u c i a l t o t h e democrau i n e , a u t h e n t i c workers ' self-management.
cy a r e a l s o t e r r i t o r i a l self-governing r e p r e s e n t a t i v e bodies.
T h e r f o r e c h a n g e s n e e d t o b e i n t r o d u c e d i n t o t h e e l e c t o r a l law
concerning those t e r r i t o r i a l councils.
The f r e e l y - e l e c t e d c o u n c i l s
would h a v e f u l l f i n a n c i a l and o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s e l f - d e p e n d e n c e a n d
much more power t o d e c i d e on l o c a l m a t t e r s t h a n t h e y h a v e h a d u n t i l
now.
O t h e r c h a n g e s a l s o h a v e t o b e made s u c h a s P a r l i a m e n t a r y e l e c t o r a l .
law r e f o r m , changes i n t h e s t r u c t u r e o f P a r l i a m e n t (self-government c h a m b e r ) , empowering t r a d e u n i o n s w i t h t h e law-making i n i t i a t i v e and s o f o r t h .
Much i s s a i d a b o u t t h e n e c e s s i t y o f o b s e r v i n g
c i v i l a n d human r i g h t s , a b o u t t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f f u l l o p e n n e s s
i n p u b l i c l i f e (access t o s t a t e documents), e t c .
(5) Immediate action
Those c h a n g e s must t a k e p l a c e i f o u r d e v e l o p m e n t i s t o b e more
p e o p l e - o r i e n t e d , i f i t i s g o i n g t o s u i t o u r s o c i e t y b e t t e r . What
a r e t h e c h a n c e s f o r s u c h c h a n q e s t o r e a l i z e ? Q u i t e good, I would
say.
The p r o s p e c t s f o r a n a l l i a n c e o f a l l m a j o r f o r c e s ( S o l i d a r rise; Church a n d P a r t y ) h a v e b e e n c a r e f u l l y o u t l i n e d r e c e n t l y . The
l a r g e p a r t o f s o c i e t y i s now p o l i t i c a l l y a c t i v e a n d p e o p l e know
what t h e y want.
P e o p l e , who h a v e r e a l l y c h a n g e d s i n c e A u q u s t ,
who h a v e g o t r i d o f f e a r , o f p a s s i v i t y .
That change i s probably
t h e g r e a t e s t t h i n g t h a t happened o v e r t h e l a s t 15 months.
And
t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f t h e c o u n t r y would come i n t h e wake o f t h e
c h a n g e s i n p e o p l e ' s minds a n d a t t i t u d e s .
But t h i s t r a n s f o r m a t i o n
i s a l s o g u a r a n t e e d by t h e a u t h e n t i c p o p u l a r movement, e n c o m p a s s i n g
10 m i l l i o n people.
The d a n g e r , now, c o u l d a r i s e i f t h e movement i t s e l f becomes und e m o c r a t i c a n d d i v i d e d . And i t i s n o t a n i m a g i n a r y t h r e a t .
SolidarnoSE a c t s i n t h e s t i l l c e n t r a l i z e d , v e r y o f t e n h o s t i l e ,
environment and, s i n c e i t s e f f e c t i v e n e s s i n t h e r a p i d l y chanqing
s i t u a t i o n v e r y o f t e n c a l l s f o r i m m e d i a t e a c t i o n , some o f t h e
u n i o n ' s d e c i s i o n s must b e c e n t r a l i z e d a l s o .
T h a t i s why s t r o n g
c e n t r a l a u t h o r i t y i n t h e u n i o n m i r r o r s t h e g o v e r n m e n t ' s power
structure.
The members b e i n g v e r y s e n s i t i v e a b o u t t h e i n t e r n a l
u n i o n democracy hope t h a t , o n c e t h e p o l i t i c a l s i t u a t i o n i s s e t t l e d ,
t h e n t h e power v e s t e d i n t h e l e a d e r o f t h e u n i o n w i l l b e w i t h drawn a n d f u l l democracy would f l o u r i s h .
The a u t h o r s o f " a n o t h e r d e v e l o p m e n t " c o n c e p t c o n c l u d e t h e i r
a n a l y s i s w i t h t h e c o n v i c t i o n t h a t immediate a c t i o n i s n e c e s s a r y
and p o s s i b l e .
The a u t h o r o f t h i s p a p e r h a r b o u r s t h e hope t h a t h i s
c h a o t i c p r e s e n t a t i o n of r e c e n t c h a n g e s i n P o l a n d , made w i t h a n o t h e r d e v e l o p m e n t i n mind, h a s p r o v e d t h a t s u c h a n i m m e d i a t e a c t i o n
is necessary and, y e s , g p o s s i b l e !
(Viene de la pag, 3)
OTRO D E S A R R O L L O EN P O L O N I A
El conflicto entre la estructura del poder estatal y el poder popular es subyacente a1 nacimiento y desarrollo de Solidarnosc. A craves de una serie de experiencias de automovilizaci6n popular (1956, 1968, 1970, 1976), 10s trabajadores
han adquirido una experiencia finica, Los acontecimientos ocurridos en el astillero naval Lenin en Gdansk, en Agosto de 1980, marcaron el comienzo de huelgas
mediante las cuales 10s trabajadores han mostrado su voluntad de no ceder hasta
que sus reivindicaciones sean satisfechas y las autoridades les acuerden garany condujo a
tias institucionales. Este movimiento se extend!?
en todo el
la creaci6n de sindicatos libres en todas partes, hasta su fusion en el seno de
Solidarnosc, el cual se transform6 en un movimiento de masas que traduce la voluntad social de renovacion.
La segunda parte de este artfculo analiza la situaci6n de Polonia a la luz de
10s postulados de otro desarrollo: satisfaccifin de las necesidades; endogeneidad y autonomfa; armonca con el medio ambiente; transformaci?n de estructuras; y la acci6n necesaria para la realizaci6n de estos objetivos.
B U I L D I N G BLOCKS
T R A D I T I O N AND MODERNITY I N THE DEVELOPMENT OF NON-EUROPEAN
NATIONAL CULTURES
b y A t t i l a Agh
Bimbo-ut. 127/c
H-l026 Budapest - Hungary
O r i g i n a l language:
English
Abstract: The development crisis faced by the Third World proves the fallacy
of European modernization theories which held that the Europeanization of culture would promote the development of Third World by suppressing the traditional
cultures. A challenge is thus posed to the concept of a European world culture,
i.e. cultural domination. The author draws parallels by examining Eastern
European history on the basis of the question whether the economic transformation generated by world capitalism in the region had proved to be capable of
creating the conditions for genuine development, or was it sustaining and recreating under-development in general and producing permanent structural imbalances. Looking at recent trends in the Third World, the author proposes
'traditionizing modernity" as an organizing principle which consciously refers
to the progressive national traditions in order to mobilize the populations for
social transformation and nation-building.
T R A D I T I O N ET MCDERNITE DA'4S LE DEVELOPPEMEhT DES CULTURES
NATIONALES NON-EUROPEENNES
Resume: La crise du dgveloppement dans Ie Tiers Monde souligne l'gchec des
theories europgennes de modernisation qui pretendent que l'europeanisation de
la culture favorise Ie developpement du Tiers Monde en supprimant les cultures
traditionelles. ~e'conce~td'une culture mondiale europeenne - c'est-%-dire de
la domination culturelle - est ainsi mis au dgfi. L'auteur etablit un parallsle
avec l'histoire de 1'Europe orientale en examinant la question suivante;
la
transformation gconomique engendree par le capitalisme mondial dans la region
a-t-il tree les conditions d'un developpement authentique, ou a-t-il entrains et
r e c r G Ie sous-developpement et produit des desequilibres structurels permanents?
Sur la base des tendances rgcentes dans le Tiers Monde, l'auteur propose la
"traditionalisation de la modernite" comme principe d'organisation qui se r6fZre
delib6rGment aux traditions nationales progressistes et tend 5 faciliter la mobilisation pour la transformation sociale et l'gdification nationale.
32)
(Resumen en ~ s ~ a z opag.
l
Attila Agh
T R A D I T I O N A N D M O D E R N I T Y I N THE D E V E L O P M E N T O F N O N - E U R O P E A N
N A T I O N A L CULTURES
Are the non-Eui~peannational cultures "a colossus on feet of
clay", i.e. without massive foundations in the national economy
and state? Are the extremn_i?s of non-European cultures to be
ridiculed or the traditional attindes and values to be blamed
for the underdevelopment of Third World countries?
These questions have to be raised since in modernization theories
as well as in European public opinion traditionality apnears as
the main obstacle to development in non-European nations. There
is a strong European bias against traditi~naiit~:the traditional cultures have to be destroyed in order to reach modernity,
that is traditionality and modernity are arch-enemies. We think
this is a pseudo-contradiction but we do not dwell on the fact
that the representatives of European cultures - namely those of
Western Europe and the United States - forget about their own
historical past in which traditionality played a very important
and stimulating role in modernization. Based on the East European experience, we try to undermine the "European paradigm"
about traditional culture as the main obstacle to development
and/or modernization by showing its stimulating role in East European "delayed" modernization. This is why we concentrate on
the relation of traditionality and modernity in a particular
world historical context and in order to characterize this important but contradictory role of traditionality stimulating modernity we introduce the term and the concept of "traditioniziny
modernity". With the description of the development of East Europeari cultures as the key for understanding the development of
non-European ones we offzr a "European contribution" to the concept of development.
p
-
To start with, not only the thesis about the blocking effect of
traditional cultures is central to modernization theory but also
the intent is clear enough behind the warnings about the danger
of t.he recent waves of cultural nationalism in the Third World:
it is to suggest that-nowadays there is a change for the worse in
cultural development in comparison with the previous era of rapidly spreadin9 World Culture. We think, this has been effectively
the reverse of the truth: nowadays new, young and vigorous national cultures are emerging to the international arena to challenge both the previous masters' national cultures and Europeanized world culture. In this respect Wallerstein's argument on
the cultural domination as a result of economic and political domination deserves to be quoted in extenso:
"What of the cultural sphere? Was there no place for ideas, values,
science, art, religion, language, passion and color? Of course, there
was, for cultures are the ways in which people clothe their politicoeconomic interests and drives in order to express them, hide them in
space and time, and preserve their memory. Our cultures are our lives,
our most inner selves but also our most outer selves, our personal and
collective individualities. How could there not be a cultural expression of hegemony? Such expression would not be in all cases cultural
dominance, Core powers often dominate peripheral areas, imposing a
sense of inferiority on people regarding their own culture; it is,
however, unlikely that a hegemonic power would be able to do the same
with other core powers. At most, in the latter case, the culture of
a hegemonic power can serve as a model, especially a technological model;
but cultures are precisely arenas where resistance to hegemony occurs,
where appeals are made to the historical values of established "civilisations" against the temporary superiorities of the market. Tnis is
true today and was no less true in the seventeenth century".
C u l t u r a l hegemony a n d c u l t u r a l dominance a r e , o f c o u r s e , more i m p o r t a n t a n d more d a n g e r o u s phenomena t o d a y t h a n t h e y w e r e i n t h e
1 7 t h c e n t u r y because o f t h e mounting interdependence o f n a t i o n a l
c u l t u r e s a s a r e s u l t o f t h e m a s s i v e improvements i n c o m m u n i c a t i o n s
a f t e r 1 9 4 5 . On t h e o t h e r h a n d " c u l t u r a l r e s i s t a n c e " and e f f o r t s
t o f o r m u l a t e n a t i o n a l i d e n t i t y o f t h e i r own i s a l s o r e i n f o r c e d
b y t h e p r e s s u r e o f E u r c p e a n i z e d w o r l d c u l t u r e i n t h e T h i r d World
c o u n t r i e s . T h i s p r i m a r y e m p h a s i s on c u l t u r a l n a t i o n a l i s m i n t h e
T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s c a n o n l y b e u n d e r s t o o d f r o m t h e f a c t t h a t
n a t i o n a l i d e n t i t y i s t h e c o n d i t i o n s i n e q u a non o f n a t i o n a l d e v e l o p m e n t a s s u c h . The r e c e n t d e v e l o p m e n t c r i s i s h a s p r o v e d t h e
f a i l u r e o f E u r o p e a n m o d e r n i z a t i o n t h e o r i e s a n d s t r a t e g i e s which
a l l s h a r e d t h e t h e s i s t h a t t h e E u r o p e a n i z a t i o n o f c u l t u r e would
p r o m o t e t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e n a t i o n a l economy a n d s t a t e b y s u p p r e s s i n g t h e t r a d i t i o n a l n a t i o n a l c u l t u r e s , i . e . by g e t t i n g r i d
o f t h e "main i n t e r n a l o b s t a c l e " t o d e v e l o p m e n t .
None t h e l e s s ,
t h e r e a r e e v e n nowadays a l o t o f c o n c e p t s - s o m e t i m e s p r e t e n d i n y
t o be marxist ones - d e s c r i b i n g t h e s t o r y o f c o l o n i z a t i o n a s t h e
p e n e t r a t i o n o f m o d e r n i t y t o t h e non-European w o r l d a n d i t s v i c t o r i o u s march a g a i n s t t r a d i t i o n a l i t y :
"The industrialization of the West from the late eighteenth century onwards
tended to initiate and then accelerate modern development in
the rest of world, which otherwise would have remained comparatively
stagnant. Western economic expansion aroused the non-Western world to
a modernization process for which its own internal development has not
yet prepared it. There were three aspects of this impetus: destruction
of pre-modern cultures and modes of production; stimulation of aspirations new in both degree and kind; implantation of elements of modern
civilisation, both culturally and economically". 2.1
...
The a u t h o r , B i l l Warren g o e s o n by s t a t i n g t h a t t h e " c u l t u r a l
t r a n s f e r " s e r v e d t h e " m o d e r n i z i n g a i m s " o f c o l o n i z e r s a n d was d i s t u r b e d o n l y by a " n a t i o n a l i s t m y t h o l o g y " of c o l o n i z e d p e o p l e s .
He c i t e s W.K.Hancockts d e s c r i p t i o n o f Ghana's m o d e r n i z a t i o n a s
a f i g h t f o r r a p i d economic development a g a i n s t t r a d i t i o n a l i t y ,
i . e . f o r t h e sake but a g a i n s t t h e w i l l of t h e l o c a l population:
'We must remember t h a t the opening up of Africa i s a very r e c e n t
occurence, and we must admit t h a t the t r a d i t i o n a l way of l i f e i n t h a t
c o n t i n e n t imposes many hindrances t o r a p i d economic transformation.
And yet the transformation has i n some p a r t s been amazingly rapid".
Warren emphasizes r e p e a t e d l y and u n e q u i v o c a l l y t h e p r o g r e s s i v e
to
c h a r a c t e r o f Western c u l t u r a l e x p o r t - o r even a g g r e s s i o n
t h e T h i r d World and c o n s i d e r s c u l t u r a l r e s i s t a n c e i t s e l f and t h e
e n s u i n g modern n a t i o n a l c u l t u r e s a s a r e s u l t o f t h i s c u l t u r a l modernization:
-
"The a s s o c i a t i o n of modern education with s o c i e t i e s t h a t combined enormous economic, technological, and m i l i t a r y power with parliamentary
democracy and i n d i v i d u a l r i g h t s represented a major l i b e r a t i n g f o r c e
i n custom-bound s o c i e t i e s and an important c u l t u r a l export, which i n
the end was used a g a i n s t the c o l o n i a l power i t s e l f . . . . Imperialism was
t h e means through which the techniques, c u l t u r e , and i n s t i t u t i o n s had
evolved i n Western Europe over s e v e r a l c e n t u r i e s . . . sowed t h e i r revolut i o n a r y seeds i n the r e s t of t h e world. This c u l t u r e was i n many r e s p e c t s unique, and contributed much of value t o humanity
we must
accept the view t h a t t h e epochal i m p e r i a l i s t sweep was indeed a t i t a n i c
s t e p towards humanunity(on the b a s i s of t h e g r e a t e s t c u l t u r a l and mat e r i a l achievements so f a r a t t a i n e d by humanity)",
...
T h i s i s what we c a l l t h e European paradigm o f World C u l t u r e and
non-European n a t i o n a l c u l t u r e s which i n i t s s p e c i a l form i n
W a r r e n ' s book c l a i m s t o be t h e g e n u i n e m a r x i s t c o n c e p t o f c u l t u r e .
The p o i n t i s whether t h e p e o p l e s most, and d i r e c t l y , a f f e c t e d by
E u r o p e a n i z e d w o r l d c u l t u r e "want t o h o l d o n t o a s much a s t h e y can
of t h e i r t r a d i t i o n a l c u l t u r e " .?/or, a s Warren d e c l a r e s , " i f t h e
r i s e of modern n a t i o n a l i s m h a s s h i f t e d a t t i t u d e s , i d e o l o g i e s , and
r h e t o r i c i n a very d i f f e r e n t d i r e c t i o n , it has n e v e r t h e l e s s f a i l e d
t o a l t e r t h e fundamental e f f o r t t o a s s i m i l a t e Western c u l t u r e ,
v a l u e s and t e c h n i c a l a c h i e v e m e n t s " .
A f t e r h a v i n g i d e n t i f i e d t h e major problems i n t h e c u r r e n t l i t e r a t u r e c o n c e r n i n g non-European n a t i o n a l c u l t u r e s we t r y t o i n t r o d u c e a r e g i o n a l a p p r o a c h i n t h e development o f n a t i o n a l c u l tures.
T h i s comparison i s c l e a r l y t h e most r e l e v a n t f o r t h e
t h e o r y o f non-European c u l t u r e s s i n c e i t d e m o n s t r a t e s t h e t r a n s i t i o n between t h e d i f f e r e n t h i s t o r i c a l ways o f development i n s t e a d
o f b e i n g c o n f i n e d t o t h e extreme c o n t r a s t s ( s a y , Western Europe
and Black A f r i c a ) . W e s u g g e s t t h a t t h e r e a r e two models o f nat i o n a l development ( n a t i o n - b u i l d i n g ) , t h e f i r s t i s t h e (Western)
t h e e v o l u t i o n s t a r t s w i t h t h e emerEuropeanonewhich i s o r g a n i c
gence o f a n a t i o n a l economy and t h e f u r t h e r developments o f a nat i o n a l s t a t e and c u l t u r e a r e b a s e d on it -, t h e s e c o n d i s t h e nonEuropean onewhich i s i n o r g a n i c , t h a t i s , t h e e v o l u t i o n u s u a l l y
sometimes
s t a r t s w i t h t h e r e s u l t o f t h e European model, w i t h a
-
-
-
a r t i f i c i a l l y made
national s t a t e o r with a national culture
p r e p a r e d by c u l t u r a l r e s i s t a n c e and i t goes i n t h e o p p o s i t e way,
t o b u i l d up a n a t i o n a l s o c i e t y and economy "from above" and i n
many c a s e s w i t h o u t s u c c e s s .
I t can b e s e e n from t h e s e two models t h a t t h e n a t i o n a l c u l t u r e s
a s w e l l a s t h e n a t i o n a l s t a t e p l a y a primary r o l e i n t h e process
of T h i r d World m o d e r n i z a t i o n , a v e r y d i f f e r e n t one from i t s r o l e
i n Western Europe.
World h i s t o r i c a l l y t h i s p r i m a r y r o l e was
p l a y e d i n E a s t e r n Europe f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e - and somewhat l a t e r
i n L a t i n America, which u n d e r l i n e s t h e p a r a l l e l o f t h e two regions
i n t h i s r e s p e c t - and t h i s i s why t h e E a s t European development
may s e r v e a s a b r i d g e between t h e p o l e s o f t h e c e n t e r and p e r i p h e r y o f w o r l d c a p i t a l i s m a s key t o t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f non-European
c u l t u r e s and a s a c o n t r i b u t i o n t o development t h e o r i e s .
I t i s w e l l known t h a t E a s t e r n Europe became a p e r i p h e r y of European c a p i t a l i s m from t h e 1 6 t h c e n t u r y onwards and responded t o
t h e demand o f Western Europe f o r p r i m a r y p r o d u c t s . T h i s l e d n o t
o n l y t o a t r a d e dependency on t h e e c o n o m i c a l l y advanced c o u n t r i e s
i n t h e 16-18th c e n t u r i e s b u t g e n e r a t e d some fundamental s o c i a l
and c u l t u r a l c h a n g e s , namely t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n o f p r e - c a p i t a l i s t
mode of p r o d u c t i o n i n a new form a s a f u n c t i o n o f t h e emerging
w o r l d c a p i t a l i s m ( " s e c o n d s e r f d o m " ) . Seemingly, t h e i n i t i a l pen e t r a t i o n was b l o c k e d a d m i n i s t r a t i v e l y b u t a c t u a l l y c a p i t a l i s m
p e n e t r a t e d o n l y i n o r d e r t o produce t h i s f u n c t i o n , and n o t a
g e n u i n e c a p i t a l i s t development. The f i r s t c h a l l e n g e o c c u r e d i n
t h e 1 6 t h c e n t u r y when t h e e v o l u t i o n o f t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l d i v i s i o n
o f l a b o u r began t o t a k e s h a p e and t h e major o u t l i n e s o f t h e p a t t e r n o f dependency o f E a s t e r n Europe on Western Europe were e s tablished.
The s e c o n d c h a l l e n g e o c c u r e d i n t h e wake o f t h e i n d u s t r i a l r e v o l u t i o n , i n t h e 19-20th c e n t u r i e s , when E a s t e r n
Europe became a s e m i p e r i p h e r y o f w o r l d c a p i t a l i s m and t h e p r e ponderance o f f o r e i g n c a p i t a l and s k i l l s r e d u c e d r a d i c a l l y t h e
s p r e a d e f f e c t s which would o t h e r w i s e have been produced by a r e a l
challenge. F i n a l l y , under t h e impetus o f f o r e i g n r u l e (Austrian,
P r u s s i a n and R u s s i a n e m p i r e s ) and c a p i t a l (German, F r e n c h , E n g l i s h
i n v e s t m e n t s ) t h e c l a s s i c a l model o f d e p e n d e n t i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n
was m a t e r i a l i z e d i n E a s t e r n Europe and h a s d e t e r m i n e d i t s h i s t o r i c a l p a t h s o f a r . Our p r e s u m p t i o n i s t h a t t h e above d e s c r i b e d
a t l e a s t p a r t i a l l y due t o t h e s p e c i f i c f e a t u r e s o f c a p i t a l i s t exp a n s i o n i n E a s t e r n Europe.
W e a r e aware t h a t t h e problems we have summarized a r e d i s c u s s e d
by t h e l i t e r a t u r e i n d e t a i l A/ b u t this i s o n l y the background
a g a i n s t which we would l i k e t o e l a b o r a t e o u r c o n c e p t o f t r a d i t i o n i z i n g m o d e r n i t y . Now we may r e t u r n t o t h i s c o n c e p t a t
g r e a t e r l e n g t h s i n c e t h e E a s t European way of underdevelopment
p r o v i d e s c l e a r g u i d e l i n e s t o i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e E a s t European
k i n d of development o f n a t i o n a l c u l t u r e s . What i s more, t h e
d e s c r i p t i o n o f E a s t European underdevelopment i n g e n e r a l i s cons i s t e n t w i t h , indeed i s t h e condition f o r , the c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of
non-European n a t i o n a l c u l t u r e s and s p e c i f i c a t i o n o f t h e E a s t
European r e g i o n a l o n e .
The o v e r a l l e f f e c t o f Western European c a p i t a l i s t development
c a n n o t b e c o n f i n e d t o i t s economic c o n s e q u e n c e , a l t h o u g h t h e
q u e s t i o n a r i s e s f i r s t w h e t h e r t h e economic t r a n s f o r m a t i o n qener a t e d by w o r l d c a p i t a l i s m i n E a s t e r n Europe p r o v e d t o be c a p a b l e
o f c r e a t i n g t h e c o n d i t i o n s f o r a g e n u i n e development o f t h e nat i o n a l s t a t e and c u l t u r e , o r i t was s u s t a i n i n g and r e c r e a t i n g
under-development i n g e n e r a l p r o d u c i n g p e r m a n e n t l y s t r u c t u r a l
i m b a l a n c e s i n t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f t h e major s o c i a l s p h e r e s o r
s u b - s y s t e m s ( n a t i o n a l economy, s t a t e and c u l t u r e ) . I n o u r o p i n i o n , t h e l a t t e r was t h e c a s e . T h i s i s why we c o n c e n t r a t e i n
o u r p a p e r on t h e unevenness o f development o f t h e above mentioned
s o c i a l sub-systems.
A s a p r i m a r y p r o d u c t s e x p o r t i n g p e r i p h e r y E a s t e r n Europe was, s o
t o s a y , a contemporary o f Western Europe o n l y i n i t s c o n s c i o u s n e s s , i . e . a t t h e l e v e l o f t h e o r y and c u l t . u r e . T h i s a s p e c t , howe v e r , was e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y i m p o r t a n t s i n c e E a s t e r n Europe was faced
w i t h t h e d e m o n s t r a t i v e e f f e c t o f Western m o d e r n i z a t i o n which
t h r e a t e n e d t h e s u r v i v a l o f i t s n a t i o n s ( P o l a n d ) .5/ The shock o f
Western p r o g r e s s and m o d e r n i z a t i o n b r o u g h t a b o u t a c u l t u r a l nat i o n a l i s n t h r o u g h o u t E a s t e r n Europe i n t h e 18-19th c e n t u r i e s
w i t h i t s v e r y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a m b i g u i t y : on t h e one hand E a s t e r n
Europe t r i e d t o i m i t a t e Western developments and c a t c h up w i t h
i t , on t h e o t h e r t h i s c u l t u r a l n a t i o n a l i s m was s t r o n g l y opposed
t o i t on b e h a l f o f t h e n a t i o n a l t r a d i t i o n s a n d , a s W a l l e r s t e i n
would s a y , a p p e a l s were made t o t h e v a l u e s o f e s t a b l i s h e d , endogenous c i v i l i z a t i o n s .
S i n c e from t h e emergence o f E a s t European
c u l t u r a l n a t i o n a l i s m onwards t h e same a m b i g u i t y h a s been r e p e a t e d
i n t h e o t h e r r e g i o n s o f t h e p e r i p h e r y and s e m i - p e r i p h e r y o f w o r l d
c a p i t a l i s m a s w e l l and t h e same a m b i v a l e n c e c o u l d b e d e t e c t e d
a g a i n s t Western m o d e r n i z a t i o n i n t h e p o l i c i e s and c o n c e p t s o f p r o g r e s s i v e , m o d e r n i z i n g f o r c e s o f a l l c o u n t r i e s , t h i s c a s t s a cons i d e r a b l e d o u b t on t h e w i d e s p r e a d commonplace t h a t m o d e r n i z a t i o n
i n i t s e l f embodies t h e h i g h e s t v a l u e a n d , on t h e o t h e r s i d e , t r a This concept
d i t i o n a l i t y i n i t s e l f is necessarily reactionary.
i s d u a l i s t i c , o r e v e n m a n i c h e i s t i c , d i s t r i b u t i n g good and e v i l
t o t h e o p p o s i t e p o l e s , b e c a u s e a s u c c e s s f u l m o d e r n i z a t i o n i n some
c o u n t r i e s u s u a l l y means a more f i e r c e c o m p e t i t i o n f o r t h e o t h e r s
i n t h e m i l i t a r y - p o l i t i c a l and economic r e s p e c t ( a s it was t h e
c a s e w i t h u r o p e a n a b s o l u t i s m s which were r e a c t i o n s t o B r i t i s h
hegemony)$ o r m o d e r n i z a t i o n from o u t s i d e t h r e a t e n s w i t h dependency and l o p s i d e d development ( a s it was t h e case w i t h E a s t e r n
Europe)
.
What is more, in these centuries there were no independent and
national states and economies (integrated national markets) in
Eastern Europe. With a certain exaqqeration we could state that
the recent ~ a s tEuropean nations existed at that time only in the
form of their cultural nationalism or national identity, literature etc. which offers, once again, a striking parallel with the
non-European nations before their "flaq independence". The lack
of a well-established national economy and a "strong" national
state wasaspecific feature of East European development before
1914 in comparison with West Europe and this is why a great emphasis was laid on the national cultures being the "only" form
of national existence. The national culture or cultural nationalism became the main organizer, catalyst and programme-builder of
nation-building or modernization. This modernization process,however, was to be carried out in a national framework in Eastern
Europe, as it happened so earlier to the West European nations.
The "modernizing elite" had to mobilize the national forces with
an appeal to the national values of the historical traditions, to
call for national unity in support of the socio-economic reforms.
Thus the emphasis was laid inevitably on historical continuity
and specificity as far as national unity and opposition to the
outer forces were concerned and on historical discontinuity as
far as the internal revolutionary programme and the suppression of
reactionary traditions were concerned.
To be brief, the policies of East European "modernizing elites"
might be characterized in general by what we callea tradiiio2izing
modernity. This attitude was very characteristic e.g. for the
Hungarian "reform era" in the first half of the last century or
for Poland in the same period, the other nations in the southern
part of the region followed suit at the end of the last century.
The Hungarian reformers evoked the spirit of the past in their
fight for an independent Hungarian national state and national
economy: they wore "ancient" Hungarian costumes, "discovered"
the old Hungarian mythology - or the poets and writers created it
quite anew since it was most1.y forgotten - and with the revival
of old, sometimes archaic, Hungarian words and names succeeded in
renewing the national language and literature. This was the
fashion" all over EasternEurope: the drama of modernization began on an artificially made historical scene with the players
fighting against traditions on behalf of traditions. And Western
Europe looked at this colourful carnival with hatred and irony,
ridiculing the "childish" behaviour of the "modernizing elite"
using traditions for their national purposes as if the English
revolution had been conceivable without referring to prophet
Habakukk and the French one without the rhetoric of the Roman republic.
The same h a t r e d , i r o n y and m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g i s m a n i f e s t e d i n t h e
Western c o u n t r i e s t o w a r d s t h e r e c e n t e x p r e s s i o n s o f t r a d i t i o n i z i n g m o d e r n i t y i n t h e contemporary w o r l d , e . g . a g a i n s t s o c a l l e d
r e v i v a l o f I s l a m e t c . It i s n o t t h a t t h e y d o n o t " u n d e r s t a n d "
t h e s e " e x o t i c " c u l t u r e s s t i c k i n g o n l y t o t h e i r extreme m a n i f e s t a t i o n s and o v e r e x a g g e r a t i n g t h e i r "medieval" f e a t u r e s .
Simplist i c view o r n o t , i n o u r o p i n i o n , t h e i n t e r e s t s of t h e i n d u s t r i a l l y advanced n a t i o n s o f t h e West a r e a g a i n s t t h e i n d e p e n d e n t nat i o n a l developments i n d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s and t h e y e x p e c t dev e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s b e i n g o r i e n t e d towards t h e i m i t a t i o n of t h e
Western model o f development and m o d e r n i z a t i o n v i r t u a l l y d e p r i ved o f any s p e c i f i c n a t i o n a l f e a t u r e s .
Obviously it i s o u t s i d e t h e scope of t h i s p a p e r t o e x p l o r e i n
d e t a i l t h e n a t u r e of r e g i o n a l v a r i a n t s o f non-European c u l t u r e s .
A few p o i n t s , however, must be made on t h e major o u t l i n e s o f
t h e i r s i m i l a r i t i e s and d i s s i m i l a r i t i e s w i t h t h e E a s t European model:
F i r s t , we t h i n k , a h i s t o r i c a l documentation would c o n c l u s i v e l y
d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t t h e r e i s no e v i d e n c e o f any d i r e c t r e l a t i o n s h i p
between t r a d i t i o n a l a t t i t u d e s and v a l u e s and t h e r e c e n t developm e n t a l c r i s i s i n t h e T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s . But f o r a h i s t o r i c a l
approach t h e o p p o s i t e seems t o b e ' p r o v e d by t h e f a c t s : a t l e a s t
some " t r a d i t i o n a l " a t t i t u d e s and v a l u e s a r e neo- o r p s e u d o - t r a d i t i o n a l t h a t i s t h e y a r e " a r t i f i c i a l l y " g e n e r a t e d and c o n s t a n t l y r e i n f o r c e d by t h e e x t e r n a l f a c t o r s o f dependence and underdevelopment. A s i m p l e comparison between J a p a n and I n d i a shows
t h a t J a p a n was f o s t e r e d by h e r t r a d i t i o n a l c u l t u r e i n many ways
and I n d i a was f o r c e d back i n t o a n e o - t r a d i t i o n a l i s m d u r i n g t h e
c e n t u r i e s o f B r i t i s h c o l o n i a l r u l e .I/
m
Second, i n s u c h a way, t o u s , ' i t goes w i t h o u t s a y i n g t h a t
a healthy c u l t u r a l nationalism could f o s t e r the n a t i o n a l i d e n t i t y and c u l t u r e which, i n t u r n , i s a b l e t o g e n e r a t e a g e n u i n e nat i o n a l development. T r a d i t i o n i z i n q m o d e r n i t y i s a n o r g a n i z i n g
p r i n c i p l e and r e v o l u t i o n a r y p a t t e r n which c o n s c i o u s l y r e f e r s t o
t h e progressive n a t i o n a l t r a d i t i o n s i n order t o mobilize t h e
l a r g e masses o f p o p u l a t i o n f o r a d e e p l y g o i n g s o c i a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n and n a t i o n - b u i l d i n g .
Our approach s u g g e s t s a f i g h t between
two k i n d s o f t r a d i t i o n a n d / o r m o d e r n i z a t i o n and we a r e a g a i n s t
any dogmatic a p p r o a c h t o t h e c o n t r o v e r s y between m o d e r n i t y and
t r a d i t i o n a l i t y . Modernity i s q u i t e o f t e n c o n n e c t e d w i t h a q g r e s s i v e e x t e r n a l f o r c e s and s t r i v e s t o p r e s e r v e t h e economic and
s o c i o - c u l t u r a l dependence i n a h o l y a l l i a n c e w i t h t h e i n t e r n a l
r e a c t i o n a r y " t r a d i t i o n a l " c l a s s e s ( a s t h e B r i t i s h made it i n
I n d i a w i t h m a h a r a j a s and z a m i n d a r s ) , and, a t t h e v e r y e n d , t h e
complete a s s i m i l a t i o n l e a d s t o t h e " d e a t h o f a n a t i o n W > 8 /
-
-
Third, genuine
i . e . e f f e c t i v e and i n d e p e n d e n t
development o r
modernization presupposes a c r e a t i v e a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e internat i o n a l models t o t h e l o c a l and p a r t i c u l a r c o n d i t i o n s and t h e r e Even t h i s naf o r e , i t must have a s p e c i f i c n a t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r .
t i o n a l " f a c e " of d e v e l o p m e n t a p p e a r s a s 7 m o b i l i z i n g f a c t o r , a n d ,
a s it i s many t i m e s a r g u e d i n t h e m o d e r n i z a t i o n l i t e r a t u r e , s o c i a l p r o g r e s s a n d m o d e r n i z a t i o n a r e met w i t h much l e s s r e s i s t a n c e i f t h e y a r e s t r o n g l y connected w i t h t h e a c t i v e t r a d i t i o n s and
a c o n t i n u i t y i s m a i n t a i n e d b e t w e e n t h e o l d a n d t h e new i n t h e mod e r n i z a t i o n p r o c e s s . The f a r t h e r a l o c a l c u l t u r e i s f r o m t h e
European t r a d i t i o n , t h e g r e a t e r e m p h a s i s m u s t b e l a i d o n i t s s p e c i f i c i t y f o r an e f f i c i e n t modernization.
F o u r t h , t h e r e i s a n i n t e r n a l dynamism a n d l o g i c o f n a t i o n a l c u l t u r e s l e a d i n g e i t h e r t o extremism o r t o a normally developed spec i f i c i t y . Once t h e p a r t i c u l a r c h a r a c t e r o f a modern n a t i o n a l
c u l t u r e h a s been e s t a b l i s h e d , i t t e n d s t o g e n e r a t e a s e l f - r e i n f o r c i n g momentum s i n c e it o p p o s e s t o t h e E u r o p e a n i z e d w o r l d c u l t u r e i n its "universality" a s well a s t o the other national cult u r e s b a s e d o n t h e i r own p a r t i c u l a r i t y , l i k e t h e M y r d a l ' s model
o f c u m m u l a t i v e c a u s a t i o n t r a n s f e r r e d f r o m t h e economy t o t h e
c u l t u r e . When r e l a t i v e n o r m a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s f o r n a t i o n a l d e v e l o p ment a r e s e c u r e d i n t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l a r e n a , t h i s c u n u n u l a t i v e
c a u s a t i o n l e a d s t o a b u i l d i n g up o f t h e s p e c i f i c i t y o f a n a t i o n a l
culture, i f not, the external factors are threatening the nation,
and modernity a p p e a r s a s an o u t s i d e a g g r e s s i o n and o f f e n s e a g a i n s t
t h e n a t i o n a l t r a d i t i o n s , a s t h e c a s e i s w i t h most of t h e T h i r d
World c o u n t r i e s , t h i s c h a l l e n g e i s met w i t h e x t r e m e m a n i f e s t a t i o n s
o f c u l t u r a l n a t i o n a l i s m . Thus n a t i o n a l c o n s c i o u s n e s s i s a l e r t e d
a g a i n s t t h e e x t e r n a l i n f l u e n c e , sometimes c o n f u s i n g i t s misdeeds
and b e n e f i t s , and produces pseudo-"medieval" forms o f n a t i o n a l
culture.
To c o n c l u d e : a s a m a r x i s t p o i n t o f v i e w , t o o o f t e n a s t a t e m e n t
i s made a b o u t t h e r e l a t i v e i n d e p e n d e n c e o f c u l t u r e from t h e e c o nomy a n d p o l i t i c s a s a mere l i p - s e r v i c e t o a f u n d a m e n t a l m a r x i s t
t e n e t w i t h o u t a p r o f o u n d a r g u m e n t a t i o n . Our s h o r t a n a l y s i s o f
t r a d i t i o n i z i n g m o d e r n i t y h a s t r i e d t o go beyond t h i s b y s p e c i f y i n g t h e r e l a t i v e independence and a c t i v e r o l e o f n a t i o n a l c u l t u r e
i n T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s a n d r e g a r d i n g t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e
b a s i c needs s t r a t e g i e s f o r overcoming t h e r e c e n t developmental
c r i s i s . We s u g g e s t t h a t t h e r o l e o f t h e s p e c i f i c n a t i o n a l c u l t u r e s i n t h e p r o c e s s o f development and modernization ha--, t o b e
t a c k l e d more s e r i o u s l y t h a n h i t h e r t o .
Notes
-l/ I. Wallerstein, The Modern World System 11, Mercantilism and the Consolidation of the European World-Economy, 1600-1750, (New York:
1980), p, 65.
Academic Press,
21 Bill Warren, Imperialism, Pioneer of Capitalism, New Left Review Books,
Verso Edition, London, 1980, p. 114.
31 R, Emerson, From Empire to Nation, Cambridge, Mass., 1967, p. 14, quoted
from Warren, Op. Cit. p. 138.
41 See Wallerstein's two volumes, or, Dudly Seers, Under-developed Europe:
-
Studies in Core-Periphery Relations, (Brighton, Sussex: Harvester Studies
in Development, No.1, 1979).
51 See W. Kula, An Economic Theory of the Feudal System, (London: New Left
Review Books, 1976).
61 P. Anderson, Lineages of the Absolutist State, (London: NLB, 1974).
7/"See, concerning the "open secret" of Japanese traditionalism in the moder-
nization process, R.E. Ward, 'Political Modernization and Political Culture
in Japan', in: C.E. Welch (ed), Political Modernization, (Belmont, California, 1967) and, concerning India, J. Nehru, The Discovery of India, 1965.
81 See, for Latin American, Leopoldo Zea, El pensamiento Latino-Americana
(Barcelona, Editorial Ariel, 1965) and Latinoamerica en la Encrucijada de
la historia (Mexico, UNAM, 1981).
(Viene de la pag. 23)
T R A D I C I O N Y MODERNISM0 E N . E L DESAROLLO DE L A S CULTURAS NACIONALES
-
NO EUROPEAS
Resumen: La crisis de desarrollo en el Tercer Mundo marca el fracas0 de las
teorlas europeas de modernization que pretenden que la europeizaci6n de la cultura favorece el desarrollo del Tercer Mundo a1 suprimir las culturas tradicionales. La idea de una cultura mundial europea, es decir, de la dominaci6n cultural, es as; puesta a prueba. El autor establece un paralelo con la historia
de Europa Oriental a1 examinar la siguiente interrogante: ya sea que la transformacion econ6mica engendrada por el capitalism0 mundial en la region ha creado las condiciones de un autentico desarrollo, o ha arrastrado y recreado el
subdesarrollo y producido desequilibrlos estructurales permanentes. asa an dose
en recientes tendencias del Tercer Mundo, el autor propone la "tradicionalizaci6n de la modernizaci6n" como principio de organization que se refiere deliberadamente a las tradiciones nacionales progresistas y tiende a facilitar la
mobilization para la transformation social y la construci6n national.
B U I L D I N G BLOCKS
THi- hORLD AS A TRADING PLACE - OM CULTURAL fRESUFfOSITIOPiS
A N EFFECTS OF THE LONE CONVENTION
by Wolf-Dieter Just
Ecumenical Research Exchange
Oostmaaslaan 950
3063 DM Rotterdam, Netherlands
Original language:
English
Abstract: The author sees the Lome Convention as an instrument of promoting the
imposition upon the ACP partners of European culture, a culture whose tenets of
consumerism and underlying alienation are being criticized in Europe itself.
The capitalist logic underlying the Convenion comes from a culture which perceives the world as a big trading place, on which man is of interest only as a
seller.and a purchaser of (joods. Products cannot be stripped of their cultural
origins and implications a3 their purchase has a direct impact on life patterns,
value systems and attitudes, and social relations.
Thus economic, political and cultural domination begun in colonial times is today being perpetuated via trade, the transfer of capital, technology and knowhow and the media which increases dependency.
-
L E MONDE COMME MARCHE
L E S HYPOTHESES CULTURELLES ET L E S EFFETS
D E L A CONVENTION DE LOME
Resume: L'auteur voit dans la Convention de Lome un instrument i'mpbsant aux
partenaires de 1'ACP la culture europeenne, dont le consumerisme et l'alienation
qui en resultent sont critiques en Europe m h e . La logique capitaliste qui soustend la Convention provient d'une culture qui voit dans le monde un vaste march6
06 les gtres humains ne sont interessants qu'en tant qu'acheteurs et vendeurs de
biens. Les biens sont inseparables de leur origine culturelle et leur acquisition a un impact direct sur les styles de vie, les systhes de valeur et les relations sociales.
Ainsi, la domination economique, politique et culturelle qui a prls naissance
a 1'6poque coloniale se perpetue par Ie commerce, Ie transfert de capitaux, de
techniques et les media, et la dependance s'accrolt.
(Resumen en Espanol pag.44)
Wolf-Dieter Just
T H E WORLD A S A T R A D I N G P L A C E ON C U L T U R A L P R E S U P P O S I T I O N S AND
E F F E C T S OF T H E LOME CONVENTION
Recently the Kenyan writer Meja Mwanqi was invited to a cultural
festival in West Berlin. On that occasion a ten-day programme
had been worked out for him so that he might learn something
about the culture of the Federal Republic. To his surprise he
was hardly given any opportunity to meet people and see how they
live. His guide would rather take him from one museum, castle,
art exhibition and concert to the other. He was also granted
the privilege of sleeping in a 300 year old hotel, "smelling of
history" as his guide explained. Mwangi did not like this smell
and he was puzzled: Do these people have to go into a museum in
order to see their own culture? Where does it exist today? What
does it mean in the daily life of people?
For Mwanqi the visit to Germany was not his first encounter with
European culture. He had already encountered it all through his
life at home in Kenya. And there this culture was not embodied
in art exhibitions and Bach music. European settlers occupying
the "white highlands", that part of his country with the most
fertile soil; white missionaries calling his cultural traditions
primitive and pagan; the colonial army, which defended the
interest of these Europeans against his own people, and killing
many of their freedom fighters. This is what it stood for.
Whoever approaches the topic of "development and culture" ought
to keep this historical background in mind - the violent confrontation of two cultures. This is not only relevant as an explanation of the past but of the present as well. It is the background
to the kind of economic, political and ideological domination
still going on today, e.g. in the relationship between former
colonies and their "mother" countries. Subsequently I will
advance the somewhat provocative thesis that even the so much
praised Lom6 Convention ought to be interpreted in this light, o r to put it more precisely - that it continues to promote the
imposition of European culture upon our ACP partners.
1.
An exploration of new territory
Inquiries into the significance of the Lom6 Convention for the
culture of the ACP countries involve an exploration of new territory. As far as I see, this question has never been asked by
those in responsibility nor by those involved in scientific
research on the Convention. And like most unusual questions this
one will initially raise a quizzical smile. All too far seems
the distance between the ACP-Stabex-Sysmin-EDF jungle and what
we call "culture". Is culture not pre-eminently that which finds
its expression in music and dance, poetry and art? This is at
least what our newspapers suggest, when after "politics",
"economics", "local news" and "sport" they finally get to the
section on "culture". There we usually find reports on art
exhibitions, opera performances, new novels and similar things.
What has that to do with prices of sugar and beef, with customs
duties and rules of origin?
My thesis holds that this is a typical sign of our Western culture; that the distance between the one and the other seems so
far to us that the reality of our life is so neatly divided up
into certain compartments like politics, economics, social
affairs, culture, religion, etc., and that their interconnection
tends to be forgotten. As though man would not appear in g
these compartments of life as one and the same subject and as
though this parcelling out of his life would not do violence to
his nature in its wholeness:
Let us have a look at the Lom6 Convention with its 191 articles
plus protocols and annexes: Could this piece of literature
originate from any other cultural sphere than the occidental one?
Is not its technical nature and the rational "spirit of
capitalism" (M. Weber) underlying it a specific feature of the
West? Is its spirit not one, which perceives the world as a big
trading place, on which man is just of interest as a seller and
purchaser of goods? Certainly
the Convention has also been
signed by 58 representatives from countries which belong to
entirely 'different cultural spheres. But this does not seem to
be based on the fact that these cultures are so much the same,
but that more and more they are being& m
the same. This process
of levelling, called "imposition of culture" by I. Illich, began
in colonial times and is perpetuated today via trade and commerce, the transfer of capital, technology and know-how, the media,
tourism, etc. Lom6 must be understood as part of this process as
will subsequently be shown. The fact that former colonies have
now gained political independence does not seem to matter very
much in this respect. We find, on the contrary, writers from
those countries constantly bewailing the fact that there has been
no real new beginning. "What did we fight for in the struggle for
independence, if now white is just substituted by black?" This
question is repeatedly asked by the Kenyan writer Ngugi wa
Thionq'o in his well-known novels ?.I.
-
2.
A comprehensive concept of "culture"
Subsequently a concept of culture shall be used which refuses to
confine itself to its spiritual-elitist or folkloristic definitions or to the antiquities imprisoned in museums. Culture should
be understood as everything "which man makes out of his world and
what he thinks and speaks thereby. Thus everything is culture,
which is not nature. Culture is achieved, is creation in accordance to human design. Nature is grown" 2 / . Such a concept of
culture leaves behind the restrictions mentioned above. It also
rejects assertions that there are people without culture or with
'primitive" cultures y. Finally, it refuses the evolutionist
point of view originating from the 19th century and still playing consciously or not - a very important role today. According to
this view each society in its cultural development must pass
through a number of stages. These stages in the evolutionary process are principally the same for all societies. The Europeans
are - how could it be otherwise - at the most advanced stage.
This arrogant Eurocentrism still underlines various strategies,
which today are proposed for Third horld development. This is
particularly true of the so-called "strategy of catching up"
"Aufholstrategie") which like most of these strategies conceives
of this "catching up" in purely economic terms. It has found its
classical expression in W.W. Rostow's book The Stages of Economic
Growth: A Non-Communist Manifesto (Cambridge 1960). The underlying assumption is one of unilinear evolution: culture is
undergoing a constant process of modernization, which, at all
stages, is made necessary by economic growth but which in turn
makes growth possible.
This viewpoint comes very close to the Lome philosophy. It presupposes that the only possible goal of the evolution of the Third
World is the reproduction of the Western model. The differences
between the model and its imitators are seen either as a lack or
a lag. In order to narrow the gap belief is placed on the miraculous effects of transfers of capital, technology and know how
from North to South. The aim is rapid economic growth. That
there can also be other, more comprehensive goals of development,
e2g. "human"growth, real self-reliance, etc., is beyond imagination. But "what happens if the present Western model comes to
be seen
as a form of anti-development (i.e. which causes
underdevelopment in the Third World and which constitutes no model
at all for development)?"!!I
...
3.
The cultural impact of trade
The interconnection of Western development policies and the transfer of Western culture can well be exemplified by reference to the
trade promotion measures which are central to the Lom6 Convention.
As article 1 states, "the object of this Convention is to promote
trade between the ACP states and the Community taking account of
their respective levels of development...".
The various trade
promotion measures "from the production staqe to the final staqe
of distribution" are first of all meant to increase "the value and
volume of ACP exports". (Article 20). Thus the Convention guarantees free access to the Community market for 99.5% of the ACP
countries' exports. There is no reciprocal obligation. That means
Community exports to ACP countries are not granted preferential
treatment.?/
Also various other measures such as the Stabex system
are meant to promote trade and especially the export production of
ACP countries.
The text of the Convention seems to suggest that trade promotion is
an end in itself. This assumption, however, needs thorough
questioning. Trade is certainly much more than just the "innocent"
exchange of goods aqainst money or of goods against goods. Unfortunately this "more" is perpetually ignored by economists. Goods
are something supposed to serve F in one way or another, be it
for own consumption or for manufacturing and profitable sale, for
the defence of man in his struggle for survival and a good life,
etc. Thus goods - in our case merchandise - ought not be be seen
as objects in isolation or something "neutral". They are related
to the humanbeing, his/her life-context, life style and his/her
will to live.
Exploring this relationship one needs first of all to ask who are
the subjects of trade activities. These are certain people,
people pursuing particular interests. Who are these people and
what are their interests? How do their interests relate to the
interests of other people? Is this relationship politically and
socially acceptable? Whether the promotion of trade is a good
or a bad thing depends on the answers to these questions. Their
relevance and often explosive nature becomes obvious, if one thinks
of the frequently made proposition that the EEC-ACP trade is first
of all a deal between local' elites and European TNCs. If this is
true, we see, how questionable it is to consider trade promotion
as an end in itself.
Moreover, a careful examination is required concerning the impact
of the objects of trade, the merchandise, upon the recipientd and
their lives. The exchange of goods via trade is, of course, of
great influence on life conditions and on the way people relate to
nature, to other people and to themselves. This is another reason
for the close interrelation between trade and culture, which we
defined as the "which man makes out of himself and his world and
what he speaks and thinks thereby". If, for example, the Third
World buys cars from the North, this does not simply mean the
import of a certain means of transport. It means the import also
of an "ideology", which is somehow "built in". This ideology
implies a certain relationship of man towards time and space, which
users of those cars have to internalize in order to meet the objectives of this purchase. It is, for example, obvious that the
car will change the daily agenda of the one who starts to use this
object regularly. But it will, on a deeper level, do much more to
that person as it will change the attitude towards time as such.
The possession of a car does not, for example, seem to fit very wellwith the significance and value Africans used to put to time in its
past tense. A car requires an orientation towards the future. The
culture out of which this product evolved, considers first of all
future time as a precious good, which requires active planning and
optimal exploitation. A product, in this case the car, cannot be
stripped of this cultural origin with its specific value systems
and attitudes etc.
The user of the car will also develop a different attitude towards
space. Places that used to be far away are suddenly very close;
travels will be planned which in earlier times had been beyond
imagination. This new mobility will certainly have its impact on
life style and social relations. The user of the car might gain
a new social status and be looked at with admiration and perhaps
also envy. Others will want to have a car too and do what they
can to get one. Due to his mobility the user can now also be
more selective with respect to his social contacts. This implies
certainly more freedom, but also more scope for social escapism.
Another important aspect lies in the fact that cars cost money not only for the initial purchase but also for maintenance, petrol etc. This money could, of course, also be spent differently, e.g. for more basic needs or social needs etc. Purchasing a
car implies a certain value judgement: you give priority to this
object rather than to something else, which might have been given
more prominence in the past. Thus an object of trade also has a
significant cultural or "ideological" impact on its subject. Finally an increase in the number of cars in a country will, of
course, also change the environment (pollution, demand for more
roads, petrol stations, workshops, etc.) and the structure of imports (petrol, spare parts, etc.).
These are just some of the cultural impacts going along with the
import o f cars. Whether they are desirable or not can only be
decided, if one faces the complexity of this impact.
The text of the Lom6 Convention exhibits very little sensitivity
for this important relationship between human beings and trade,
human beings and merchandise. Only Article 5.1 is an exception,
which allows for restrictions on imports, exports and goods in
transit "on grounds of public morality, public policy or public
security, the protection of health and life of humans, animals
and plants; the protection of national treasures possessing
artistic, historic or archeological value
But in the next
paragraph the authors hasten to state: "Such prohibitions or
restrictionsshall notin any case constitute a means of arbitrary discrimination or a disguised restriction on trade generally".
So trade remains an end in itself although some qualifications
were obviously unavoidable.
...l1.
At this stage some objections may be raised. The point may be
made that trade usually flows in
directions. Thus trade may
indeed effect a levelling of cultures but this levelling works
both ways. As there is almost an equilibrium in ACP-EEC trade
the cultural impact of ACP merchandise upon Western Europe should
be as strong as the impact of EEC merchandise on ACP cultures.
This, however, is not true for two main reasons.
First of all because the ACP is for the EEC only of marginal importance, while for ACP countries EEC trade is of utmost significance. Less than 7% of the EEC's total imports originate from
ACP countries, while about one half of ACP imports come from the
EEC. So the ACP countries are much more dependent on the EEC
than vice versa. This disequilibrium will, of course, also be
reflected in the degree of cultural dependency.
Second, even more important in this respect, is the structure of
EEC-ACP trade. While EEC exports to ACP countries consist mainly
of manufactured goods ( 8 5 % ) , the ACP exports consist mainly of
raw materials. According to our definition, culture is what man
makes out of his world. This means in our case that among the
traded goods only those can be considered as cultural products
which have undergone human manufacture. Raw materials as such do
not bear cultural features, they belong to nature. This makes
obvious, in which direction culture is transferred. Significantly the Stabex-system does
cover manufactured goods, thus confirming the cultural one-way traffic. There may be a balance of
trade in ACP-EEC relati-ons,but that is a rather abstract economic indicator. What matters in the lives of people is the cultural impact and this is entirely "unbalanced".
=
Finally thecultural impact of the structure of production must be
mentioned as it is promoted by EEC-ACP trade. Lom6 clearly promotes export production in ACP states. That means production for
foreign markets. Through Stabex it is the export of agricultural
products, which is particularly encouraged. This has a number of
undesirable cultural consequences. It increases the degree of
dependency and is incompatible with self-reliant development. The
old international division of labour inherited from colonial times
is being reinforced. It obliged the former colonies to serve the
centre as suppliers of raw materials and cheap labour. The land
is increasingly used for export production rather than for the
supply of local markets. This makes agricultural imports from
developed countries increasingly necessary. Zaire is a typical
example. Due to the export orientation of its agriculture, food
production for domestic consumption has gradually decreased to
such an extent that the country has to spend 30% of its foreign
exchange on the import of food stuffs. With this in mind Article
83 of Lom6 I1 seems something of a mockery:
' T h e basic objective of agricultural cooperation between the Community
and the ACP States must be to assist the latter in their efforts to solve
problems relating to rural development and the improvement and expansion
of agricultural production for domestic consumption and export and problems they may encounter with regard to security of food supplies for
their populations
".
"...
And Article 89 even goes so far as to say that
the ultimate
aim of ACP States is to become self-sufficient in food production".
Most questionable in this respect LS a new type of TNC, which has
evolved during the last twenty years and which is involved in the
agri-business. These TNCs produce agricultural products in the
Third World for markets in the industrialized countries. They
use capital intensive technologies and cause rural unemployment
as well as the kind of cultural alienation mentioned above. The
Third World is attractive to them as it offers cheap land, cheap
l a b o u r and a f a v o u r a b l e c l i m a t e .
They a r e b i g o b s t a c l e s t o a g r a r i a n r e f o r m s , d i v e r s i f i c a t i o n o f p r o d u c t i o n and l o c a l a n d r e g i o n a l s e l f - r e l i a n c e w i t h r e s p e c t t o food supply.
Lom6 e n c o u r a g e s
t h i s b u s i n e s s i n a t l e a s t t h r e e ways:
.
.
,
the so-called rules of origin protect European TNCs against imports
from third countries;
Stabex guarantees stability of export prices and encourages monocultures due to Article 29 which says that the system applies only to the
exports of products o n which an ACP State depends for at least 6 , 5 % of
its total export earnings; Zf
EDF favours the improvement of infrastructures which make the transport of raw materials easier and cheaper.
From t h e c u l t u r a l p o i n t o f v i e w t h e most q u e s t i o n a b l e a s p e c t i n
a l l t h i s i s t h e i n c r e a s i n g d e g r e e o f d e p e n d e n c y which i s c a u s e d
by t h e C o n v e n t i o n .
Dependence means t h a t l o c a l p e o p l e c a n n o t d e t e r m i n e . t h e m s e l v e s , w h a t i s t o b e p r o d u c e d , w h e r e , by whom, w i t h
w h a t k i n d o f t e c h n o l o g y a n d u n d e r which c i r c u m s t a n c e s .
The f a c t
t h a t decisions of t h i s kind a r e taken outside is probably t h e
s t r o n g e s t cause of c u l t u r a l a l i e n a t i o n .
People ought t o determin e t h e m s e l v e s "what t h e y make o u t o f t h e i r w o r l d " .
Otherwise
t h e i r human d i g n i t y i s o f f e n d e d and t h e " p r o d u c t i o n " o f t h e i r own
c u l t u r e made i m p o s s i b l e .
Thus a l l men h a v e a r i g h t t o t h e i r own
The f a c u l t u r e a c c o r d i n g t o t h e Human R i g h t s C h a r t e r o f t.he U N .
t h e r s o f t h e Convention a r e i n f a c t aware of t h i s .
They s t a t e
under t h e o b j e c t i v e s f o r a g r i c u l t u r a l c o o p e r a t i o n t h a t it should
contribute " t o increasing t h e populations' capacity f o r self-development, n o t a b l y through g r e a t e r c o n t r o l over t h e i r t e c h n i c a l
The d e c i s i v e q u e s and economic environment"
(Article 83.2f.).
t i o n , h o w e v e r , i s w h e t h e r t h e n a t u r e o f t h e C o n v e n t i o n makes t h i s
possible.
4.
Lom6 I1 a n d t h e Human R i g h t s i s s u e
J u s t i c e would n o t b e d o n e t o t h e f a t h e r s o f t h e Lame I1 C o n v e n t i o n ,
however, i f o n e p o i n t was n o t m e n t i o n e d , w h e r e t h e "humanum" d i d
play a role i n the negotiations.
T h i s i n v o l v e d t h e s u g g e s t i o n by
t h e N i n e t h a t a r e f e r e n c e c o n c e r n i n g r e s p e c t f o r human r i g h t s b e
i n c o r p o r a t e d w i t h i n t h e framework o f t h e C o n v e n t i o n .
But t h i s
a t t e m p t f a i l e d and t h e r e a s o n s f o r i t a r e s i g n i f i c a n t f o r o u r subj e c t matter.
F i r s t of a l l an i n i t i a t i v e of t h i s kind i s p e r f e c t l y i n l i n e with
t h e T r e a t y o f Rome, w h i c h i n f a c t i s l e s s t e c h n o c r a t i c t h a n t h e
p o l i t i c a l p r a x i s o f t h e EEC.
P a r t F o u r d e a l i n g w i t h "The Assoc i a t i o n o f t h e O v e r s e a s C o u n t r i e s a n d T e r r i t o r i e s " i s i n t h i s conI t s t a t e s t h e primary o b j e c t i v e
t e x t of p a r t i c u l a r importance.
o f t h e A s s o c i a t i o n a s f o l l o w s " t o f u r t h e r t h e i n t e r e s t and p r o s p e r i t y of t h e i n h a b i t a n t s of t h e s e c o u n t r i e s and t e r r i t o r i e s i n
o r d e r t o l e a d them t o t h e e c o n o m i c , s o c i a l and c u l t u r a l d e v e l o p ment t o which t h e y a s p i r e " ( A r t i c l e 1 3 1 ) . T h i s g o a l i s t o b e
accomplished i n accordance w i t h " t h e p r i n c i p l e s of t h e C h a r t e r of
t h e United Nations" ( c f . t h e preamble).
However, t h e c o u r s e o f n e g o t i a t i o n s o v e r a r e f e r e n c e t o human
r i g h t s i n t h e C o n v e n t i o n became more and more e m b a r r a s s i n g f o r
both s i d e s .
O r i g i n a l l y t h e EEC wanted t h e r i g h t t o s u s p e n d a s s i s t a n c e s h o u l d a n ACP s t a t e s e r i o u s l y v i o l a t e human r i g h t s .
Underl y i n g t h i s move was p a r t i c u l a r c o n c e r n a b o u t t h e e v e n t s i n I d i
Amin's Uganda a n d t h e c o n t i n u i n g a i d g i v e n t o t h a t c o u n t r y .
The
ACP c o u n t r i e s w e r e n o t t o t a l l y a g a i n s t s u c h a r e f e r e n c e i n t h e
T r e a t y , p r o v i d e d t h a t i t was r e c i p r o c a l i n n a t u r e .
They w e r e
hoping such a r e f e r e n c e could be used a g a i n s t maltreatment o f s t u d e n t s , t r a i n e e s and m i g r a n t w o r k e r s o r i g i n a t i n g from t h e ACP s t a t e s and r e s i d i n g r e g u l a r l y i n EEC c o u n t r i e s .
I t was a l s o assumed
t h a t EEC t r a d e w i t h S o u t h A f r i c a was a p o s s i b l e s u b j e c t f o r r e c i procal action.
The EEC, h o w e v e r , w i t h o u t e x p l a n a t i o n r e j e c t e d
t h e ACP d e c l a r a t i o n o n n o n - d i s c r i m i n a t o r y t r e a t m e n t f o r ACP m i g r a n t
w o r k e r s 21 a n d i n t h i s way d e f e a t e d a n y n o t i o n o f r e c i p r o c a l r e s p e c t f o r human r i g h t s .
T h i s o f c o u r s e , " l e f t l i t t l e inducement
o f t h e ACP c o u n t r i e s t o a c c e p t a p r o p o s a l f o r i n t r o d u c i n g human
r i g h t s p r o v i s i o n s i n t o t h e Lome t e x t " 21.
The ACP c o u n t r i e s r e j e c t e d a r e f e r e n c e t o human r i g h t s m a i n l y f o r
t h e following reasons:
.
.
.
s u c h a r e f e r e n c e c o u l d be used a s a p r e t e x t f o r i n t e r v e n i n g i n t h e i r
countries' internal a f f a i r s ;
Lome was e s s e n t i a l l y a forum f o r economics and t r a d e , n o t f o r t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f p o l i t i c a l problems;
t h e c o n c e p t of human r i g h t s i t s e l f was t o o complex and s u b j e c t i v e a s a
b a s i s f o r a t r a d e agreement.
C o n s i d e r i n g t h e s e r e a s o n s one c a n c e r t a i n l y s e e a p o i n t i n t h e
f i r s t and t h i r d o n e , w h i l e t h e s e c o n d o n e t r i e s t o s e p a r a t e t h i n g s
which i n f a c t c a n n o t and s h o u l d n o t be s e p a r a t e d .
The Lom6 Conv e n t i o n c a n n o t b e c o n s i d e r e d j u s t a s a n economic a g r e e m e n t b e c a u s e it a f f e c t s p e o p l e ' s c u l t u r e i n t h e w i d e s e n s e o f o u r d e f i n i t i o n .
As f a r a s t h e f i r s t r e a s o n i s c o n c e r n e d it n e e d s t o b e s a i d t h a t
p r o t e c t i o n o f human r i g h t s h a s n o t f o r q u i t e some t i m e b e e n c o n s i dered a s a m a t t e r s o l e l y of domestic ' u r i s d i c t i o n b u t has r i s e n t o
t h e e v e of i n t e r n a t i o n a l concern
Acceptance o f t h a t p o i n t
would a l s o mean a c c e p t a n c e o f EEC t r a d e w i t h S o u t h A f r i c a .
Here
t h e r e a s o n i n g o f ACP s t a t e s d o e s n o t seem t o b e c o n s i s t e n t .
On
t h e o t h e r hand it m u s t b e remembered, t h a t " t h e p a r t i e s a r e n o t
o n a n e q u a l f o o t i n g : t h e EEC c a n t a k e s a n c t i o n s a g a i n s t a n ACP
s t a t e , b u t m o s t l y t h e r e v e r s e i s n o t t r u e " G/.
One c a n u n d e r s t a n d t h e w o r r y o f ACP r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s t h a t t h e E ~ C ' m i g h t f e e l
f r e e t o u s e e . g . t r a d e b o y c o t t s a s a weapon, whenever t h e p o l i c y
d.
of a particular state did not coincide with its own interests.
The third point rightly states that the issue is a very complex
one. It would be very questionable e.g. to blame various Third
World countries for violations of human rights and to turn a
blind eye to the causes of that situation in colonial history and
in the present international economic system. In this respect it
has to be asked, whether the Lom6 Convention itself is a "clean"
affair. It promoted for instance the export of food stuffs
(peanuts e.g.) from the Sahel at a time when great numbers of
people there were starving to death. Is that not a violation of
human rights?
Most critics of Lom6 contend that it is just a "drop in the ocean".
They appreciate the preferential trade arrangements and the Stabex
system, but criticize its rather small financial resources and ask
why the EEC should have a special relationship with these 60 Third
World countries and not the remainder. These critics can see in
Lom6 at least a small step in the right direction. The integration of Third World countries into the international market, industrialization, increased foreign aid, and the transfer of capital, technology and know how from North to South are considered as
beneficial and important means to achieve some sort of welfare in
the Third World. The international division of labour as such is
not called into question, althou h it must, of course, become more
rational, just and equitable" 31.
This paper has tried to call these convictions into question. They
are geared towards giving Third World countries a better share of
the "international cake", but real structural changes are not seen
to be necessary. If development, however, is considered as an integral, value-loaded cultural p,rocess encompassing political participation, social relations, education, production, consumption,
natural environment and well being, the narrow economistic orientation of those strategies must be overcome.
One could, of course, argue, that cultures have always influenced
each other in history and often to their mutual enrichment. But
such mutuality requires partners that are on an equal footing.
This is not the case in ACP-EEC relations or aenerallv in nresent
North-South relations. All measures to integrate Third World
countries into the international market reinforce the cultural
one way traffic from North to South and result finally in the reproduction or even imposition of the western model. This model,
however, is at present not only under attack from Third World
critics. people in industrialized countries are also becoming
more and more disillusioned with it. They become aware of its
ever increasing social and ecological costs; of the power that
inanimate objects (e.g. sophisticated machines, consumer goods
etc.) have gained over man and his life; of the growing margirealization of great parts of the population and whole regions.
Thus it seems this model has not very much to recommend it as an
export to the South. Perhaps the time has come for people in the
North to learn their lesson from cultures in the South concerning
more human ways of living and social organisation and about more
sensitive attitudes towards nature.
One of our main criticisms of the Lom6 Convention was that it
does not really change the existing structures of dependency.
Thus people in ACP countries have little scope to determine themselves "what they make out of their world" - except for their mtional elites, who are, however, often under strong western influence and alienated from the people and their own cultural
roots. Alternatives to the Lome approach for Third World development can be found in the various strategies aiming at greater
self-reliance. Strategies of this kind have been proposed-e.g.
by the Dag Hammerskj6ld Report What now? (1975), the Cocoyoc Declaration (1974), by Ecumenical thought on the subject, and by a
number of individual scientists like D. Senghaas and J. Galtung.
These strategies cannot be presented here in detail. They all
understand development as a complex and integral cultural process,
which must be geared to the "growth of man" and not just to the
growth of things. Production is, of course, an important means
of development. But its primary concern is to satisfy human needs
(material and non-material ones). Thus economic growth or trade
can never be ends in themselves.
The concept of self-reliance entails a critique of the integration of the Third World into the international market. Its structures of production need to be radically changed and oriented more
towards domestic markets. The necessity of international trade is
not entirely denied but it must be one of partners, which are more
or less on an equal footing; thus South-South trade needs to be
promoted. Oteiza describes this alternative type of development
approach as "implying (1) the severance of existing links of dependence operated through the international system by the dominant
countries, (2) a full mobilization of domestic capabilities and
resources, (3) the strengthening of links-collaboration with other
Third l'7orld
countries, and (4) the reorientation of development
efforts in order to meet the basic needs (not just the minimum) of
the peoples involved". To these objectives one may add (5) a just
distribution of wealth, ( 6 ) decentralisation and democratisation
of decision-making power and (7) concern for the ecological balance. Such a strategy would clearly be in line with a cultural
approach to development as it gives man an optimum of freedom to
shape his world in accordance with his own design.
NO doubt the implementation of such a strategy will be very difficult given the present power structures at both national and
international levels. But that should not keep us from defining
clearly, which goals are desirable for development and it should
also not keep us from striving for such goals in the face of
countervailing forces.
Footnotes:
I/ Especially Petals of Blood (London, 1977).
2 / R. Maurer, Kultur in H. Wings, H.M. Baumqartner
-
U. C. Wild eds.,
Handbuch philosophischer Grundbegriffe (MUnchen, 1973) vol.11, p.823.
31 cf. G. Rist, Development Theories in the Social Looking Glass: Some Reflections from Theories to Development, Paper for the UN University (Tokyo 1979).
4/
-
Rist, op. cit. p. 4f.
5/ Up to now, however, thi's has not resulted in balanced development of trade.
EEC exports to ACP countries have under Lome I grown faster than the respective imports. Thus the balance of trade, which was positive for the
ACP countries in the early 70s has become negative in 1978.
6/ cf. J.M. Mbiti, African Religions & Philosophy (London, 1969) and W.D. Just
"Unter dem Diktat der Zeit", in Evanq, Kommentare.
7/ For the "least" developed, landlocked and island ACP States, the percentage
is 2%.
8/
cf. External Relations, European Report (no. 599) 11 (May 30, 1979).
9/ cf. Amy Young-Anawaty, "Human Rights and the ACP-EEC Lome I1 Convention:
Business as usual at the EEC" in International Law and Politics, Spring
1980, p. 95.
10/
Il/
-
cf. Articles 55 and 56 of the UN Charter and Young-Anawaty, op.cit. p.96.
Commissie justitia et pax Nederland, Draft Report on the Lome I1 Convention
Sept. 1981, p. 31.
12/ cf. Rist, op. cit. p.26.
-
E L MUNDO COMO MERCADO
L A CONVENCION D E LOME
-
L A S H I P O T E S I S C U L T U R A L E S Y L O S EFECTOS DE
Resumen: El autor ve en la ~onvencionde Lome un instrument0 de imposici6n de
la cultura europea a 10s
asociados de la ACP, cuyos principios de consumismo y la alienation resultante son criticados en la misma Europa. La l6gica
capitalists que sirve de base a la ~onvenci6nproviene de una cultura que ve a1
mundo como un amplio mercado donde 10s seres humanos no interesan como tales
sino solamente como compradores y vendedores de bienes. Los bienes son insepar a b l e ~de su origen cultural y su adquisici6n tiene un impact0 direct0 en 10s
estilos de vida, 10s sistemas de valores y las relaciones sociales.
De este modo, la dominacik economica, pol-ftica y cultural que empez6 en la
gpoca colonial se perpetLa a traves del comercio, la transferencia de capitales,
de t&cnicas, 10s medios de comunication de masas, y as: la dependencia sigue
aumentando.
BUILDING BLOCKS
THE ARMS RACE I S INCOMPATIBLE WITH THE NIEO
by I n g a Thorsson 11
Under-Secretary o f S t a t e f o r Disarmament,
M i n i s t r y o f Foreign A f f a i r s
Fack 16 121
S-103 23 Stockholm, Sweden
O r i g i n a l language:
English
Abstract: The world can either continue to pursue the arms race with characteristic vigour, or it can move consciously and with deliberate speed towards
a more sustainable international economic and political order. It cannot do
both. This is the first sentence of the conclusions of a group of 27 governmental experts on the relationship between disarmament and development which
worked for three years under the chairmanship of Inga Thorsson, Swedish Undersecretary of State for Disarmament. The experts' study was presented last
fall both to the first (political) and second (economic) committees of the
United Nations General Assembly. 'LI We reproduce below the essential part of
Inga Thorsson's presentation to the Second Committee.
LA COURSE AUX ARMEMENTS EST INCOMPATIBLE AVEC LE NOEI
Resume: Le monde peut soit poursuivre la course aux armements, soit avancer
consciemment et 2 une vitesse deliberee vers un ordre international, politique
et 6conomique,plus soutenable. I1 ne peut suivre simultanement les deux voles.
Tel est I'avertissement par lequel s'ouvre le chapitre des conclusions d'un
groupe de 27 experts gouvernementaux sur les relations entre Ie desarmement et
1e dCveloppement, qui a travail16 pendant trois ans sous la presidence d'lnga
Thorsson, Sous-secretaire d'Etat (Suede) pour Ie desarmement. L'etude des experts a et6 presentee I'automne dernier 2 11Assemb16e generate des Nations Unies,
tant 2 la premiere commission (affaires politiques) qu'2 la deuxigme commission
(affaires economiques). Nous reproduisons ci-dessous l'essentiel de la presentation faite 2 la Seconde Commission par Inga Thorsson.
l
53)
(Resumen en ~ s ~ a n opag.
I/ Member of the Executive Committee of IFDA.
2 1 United Nations Document A/36/356, 195 pp. mimeo.
-
Inqa Thorsson
THE ARMS RACE IS INCOMPATIBLE WITH THE NIEO
In broad terms, the present Study has taken into account the current situation in the field of disarmament and the importance of
disarmament for detente, international peace and security, economic and social development, the promotion of international cooperation and their reciprocal relationships. The Study has been
made in the context of how disarmament, when achieved, can contribute to the establishment of a New International Economic Order.
Furthermore, the Study was required to be forward-looking and policy-oriented, enabling it to serve as a basis for decisions on
concrete actions to reallocate real resources through disarmament
measures to economic and social development, particularly in Third
World countries.
Common sense alone tells us that military preparations are an economic burden. The arms race and development are to be viewed in
a competitive relationship, particularly in terms of resources.
Or to put it another way: the arms race and underdevelopment are
not two problems; they are one. They must be solved together, or
neither will ever be solved.
It is a historical fact that governments have, over the past 30
years, spent vast resources on armaments, resources which - on
grounds of morality, on grounds of equal human justice, on grounds
ought to have been directed to
of enlightened self-interest
ending world poverty and buildinq for human and material development. In this way world armaments are among the causes of poverty
and underdevelopment.
-
The 1972 United Nations study on this same theme concluded that
disarmament and development "stand fundamentally apart". Taking
their point of departure, this statement is still true. Ten years
ago and, as duties of the industrialized countries went, development was simply equated with development assistance. But since
then, the development discussion has been broadened to involve
basic structural changes in all societies, within states and among
states, including more equitable distribution of income, access to
the means of production and greater participation by all groups in
decision making, and progress towards the establishment of a New
International Economic Order.
In the present Study, we have introduced a new conceptual framework, defined in a dynamic triangular interrelation between disarmament, development and security. We have taken a broader approach to the problem of security. In our era, national security
can no longer be equated with military might. Even less can international security, i.e. security for all, do so. Also, we demonstrate that threats to security may be made and agqravated in
many ways, including those that go far beyond purely military
threats. It was recognized by the first UN General Assembly
Special Session on Disarmament that the arms race itself has become a threat to the security of nations. Thus, disarmament, particularly nuclear disarmament, would directly enhance security,
and, therefore, prospects for development.
National security is not a goal in itself. Its ultimate purpose
must be to secure the independence and sovereignty of the national
state, the freedom of its citizens, freedom and the means to develop economically, socially and culturally, which defines exactly
what we mean by "development". In today's world this can never be
achieved by any state at the expense of others. In a world of interdependence, only through global, or international security will
it be possible to reach the objective of national security - for
the ultimate goal of freedom, well-being and human dignity for
people throughout the world.
Today there is an array of intensifying non-military threats which
aggravate the security problems of states. Such non-military
threats can be described as
.
widespread reductions in prospects for economic growth;
existing or impending ecological stresses, resource scarcities - notably
in the field of energy and certain non-renewable raw materials - and a
growing world population. Today's stresses and constraints may translate into tomorrow's economic stresses and political conflicts;
.
the morally unacceptable and politically hazardous polarization of
wealth and poverty.
The appalling dimensions of poverty, the destruction of the environment, the accelerating race for arms and the resulting global
economic malaise are largely problems of our own making. The
Group states that it is well within our collective capabilities
and within the earth's carrying capacity to provide for basic
needs for the world's entire population, and to make progress towards a more equitable economic order, at a pace politically acceptable to all. The Group reaffirms that the arms race is incompatible with the objectives of a new international economic
order. Of course, also in the future, economic-growth is possible
even with a continuing arms race, but it would be relatively slow,
and very unevenly distributed both among and within regions of
the world. We show, on the other hand, that a cooperative management of interdependence can be in the economic and security interests of all states. But the adoption or rather the evolution
of such an outlook is quite improbable if the arms race continues.
It is imperative that non-military challenges to security are
treated as non-military. If this is not recognized, if states
fail to accept and persevere in tackling these challenges through
voluntary measures and cooperation, there is a grave risk
t h a t t h e s i t u a t i o n w i l l d e t e r i o r a t e t o t h e p o i n t of c r i s i s where,
e v e n w i t h a low p r o b a b i l i t y o f s u c c e s s , t h e u s e o f m i l i t a r y f o r c e
c o u l d b e s e e n a s a way t o p r o d u c e r e s u l t s s u f f i c i e n t l y q u i c k l y .
T h i s i s f a r from b e i n g a remote p o s s i b i l i t y .
I n r e c e n t time
t h e r e h a s b e e n a marked and i n c r e a s i n g t e n d e n c y i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l
r e l a t i o n s a c t u a l l y t o use o r t h r e a t e n t o use m i l i t a r y force i n
response t o non-military challenges, not only t o "security", but
a l s o t o t h e s e c u r e s u p p l y o f g o o d s and t h e w e l l - b e i n g o f t h e nations, facing these challenges.
The S t u d y h a s documented t h a t a t l e a s t 50 m i l l i o n p e o p l e a r e d i r e c t l y o r i n d i r e c t l y e n g a g e d i n m i l i t a r y a c t i v i t i e s world-wide.
T h i s f i g u r e i n c l u d e s , i n t e r a l i a , an e s t i m a t e d 500,000 q u a l i f i e d
s c i e n t i s t s and e n g i n e e r s engaged i n r e s e a r c h and development f o r
m i l i t a r y purposes.
M i l i t a r y r e s e a r c h a n d d e v e l o p m e n t r e m a i n s by f a r t h e l a r g e s t s i n g l e o b j e c t i v e of s c i e n t i f i c e n q u i r y and t e c h n o l o g i c a l development.
A p p r o x i m a t e l y 20 p e r c e n t o f t h e w o r l d ' s q u a l i f i e d s c i e n t i s t s and
e n g i n e e r s w e r e e n g a g e d i n m i l i t a r y work a t a c o s t o f a r o u n d ? 35
b i l l i o n i n 1980, o r approximately one-quarter o f a l l e x p e n d i t u r e
o n r e s e a r c h and d e v e l o p m e n t .
Virtually a l l t h i s R & D takes plac e i n t h e i n d u s t r i a l i z e d c o u n t r i e s , 8 5 p e r c e n t i n t h e USA a n d
t h e USSR a l o n e . Adding F r a n c e a n d B r i t a i n would p u s h t h i s s h a r e
a b o v e 90 p e r c e n t .
It s t a n d s t o r e a s o n t h a t even a modest r e a l l o c a t i o n t o development o b j e c t i v e s of t h e c u r r e n t c a p a c i t y f o r m i l i t a r y R & D could be expected t o produce d r a m a t i c r e s u l t s i n f i e l d s
l i k e r e s o u r c e c o n s e r v a t i o n and t h e p r o m o t i o n o f new p a t t e r n s o f
development, b e t t e r adapted t o meeting t h e b a s i c needs of ordinar y people.
T h i s i s , i . a . e v i d e n t from t h e f a c t , which i s a l s o
among o u r f i n d i n g s , t h a t , o n a n a v e r a g e , a m i l i t a r y p r o d u c t r e q u i r e s 20 t i m e s a s much R & D r e s o u r c e s a s a c i v i l i a n p r o d u c t .
The 1972 r e p o r t on t h e s u b j e c t i d e n t i f i e d more t h a n 70 p o s s i b l e
alternative uses.
Our p r e s e n t i n v e s t i g a t i o n s s u g g e s t , i n more
e l a b o r a t e d a n d d e t a i l e d ways, f o r i n s t a n c e , t h a t p r o d u c t i o n work e r s i n t h e m i l i t a r y s e c t o r could q u i t e e a s i l y t r a n s f e r t h e i r
s k i l l s t o t h e d e v e l o p m e n t , p r o d u c t i o n and i n s t a l l a t i o n o f s o l a r
energy devices.
E n v i r o n m e n t , h o u s i n g and u r b a n r e n e w a l a r e o t h e r
a r e a s l i k e l y t o g a i n from t h e p o s s i b l e r e c h a n n a l i i n g o f m i l i t a r y
R & D.
New t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m s , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n u r b a n a r e a s , a r e
s o r e l y n e e d e d and h a v e l o n g b e e n r e g a r d e d a s a m a j o r c i v i l i a n
a l t e r n a t i v e f o r t h e high technology i n d u s t r i e s i n t h e m i l i t a r y
sector.
I n p u r e l y f i n a n c i a l t e r m s , world-wide m i l i t a r y e x p e n d i t u r e s by
1 9 8 1 e x c e e d , t h e a s t o u n d i n g l e v e l o f 520 b i l l i o n d o l l a r s , r e p r e s e n t i n g 6 p e r c e n t of world output.
T h i s amount i s r o u g h l y e q u i v a l e n t t o t h e v a l u e o f a l l i n v e s t i b l e c a p i t a l i n a l l T h i r d World
c o u n t r i e s combined.
The e f f e c t o n t h e economic and s o c i a l s p h e r e s
i n o u r s o c i e t i e s o f t h e arms r a c e e x t e n d f a r beyond t h e f a c t t h a t
5 t o 6 per cent of the world's resources are not available t o
help satisfy socially productive needs. The very fact that these
resources are spent on armaments accentuates the inefficient allocation of the remaining 94 to 95 per cent, within and between
nations. Three fundamental characteristics of the arms race reinforces this disallocation: first, the sheer magnitude of the
volume of resources; second, the composition of expenditure,
most particularly the stress on R & D , affectinq investment and
productivity in the civilian sector; and thirdly, the fact that
this massive effort has now been sustained for over thirty years.
As an illustration of the contribution which can be made by disarmament measures, even limited, to world development, one study
submitted to the Group projects global economic prospects under
three types of hypothetical scenarios, viz., a continued arms
race, an accelerated arms race, and modest disarmament measures
involving the release of some resources for reallocation into
the Third World. Utilizing the United Nations input-output model
of world economy, it .is calculated that an acceleration of the
arms race would adversely affect global economic well-being in
all but one of regions of the world. A wealth of numerical data
is presented in chapter I11 of the report. I will here highlight
some general results. Besides the negative impact on per capita
consumption, an accelerated arms race will also result in a decline of the world's stock of capital, reduce the value of nonmilitary exports, and entail reductions in industrial employment
in the poorest regions of the world.
In contrast, a scenario of even modest disarmament measures is
shown to yield higher per capita consumption for different regions and in addition bring about a higher world GDP, a larger
capital stock, a general increase in the agricultural output, to
mention only a few of the obvious economic gains. Besides these
global economic gains, a scenario of modest disarmament would
also yield significant benefits for the poorest regions of the
world. This conclusion is by itself of considerable significance,
when it is remembered that in many cases, increases in military
outlays by industrial countries have been accompanied by a decline in their aid transfers, despite the repeated request for the
fulfilment of the UN targets for official development assi-stance
and despite the fact that existing volumes of assistance are
grossly inadequate to meet the basic requirements for the poorer
countries. The report shows that even a minor part of savings
from modest disarmament has the potential of dramatically enhancing present levels of assistance.
We can make similar calculations for the past. For instance, if
half the funds spent on armaments throughout the world from l970
to 1975 had instead been invested in the civilian sector, it has
been calculated that annual output at the end of that period
would have been 200 billion dollars higher than it actually was
a figure in excess of the aggregate GNP of Southern Asia and
the mid-African regions. And mark well, this growth would most
likely have been achieved without any extra demand for investible
-
resources.
Military outlays fall by definition into the category of consumption and not investxent.
As a consequence, steadily high or increasing military outlays tend to depress economic growth. This
effect may be direct through displacement of investment, and indirect through constraints on productivity ( . . . ) .
On the basis of the present report, and the research commissioned
for it, we can confidently conclude that military budgets are
dead-end expenditures in all kinds of economies, be they market,
centrally planned, or mixed; be they industrialized or not. Military expenditures do not foster growth. Through their inflationary effects - thoroughly analysed in the study - and the general economic and political malaise to which they contribute,
military spending inhibits the capital investment required for
development. Through the drain on the most valuable research talents and funds, it restrains productivity gains and distorts
growth in science and technology. The military sector is not a
great provider of jobs, on the contrary. Military spending is
one of"the least efficient kinds of public spending. It drains
away funds that could relieve poverty and distress. The very nature of military spending heightens tensions, reduces security
and underpins the system which makes even more arms necessary.
The structural changes implied by the movement toward a New International Economic Order require a strong and sustained political
commitment. Costs and benefits are difficult to compare in conventional ways. The costs tend to be felt sooner than the benefits. But there is little doubt that all societies would reap
major benefits from a reduction in the economic burden of military activities and that there is a strong mutuality of interest
between industrialized and developing countries in this respect.
Therefore, the Group unanimously recommends that Governments urgently undertake studies to identify and to publicize the benefits that would be derived from the reallocation of military resources in a balanced and verifiable manner to address economic
and social problems at the national level and to contribute toward reducing the gap in income that currently divides the industrialized nations from the developing world and establishing a
New International Economic Order.
The Group has examined the technological feasibility and economic
potentials of a process of conversion of resources from military
to civilian purposes. The main object, in economic terms, is to
devise short- and long-term policies designed to consolidate the
goal of disarmament with economic goals of growth, monetary stability, full employment and foreign trade balance. While, as a
matter of course, conversion itself will have to await some measure of disarmament, preparation and research for an economic
conversion policy cannot be deferred until such time.
The defence industry everywhere is characterized inter alia by a
high degree of geographical concentration. It also involves a
considerable degree of specialization of its workforce. This apparent exclusiveness should not prove to be an unsurmountable
problem, because:
. conversion
and redeployment are not phenomena uniquely associated with
disarmament. Any form of economic and social change represents a concontinuous process of conversion;
conversion is feasible as a significant part of military demand relates
to goods and services essentially identical to civilian ones.
Primary responsibility for conversion, in an overall sense, inevitably falls on the central government, particularly as regards
planning and initiation of preparations for such a process. The
nature and extent of government involvement, following disarmament measures, in the process of conversion itself will vary from
country to country, depending largely on the prevailing type of
economic system. If transition is to be as smooth as possible
and involve the minimum waste of finite resources it is vital
that every effort be made to anticipate the extent and the character of the conversion problems that will arise. It is therefore
obvious to the Group, that preparations for conversion should be
among the first steps on the road to disarmament. Hence, the
Group recommends that Governments create the necessary prerequisites, including preparations and, where appropriate, planning,
to facilitate the conversion of resources freed by disarmament
measures to civilian purposes, especially to meet urgent economic
and social needs, in particular in the Third World.
The General Assembly mandated the Study to indicate concrete actions to reallocate real resources released through disarmament
measures to economic and social development, particularly for the
benefit of the Third World. In doing so, the Group has also considered a French proposal presented at the Tenth Special Session
on the establishment of an international disarmament fund for development.
Obviously, the achievement of disarmament measures which will release real resources will in the first instance most directly benefit those States which are affected by these measures. Practical ways by which disarmament may redound to the benefit of development in the South may take many forms. Beside changes in
economic relations to the benefit of the Third World, it is widely recognized that increasing the magnitude and predictability of
flows of capital to the Third World, as grants or on concessional
terms, is of vital importance. One proposed way of fostering
these flows would be to establish a special fund for development
to be financed from budgetary savings through the implementation
of disarmament measures, as well as a levy on armaments, or voluntary contributions. The Group is unanimous in its opinion that
the disarmament dividend approach to financing a fund - by which
savings won by concrete disarmament measures or a portion thereof
would be allocated to development needs - is most in accord with
the United Nations conception of disarmament and development as
well as being the most feasible. The Group unanimously recommends
that further consideration be given to establishing an international disarmament fund for development and that the administrative and technical modalities of such a fund be further investigated by the United Nations with due regard to the capabilities
of the agencies and institutions presently responsible for the
international transfer resources.( . . . l
No analysis of the socio-economic gains of disarmament can be
complete with referring to its catalytic effects, which may eventually produce a.globa1 climate more conducive to further and cumulative measures in the same direction. This would be in contrast with the present situation where higher outlays on the military sector are often attributed to the continued threats emanating from an adverse strategic environment. An outstanding feature of the prevailing international climate is the uncertainty
which. is characterizing the exercise in rearranging the NorthSouth relationship within the framework of a NIEO, as well as the
uncertainty of stabilizing the East-West relationship within the
framework of detente.
In both these respects, the catalytic effects of military restraint can considerably improve the results obtained so far because the politico-strateqic considerations governing the arms
race tend to interfere with the economic considerations demanding
a cooperative management of global interdependence. Stabilization
of the international monetary system, rectification of trade imbalances, resolution of the existing balance of payment difficulties and a continuous flow of capital, finance and technology
among the more and less industrialized economies, constitute, as
this committee is well aware, some of the basic prerequisites of
a NIEO. Disarmament measures can improve the prospects of international cooperation in all these spheres because there are sufficient indications to suggest that the ongoing arms race has
exacerbated the disruptive influences on the international monetary system, aggravated the balance of payment problems of the
less industrialized economies and interrupted a continuous flow
of capital and technology transfers among the more and the less
industrialized economies.
Successive crises in the international monetary system imputable
in part to the massive creation of international liquidity through
the deficits of some reserve currency countries, have been significantly associated with galloping inflation and rapid increases
in military expenditures. The growing international traffic in
arms has also contributed to the balance of payment problems of
the importing countries. 75 per cent of arms traded internationally go to the Third World.
The disruptive influence of the arms race has become a matter of
particular concern in the field of international trade. The increasing preoccupation of the market economies with their immediate problems of stagflation is seen to affect their role as the
largest participants in the aid and trade relations of the Third
World
.
It is widely acknowledged that the true foundation of national
security is a strong and healthy economy. The present Study presents overwhelming evidence that the contemporary military establishments significantly distort and undermine the very basis of
sustained economic and social development in all countries. Accordingly, the Group recommends that all Governments, but particularly those of the major military powers, should prepare assessments
of the nature and magnitude of short- and long-term economic and
social costs attributable to their military preparations so that
the general public be informed of them.
This Study has in my view strengthened the economic and social
case for this disarmament-development relationship by identifying
military spending as an impediment to economic growth and social
development and the arms race as an obstacle to the establishment
of a New International Economic Order.
The Group has indicated the political and economic potentials of
rationally imperative alternatives in suggesting that policies
aimed at implementing the disarmament-development relationship
are likely to broaden the base of East-West detente and put the
North-South dialogue in a mutually advantageous frame of reference.
Its report should not be
should like to express a
to the benefit, first of
inhabiting this world of
considered an individual project. I
hope for an effective follow-up process,
all, cf.the billions of human beings,
ours.
(Viene de la pag. 45)
L A CARRERA A R M A M E N T I S T A E S I N C O M P A T I B L E CON E L N O E I
Resumen: La humanidad puede continuar la carrera armamentista, o avanzar concientemente y a una velocidad deliberada hacia un orden internacional, pol<tico
y econ6mico m& sostenible. Pero ella no puede seguir simult~neamente10s dos
caminos. Tal es la advertencia con la que se abre el capftulo de las conclusiones de un grupo de 27 expertos gubernamentales sobre las relaciones entre desarme y desarrollo. Este grupo ha trabajado durante tres azos bajo la presidencia
de Inga Thorsson, sub-secretaria de Estado (Suecia) para el desarme. El trabajo
de 10s expertos ha sido presentado el otono ultimo a la Asamblea General de
Naciones Unidas, tanto a la primera cornision (asuntos politicos), como a la segunda comisi(?n (asuntos econdmicos)
Nosotros reproducimos la parte m& importante de la presentacion hecha a la segunda cornision por Inga Thorsson.
.
THE ANTINUCLEAR-WAR MOVEMENT
by George K e n n a n i l
The recent growth and gathering strength of the antinuclear-war movement here
and in Europe is to my mind the most striking phenomenon of th.is beginning of
the 1980s. It is all the more impressive because it is so extensively spontaneous. It has already achieved dimensions which will make it impossible, I
think, for the respective governments to ignore it. It will continue to grow
It is largely a reaction to the
until something is done to meet it. ( . . . )
negative and hopeless quality of our own cold war policies, which seem to envisagenothing other than an indefinitely increasing political tension and
nuclear danger. It is not surprising that many Europeans should see no salvation for themselves in so sterile a perspective and should cast about for
something that would have in it some positive element - some ray of hope.
Least of all does this neutralist sentiment necessarily represent any timorous
desire to accept Soviet authority as a way of avoiding the normal responsibilities of national defense. The cliche of "better red than dead" is a facile
and clever phrase; but actually, no one in Europe is faced with such a choice,
or is likely to be. We will not be aided in our effort to understand Europe's
problems by distortions of this nature. ( . . . )
No - this movement against nuclear armaments and nuclear war may be raged and
confused and disorganized; but at the heart of it lie some very fundamental
and reasonable and powerful motivations: among them a growing appreciation by
many people of the true horrors of a nuclear war; a determination not to see
their children deprived of life, or their civilization destroyed, by a holocaust of this nature; and finally, as Grenville d a r k said, a very real exasperation with their governments for the rigidity and traditionalism that cause
those governments to ignore the fundamental distinction between conventional
weapons and the weapons of mass destruction and prevents them from finding,
or even seriously seeking, ways of escape from the fearful trap into which the
cultivation of nuclear weapons is leading us.
Such considerations are not the reflections of communist propaganda. They are
not the products of some sort of timorous neutralism. They are the expression
of a deep instinctive insistence, if you don't mind, on sheer survival - on
survival as individuals, as parents, as members of a civilization.
Our government will ignore this fact at its peril. This movement is too powerful, too elementary, too deeply embedded in the natural human instinct for
self-preservation, to be brushed aside. Sooner or later, and the sooner the
better, all the governments on both sides of the East-West division will find
themselves compelled to undertake the search for positive alternatives to the
insoluble dilemmas which any suicidal form of weaponry presents, and can only
present.
l/
-
George Kennan, a senior US diplomat, was, among others, ambassador to the
Soviet Union (1952) and to Yugoslavia (1961-63).
(Excerptedfrom The New York Review of Books, 21 January 1982.)
B U I L D I N G BLOCKS
NUCLEAR WEAPONS AND THE END OF DEMOCRACY
by Richard Fa1 k
Center o f I n t e r n a t i o n a l Studies
Princeton University
Corwin Hall (110)
Princeton N.J. 08540, U.S.A.
Original language:
English
Abstract: Can the nuclear question be kept cordoned off from the overall routine
administration of state power? This paper analyses the unaccountability of US
presidents to the citizenry in the area of nuclear armament. The public, and
even Congress, are ill informed about presidential authority in this area.
Worse still, citizens of secondary nuclear and non-nuclear democracies have, in
the interests of the geopolitics of alliance, "delegated" authority over the
deployment of nuclear weaponry to leaders of another state. The author concludes that the existence of nuclear weaponry, even without any occurrence of
nuclear war, interferes with democratic governance. On the other hand, recent
European anti-nuclear mass sentiment could be an important stimulus to democracy.
L E S ARMES N U C L E A I R E S E T L A F I N DE L A D E M O C R A T I E
Resume: La question nucleaire peut-elle etre tenue a part de l'administration
"normale" du pouvoir d'Etat? Get article analyse Ie manque de responsabilite
(au sens juridique) des presidents des Etats-Unis devant la societe dans le
domaine des armes nucleaires. Le public, et meme le Congrss, sont mal informes
de l'exercice de l'autoritg presideptielle dans ce domaine. Pire, les citoyens
de pays nucl6aires secondaires et de pays non-nucleaires ont, dans ltint6rSt de
la geopolitique de l'alliance, "del6gu6" aux dirigeants d'un autre Etat leur
pouvoir sur le dgploiement de l'arsenal nucleaire. Ainsi, l'existence meme de
cet arsenal, meme sans guerre nucleaire, interfere-t-il avec Ie gouvernement
dgmocratique. En revanche, Ie sentiment anti-nucleaire qui se manifeste depuis
peu en Europe pourrait devenir une importante stimulation pour la democratie.
L A S ARMAS NUCLEARES Y E L F I N D E L A DEMOCRACIA
Resumen:
Puede tratarse la cuestion nuclear, a1 margen de la administracidn
'normal" de poder del Estado? Este artfculo analiza la falta de responsabilidad
(en el sentido jurfdico) de 10s presidentes de Estados Unidos ante la sociedad
en 10 que concierne a las armas nucleares. El p&blico, y atin el Congreso, estan
mal informados acerca del ejercicio de la autoridad presidential en esta area.
Peor a&n, 10s ciudadanos de parses nucleares secundarios y de pafses no nucleares, ban "delegado", en el interes de la geopolftica de la alianza, a dirigentes de otro estado su poder para desplegar el arsenal nuclear. En consecuencia,
la existencia misma de este arsenal, afin sin guerra nuclear, interfiere con el
;obierno democratico. En cambio, el sentimiento antinuclear que se manifiesta
aesde hace un tiempo en Europa podrfa llegar a ser un estfmulo importante para
la democracia.
Richard Falk
?'
N U C L E A R WEAPONS AND THE E N D O F DEMOCRACY
P r o s p e c t s f o r democratic governance a r e d e f i n i t e l y connected w i t h t h e dynamics
o f heqemonic s t a t e c r a f t . For i n s t a n c e , i t i s n o t a b l e , a s Eqbal Ahmad has
p o i n t e d o u t , t h a t f a s c i s m f l o u r i s h e d i n t h e inter-war p e r i o d p r e c i s e l y i n t h o s e
s t a t e s among t h e c a p i t a l i s t i n d u s t r i a l powers (Germany, I t a l y and Japan) t h a t
had been s u b s t a n t i a l l y excluded from t h e i m p e r i a l game of c o l o n i z i n g nonWestern p e o p l e s and e x p r o p r i a t i n g t h e i r raw m a t e r i a l s . I t i s a l s o n o t a b l e
t h a t hegemonic l e a d e r s of t h e day "provoked" a l e t h a l r i v a l r y f o r c o l o n i a l
s p o i l s t h a t e v e n t u a t e d i n g e n e r a l war.
I n o u r own e r a t h e r e i s an a p p a r e n t l i n k between p o s t - c o l o n i a l hegemonic t a c t i c s and a n t i - d e m o c r a t i c i n t e r v e n t i o n a r y diplomacy, p a r t o f an o v e r a l l p l a n
t o make t h e world a s s a f e a s p o s s i b l e f o r t r a n s n a t i o n a l c o r p o r a t i o n s and banks.
C a p i t a l flows depend upon s t a b l e p o l i t i c a l environments t h a t o f f e r rewards by
way of p r o f i t s and s t a b l e p o l i t i c a l environments can o n l y be a c h i e v e d , given
mass d i s c o n t e n t and m o b i l i z a t i o n rampant i n t h e Third World, by i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z i n g r e p r e s s i o n . The widespread m i l i t a r i z a t i o n of t h e i n t e r n a l p o l i t i c a l
o r d e r o f t h e Third World e x p r e s s e s t h e e x t e n t t o which t h e f u n c t i o n a l r e q u i r e ments f o r o r d e r v i r t u a l l y r e q u i r e a permanent d e c l a r a t i o n o f war by governing
e l i t e s a g a i n s t r e s t i v e c i t i z e n r i e s . T h i s hegemonic dynamic i s r e i n f o r c e d i n
Third World c o u n t r i e s by economic p r e s s u r e s t o c u r t a i l i n f l a t i o n and l a b o r
demands, s o l i c i t f u r t h e r e x t e n s i o n s of i n t e r n a t i o n a l c r e d i t , c o n t a i n s o c i a l
demands f o r a n t i - p o v e r t y p u b l i c s e r v i c e s , t h a t i s , by t h e whole r e l a t i v e l y
r e c e n t IMF dimension of anti-democratic i n f l u e n c e .
Such a qeopolitical/geoeconomic a r r a y of anti-democratic p r e s s u r e s i s g e n e r a l l y
understood, a t l e a s t i n p r o g r e s s i v e c i r c l e s . Gino Germani was an u n s u a l l y
p e r c e p t i v e i n t e r p r e t e r o f modern t h r e a t s t o democracy; he was p a r t i c u l a r l y
aware of t h e a n t i - d e m o c r a t i c consequences of an emergent interdependence on
a l l l e v e l s of i n t e r n a t i o n a l l i f e . More than almost any contemporary p o l i t i c a l
t h e o r i s t , Germani sensed t h a t democracy could no l o n g e r be r e c o n c i l e d with t h e
fragmentary o r g a n i z a t i o n of t h e p l a n e t i n t o t e r r i t o r i a l l y s e p a r a t e and r i v a l
s o v e r e i g n s t a t e s , r e g a r d l e s s of t h e p o l i t i c a l w i l l o r i d e o l o g i c a l p r e d i s p o s i t i o n o f n a t i o n a l l e a d e r s . Such an i n s i g h t has r e v o l u t i o n a r y i m p l i c a t i o n s ,
s u g g e s t i n g , f o r i n s t a n c e , t h e a b s o l u t e n e c e s s i t y of e v o l v i n g a g l o b a l perspect i v e a s a p r e c o n d i t i o n f o r s u s t a i n i n g genuinely democratic modes of governance.
I n c i d e n t a l l y , a g l o b a l i s t o u t l o o k , a s Germani a l s o understood, need n o t be
c e n t r a l i s t i n a s p i r a t i o n , b u t might most p l a u s i b l y work toward superseding
s t a t i s t dominance by d e c e n t r a l i s t withdrawals o f l e g i t i m a c y and t h e formation
of a world system o u t of r e l a t i o n s among what C h r i s t i a n Bay c a l l s " n a t u r a l
p o l i t i c a l communities".
*/ An e a r l i e r v e r s i o n of t h i s paper was d i s c u s s e d a t t h e 1981 Workshop on
Psychohistory h e l d a t W e l l f t e e t , Massachusetts, and devoted t o t h e theme of
n u c l e a r weapons and n u c l e a r war; I am g r a t e f u l t o workshop p a r t i c i p a n t s f o r
many h e l p f u l comments, a s w e l l a s f o r t h e c o n s t r u c t i v e s u g g e s t i o n s made by
my P r i n c e t o n c o l l e a g u e s Michael Doyle and Robert C . Tucker.
I n t h i s e s s a y my c o n c e r n i s with t h e s t r u c t u r a l r e l e v a n c e of n u c l e a r weaponry
and s t r a t e g y t o t h e f u t u r e o f democracy. The c e n t r a l c o n t e n t i o n i s t h a t t h e
e x i s t e n c e o f n u c l e a r weapons, even w i t h o u t any o c c u r r e n c e of n u c l e a r war, i n t e r f e r e s w i t h d e m o c r a t i c governance i n fundamental ways. I n o t h e r words, we d o n ' t
have t o w a i t f o r Armageddon t o b e g i n p a y i n g t h e p r i c e , a s measured by t h e qual i t y of democracy, f o r a system o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l s e c u r i t y c o n s t r u c t e d around
t h e c e n t r a l imageryof n u c l e a r d e t e r r e n c e . To presume t h i s r e l e v a n c e of n u c l e a r
armaments and d o c t r i n e s t o democracy i s i t s e l f somewhat u n u s u a l . For i n s t a n c e ,
one s e a r c h e s i n v a i n t h e pages of t h e T r i l a t e r a l Commission's n o t o r i o u s s t u d y ,
The C r i s i s o f Democracy, f o r any r e f e r e n c e t o t h e e r o s i o n o f d e m o c r a t i c governance a s a consequence o f " t h e n u c l e a r r e v o l u t i o n " ; t h e T r i l a t e r a l i s t s ' i d e a
o f " c r i s i s " i s b a s e d on t h e a l l e g e d e r o s i o n of a u t h o r i t y and s t a b i l i t y t h r o u g h
t h e u n d i s c i p l i n e d t a c t i c s o f s o c i a l movements demanding r e f o r m t h a t s u r f a c e d
i n t h e l a t e 1 9 6 0 s , a phenomenon d e s c r i b e d e l s e w h e r e i n p o s i t i v e t e r m s a s t h e
b e g i n n i n g s o f a p a r t i c i p a t o r y model o f d e m o c r a t i c r e v i t a l i z a t i o n .
I n t h e background, o f c o u r s e , i s a c o n c e r n a b o u t t h e p r e c o n d i t i o n s f o r c a p i t a l i s t e f f i c i e n c under contemporary c o n d i t i o n s , i n c l u d i n g a f e a r t h a t t h e work e t h i c , a c h i e v e ment syndrome, and g r e e d impulse a r e b e i n g d r a i n e d away by c u l t u r a l developments, i n c l u d i n g a s u b s t a n t i a l l y a l i e n a t e d i n t e l l i g e n t s i a i n s o - c a l l e d mature
c a p i t a l i s t countries.
The n u c l e a r weapons q u e s t i o n i s i n s e r t e d on t h e o r t h o d o x agenda of l i b e r a l
democracy i n a d r a m a t i c a l l y p e r v e r s e way by David Gompert, o v e r s e e r o f an i n f l u e n t i a l s t u d y , Nuclear Weapons and World P o l i t i c s , a p r o d u c t of t h e 1 9 8 0 ' s
P r o j e c t o f t h e C o u n c i l on F o r e i g n R e l a t i o n s .
Gompert w r i t e s :
I n t h e l o n g r u n , t h e e x i s t e n c e of n u c l e a r weapons c o u l d f u n d a m e n t a l l y a l t e r
g o v e r n m e n t - c i t i z e n r e l a t i o n s . I f , o v e r t i m e , t h e need of governments t o
f i e l d e x p a n s i v e d e t e r r e n t f o r c e s i s n o t a p p r e c i a t e d by c i t i z e n s who no long e r s e n s e a r e a l n u c l e a r t h r e a t , p o p u l a r s u p p o r t f o r t h e maintenance of
f o r c e s c o u l d f a d e - and g o v e r n m e n t s m i g h t f e e l themselves compelled t o
>rovide f o r d e t e r r e n c e w i t h o u t t h e c o n s e n t of t h e governed.
E v i d e n t i n t h i s remarkable p a s s a g e o f u n s u r p a s s e d r e i f i c a t i o n , i s a presumed
p r i o r i t y b e i n g accorded " t h e government" on n u c l e a r m i l i t a r y p o l i c y o v e r and
a g a i n s t t h e p o s s i b l e o p p o s i t i o n of " t h e c i t i z e n r y " .
Democracy i s t u r n e d on
i t s h e a d , n o t o u t o f any a l l e g e d emergency t h a t p r e v e n t s e i t h e r c o n s u l t a t i o n
o r t h e p a r t i c i p a t i o n of r e p r e s e n t a t i v e i n s t i t u t i o n , b u t because t h e percept i o n s of " t h e r u l e r s " a r e favored over t h e adverse w i l l of " t h e people" i n an
a r e a o f disagreement.
Such a r e a l i s t i c v i s i o n o f what h a s a l r e a d y become
s t a n d a r d o p e r a t i n g procedure throughout t h e n u c l e a r age, r a i s e s t o t h e l e v e l
of e x p l i c i t i d e o l o g y t h e d i r e i m p a c t o f n u c l e a r weaponry upon d e m o c r a t i c
governance.
D a n i e l E l l s b e r g , a former government o f f i c i a l w i t h r e s p o n s i b i l i t y i n t h e
n u c l e a r p o l i c y a r e a , c o n f i r m s t h e e x t e n t t o which American p r e s i d e n t s were
p r e p a r e d t o u s e n u c l e a r weapons i n non-defensive r o l e s and f a r beyond what
t h e American p e o p l e were e v e r a l l o w e d t o u n d e r s t a n d . E l l s b e r g w r i t e s , a s
follows:
...
I assumed
When 1 d i d most of my working p l a n s i n '59, '60 and ' 6 1 ,
The g e n e r a l s knew
t h a t I was r e a d i n g b a s i c a l l y r e t a l i a t o r y p l a n s
b e t t e r . They knew t h a t t h e s e p l a n s were n o t a t a l l f o r r e t a l i a t i o n bec a u s e , on t h e c o n t r a r y , t h e R u s s i a n s had no a b i l i t y t o s t r i k e f i r s t . So
a l l t h e s e p l a n s were r e a l l y i n i t i a t i v e p l a n s , f i r s t - s t r i k e p l a n s .
...
And, t h e n , more c o n c r e t e l y :
What I d i s c o v e r e d , going back t o Truman who made such t h r e a t s i n 1950, i s
t h a t every term of every P r e s i d e n t has seen t h e s e r i o u s recommendation by
t h e J o i n t Chiefs of S t a f f of p l a n s involving t h e i n i t i a t i o n of n u c l e a r warf a r e under c e r t a i n circumstances. More s i g n i f i c a n t l y , a t l e a s t f o u r P r e s i d e n t s have s e c r e t l y a u t h o r i z e d advanced p r e p a r a t i o n s f o r such f i r s t - u s e , o r
have a c t u a l l y t h r e a t e n e d a d v e r s a r i e s w i t h U.S. f i r s t - u s e i n an ongoing
c r i s i s .?l
E l l s b e r g h a s documented t h e s e a s s e r t i o n s thereby s u g g e s t i n g t h a t p o l i t i c a l
l e a d e r s i n t h e United S t a t e s have throughout t h e n u c l e a r age f a i l e d t o c o n s u l t
with o r d i s c l o s e t h e o c c a s i o n s on which t h e use of n u c l e a r weapons was s e r i o u s l y contemplated. I n t h i s s e n s e , t h e government's r e f u s a l t o a c c e p t n o t i o n s of
p u b l i c a c c o u n t a b i l i t y i n t h e n u c l e a r domain h a s been c o n s i s t e n t and b i p a r t i s a n .
I n one o f t h e few a t t e m p t s a t a s y s t e m a t i c d i s c u s s i o n of t h e r e l e v a n c e of nuc l e a r weapons t o t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l p r o c e s s e s of t h e United S t a t e s . Michael
Mandlebaum c o n s i d e r s t h e i r impact l a r g e l y a s a m a t t e r of adding a n "enormous
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y " t o t h e presidency and of producing an unavoidable i n c r e a s e i n
governmental "power".L/ Mandlebaum even hazards t h e view t h a t "Perhaps t h e
reason f o r d e l e g a t i n g n u c l e a r a u t h o r i t y t o ttfe P r e s i d e n t i s s i m i l a r t o t h e r o l e
t h a t a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s have a s s i g n e d t o d i v i n e k i n g s h i p : a means o f coping with
f o r c e s t h a t seem beyond human powers of understanding and c o n t r o l " . Of c o u r s e ,
t h e view o f " d e l e g a t i o n " h e r e i s very s t r a i n e d , a s t h e Congress, l e t a l o n e t h e
p u b l i c a t l a r g e , a r e i l l - i n f o r m e d about t h e n a t u r e of p r e s i d e n t i a l a u t h o r i t y
with r e g a r d t o n u c l e a r weapons. I n a formal s e n s e i t i s t r u e t h a t t h i s g r a n t
o f a u t h o r i t y seems c o n s i s t e n t with t h e underlying c o n s t i t u t i o n a l conception of
t h e P r e s i d e n t a s commander-in-chaef of t h e armed f o r c e s . Yet more s u b s t a n t i v e l y , t h e a c t u a l i t y of n u c l e a r weaponry i s such, w i t h i t s requirement of const a n t r e a d i n e s s , a s t o d e f y t h e moral c o n s t i t u t i o n a l e x p e c t a t i o n t h a t t h e P r e s i d e n t must have t h e unchallenged a u t h o r i t y t o make b a t t l e f i e l d d e c i s i o n s i n wart i m e , a n a u t h o r i t y conceived of a s p e r t a i n i n g o n l y t o t h a t s p e c i a l circumstanc e of emergency and n a t i o n a l u n i t y t h a t i s presumed t o e x i s t d u r i n g a p r o p e r l y
d e c l a r e d war. As i s obvious, and w i l l be d i s c u s s e d l a t e r i n t h i s e s s a y , n u c l e a r
weapons by t h e i r very e x i s t e n c e f o r e v e r o b l i t e r a t e t h e occasion of "peace",
t h e r e b y , i n my judgement,depriving a democratic p o l i c y on one of i t s most essent i a l preconditions.
Even o p t i m i s t s about t h e c a p a c i t y of t h e modern s t a t e t o
uphold democratic v a l u e s g e n e r a l l y concede t h a t governing procedures f o r accounta b i l i t y by l e a d e r s and p a r t i c i p a t i o n of c i t i z e n s a r e s u b s t a n t i a l l y abridged i n
t h e c o n t e x t of "war". Thus, a permanent s t a t e of war, n o t by t h e n a t u r e of pol i t i c a l w i l l o r t h e c h a r a c t e r of i n t e r n a t i o n a l antagonisms, b u t a s a s t r u c t u r a l
r e f l e c t i o n of t h e n a t u r e of modern weaponry, c a s t s a dark shadow a c r o s s t h e
very p o s s i b i l i t y o f a democratic p o l i c y . C i t i z e n s of secondary n u c l e a r and nonn u c l e a r democracies, a t l e a s t t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t t h e i r governments t a k e p a r t i n
t h e g e o p o l i t i c s of alignment, v i a a l l i a n c e r e l a t i o n s , have " d e l e g a t e d " t h i s
awesome a u t h o r i t y o v e r t h e deployment and use of n u c l e a r weaponry t o l e a d e r s of
a n o t h e r s t a t e ! Here, a g a i n , such a d e l e g a t i o n may conform t o t h e formal l o g i c
o f c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m , b u t i t s h r e d s t h e f a b r i c of democratic substance seemingly
beyond r e p a i r .
More s u b s t a n t i v e l y , this new g r a n t of powers t o a p a r t i c u l a r l e a d e r does e n t r u s t
an awesome a c t u a l c a p a b i l i t y t o a f a l l i b l e , flawed human being o r , a t most, t o
a s m a l l , o f t e n hidden, i n n e r group o f a d v i s o r s . T r a d i t i o n a l l y , d i v i n e r i g h t
p r e r o g a t i v e s even i f p a t h o l o g i c a l l y abused could o n l y produce l i m i t e d damage,
although of a s e v e r e s o r t f o r a given time and p l a c e .
Increasingly, the
l e a d e r s h i p o f t h e main n u c l e a r powers p o s s e s s e s a c a p a c i t y f o r d e s t r u c t i o n
commensurate w i t h what t r a d i t i o n a l r e l i g i o n s a t t r i b u t e d t o thi? d i v i n e , a capac i t y t o cause i n t h e f u l l e s t s e n s e a g l o b a l o r human apocalypse. A u t h o r i t y
and power t o i n f l i c t such r e s u l t s by a s i n g l e p r o c e s s of d e c i s i o n s u g g e s t s
t h e e x t e n t t o which t h e c i t i z e n r y i s i n e v i t a b l y and permanently excluded from
d e t e r m i n a t i o n s t h a t d e c i s i v e l y shape s o c i e t a l d e s t i n y .
But it i s n o t o n l y t h e upholders of c o n s t i t u t i o n a l l e g i t i m a c y t h a c overlook
t h e r e l e v a n c e of t h e n u c l e a r weapons dimension. Sheldon Wolin,in an e l o q u e n t
i n t r o d u c t o r y e d i t o r i a l t o h i s new j o u r n a l of p r o g r e s s i v e o p i n i o n , p o i n t e d l y
t i t l e d Democracy, nowhere i n d i c a t e s t h a t n u c l e a r weapons may f o r e c l o s e democrat i z i n g p r o s p e c t s i n unsuspected, unacknowledged, and c r u c i a l r e s p e c t s .
His
emphasis i s on " t h e s t e a d y t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f America i n t o an a n t i - d e m o c r a t i c
s o c i e t y " a s a consequence of t h e i n c r e a s i n g l y a u t h o r i t a r i a n c h a r a c t e r "of t h e
c o u n t r y ' s primary i n s t i t u t i o n s " .
S i m i l a r l y , Alan Wolfe i n h i s e x c e l l e n t book,
The Limits of Legitimacy, devoted t o an assessment o f anti-democratic p r e s s u r e s
on t h e l i b e r a l s t a t e , n e g l e c t s even t o mention t h e relevance of n u c l e a r weaponry.?/ Both Wolin and Wolfe a r e f u l l y aware, of c o u r s e , t h a t n u c l e a r weapons a r e
c r u c i a l p o l i t i c a l " f a c t s " t h a t a r e reshaping t h e modern s t a t e , b u t t h e y i n t e r p r e t p o l i t i c a l r e a l i t y on t h e b a s i s o f t r a d i t i o n s o f p o l i t i c a l t h o u g h t , o b l i v i o u s t o t h e r e a l i t y of n u c l e a r weapons.
Perhaps, t h e f a i l u r e t o emphasize n u c l e a r i s s u e s p a r t l y r e f l e c t s an a t t i t u d e
t h a t t h e i r r e l e v a n c e i s s o m a n i f e s t a s t o be taken f o r g r a n t e d o r s o " s t r u c t u r e d " i n t o o u r world c o n t e x t a s t o b e beyond t h e domain of p r a c t i c a l p o l i t i c s ,
however r a d i c a l t h e i r i n t e n t i o n .
In e i t h e r event, I believe t h e f a i l u r e t o
a d d r e s s t h e i s s u e of n u c l e a r relevance i s an i m p o r t a n t omission f o r any s e r i o u s
r e f l e c t i o n s on t h e c u r r e n t democratic p r o s p e c t .
Andre Glucksmann w r i t e s t h a t "Everything s u b t l e , profound, d e f i n i t i v e and
r i g o r o u s t h a t h a s been s a i d about n u c l e a r weapons - which means n o t much - was
s a i d a l r e a d y a c e n t u r y before':?
By t h i s p r o v o c a t i v e a s s e r t i o n , Glucksmann i s
a r g u i n g t h a t a n t e c e d e n t acquiescence i n " t o t a l i s t thought" had completely v e s t e d
i n t h e s t a t e ample a u t h o r i t y and m o d a l i t i e s t o s u b o r d i n a t e e t h i c s t o consider a t i o n s o f s t a t e power - "The n a s c e n t o r d e r of r e c i p r o c a l t e r r o r was a f e a t u r e
o f Western c u l t u r e long b e f o r e t h e i n v e n t i o n o f n u c l e a r weapons"..!?/~nd, of
c o u r s e , such an o b s e r v a t i o n i s p e r t i n e n t . The moral e a s e , f o r i n s t a n c e , with
which American decision-makers adopted atomic t a c t i c s i n t h e 1939-45 war was
d e f i n i t e l y " f a c i l i t a t e d " by b e l l i g e r e n t p o l i c i e s a l r e a d y r o u t i n i z e d , e s p e c i a l l y
t e r r o r bombing o f c i v i l i a n c e n t e r s o f p o p u l a t i o n . T h i s s t r i v i n g f o r n u c l e a r
r e c t i t u d e was, i n a s e n s e , r e i n f o r c e d by t h e Nuremberg Judgementthat imposed
c r i m i n a l punishments upon "immoral" p o l i t i c a l behavior of t h e d e f e a t e d l e a d e r s
of Germany and Japan, b u t n e g l e c t e d "the wrongs" o f t h e v i c t o r i o u s powers.
Taking a t f a c e v a l u e Glucksmann's c o n t e n t i o n t h a t t h e s e c u l a r triumph of t o t a l i s t i d e o l o g y had a l r e a d y d e s t r o y e d t h e moral foundations of s t a t e power long
b e f o r e Hiroshima, I f i n d myself unable t o go a l o n g with t h e p o s t u l a t e of c o n t i n u i t y a s a way o f a v o i d i n g t h e need f o r s p e c i f i c a n a l y s i s and commentary on
the d i s t i n c t i v e relevance o f nuclearism. I n t h i s r e g a r d , I agree w i t h t h e
i m p o r t a n t r e c e n t assessments of n u c l e a r r e l e v a n c e by E.P. Thompson and Robert
J a y L i f t o n , a s w e l l a s t h e e a r l i e r wide-ranging a n a l y s i s o f Karl ~ a s p e r s L /
Thompson, i n an i n ' l i c t m e n t o f l e f t / M a r x i s t t h o u g h t f o r i t s f a i l u r e t o h i g h l i g h t
t h e n u c l e a r i s s u e , a n a l y z e s t h e contemporary p o l i t i c a l s i t u a t i o n b e n e a t h t h e
o v e r a r c h i n g , t r a n s - i d e o l o g i c a l c a t e g o r y o f "exterminism", t h a t i s , a s unders c o r e d i n h i s own t i t l e ' T h e l a s t s t a g e o f c i v i l i z a t i o n " .
A s i s now w i d e l y
known, Thompson's
s p e c i a l concern i s c e n t e r e d on t h e p a r t i c u l a r v i c t i m i z a t i o n
0
Eulope a s a p o t e n t i a l " ' t h e a t e r ' o f a p o c a l y p s e " i n a s t r u g g l e waged by t h e
superpowers who, i n e f f e c t , s e e k t o m a i n t a i n t h e i r homelands a s " s a n c t u a r i e s " ,
t h a t i s , a s " o f f - l i m i t s " i n t h e e v e n t of a n u c l e a r exchange.."/
Thompson n o t e s
i n p a s s i n g t h a t "a p r i o r c o n d i t i o n f o r t h e e x t e r m i n a t i o n o f European p e o p l e s
i s t h e e x t e r m i n a t i o n o f open d e m o c r a t i c p r o c e s s " .
Underneath t h i s a s s e r t i o n
i s t h e c o n v i c t i o n t h a t c i t i z e n s would n e v e r knowingly g i v e t h e i r a s s e n t t o
such a s u i c i d a l a r r a n g e m e n t , and t h a t t h e r e f o r e t h e i r r u l e r s ( n o t any l o n g e r
mere l e a d e r s ) must i m p a i r t h e i r a c c e s s t o knowledge and t h e i r r i g h t s t o act. on
what t h e y know.
R e p r e s s i o n a t home, p r e f e r a b l y by anodyne means d e s i g n e d t o
i n d u c e apathy, becomes a n e c e s s i t y o f governance i f s e c u r i t y i s t o be p r e m i s e d ,
d i r e c t l y o r i n d i r e c t l y , on t h e l o g i c of e x t e r m i n i s m . Again n u c l e a r i s m and
democracy c o l l i d e i n a s p e c i f i c , c o n c r e t e manner.
I n w r i t i n g t h a t p r o b e s t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l and c u l t u r a l s i g n i f i c a n c e o f n u c l e a r
weaponry, R o b e r t L i f t o n r e a c h e s c o n c l u s i o n s s t a r t l i n g l y s i m i l a r t o t h o s e of
A s h e p u t s h i s emphasis, t h e new c a p a c i t y f o r t o t a l i s t d e s t r u c t i o n
Thompsoh.
"changes e v e r y t h i n g ( f u n d a m e n t a l l y a l t e r s o u r u l t i m a t e and immediate r e l a t i o n s h i p s i n ways ...) arid seems t o change n o t h i n g ( i t i s a p p a r e n t l y i g n o r e d by
much o f t h e human r a c e , which goes a b o u t b u s i n e s s a s usual)".?/
Note t h a t f o r
L i f t o n , t h e e l e m e n t o f c o n t i n u i t y i s m a i n t a i n e d n o t by t h e a n t e c e d e n t t e r r o r i s m
o f s t a t e power, a s a l l e g e d by Glucksnann, b u t by t h e f a i l u r e o f most. p e o p l e ,
i n c l u d i n g l e a d e r s , t o g r a s p t h e r a d i c a l n o v e l t y o f n u c l e a r weaponry. T h i s
n o v e l t y c e n t e r s upon t h e s h e e r magnitude o f p o t e n t i a l d e s t r u c t i o n , g i v i n g secul a r r e a l i t y t o what had p r e v i o u s l y been a l a r g e l y symbolic r e a l i t y a s s o c i a t e d
with t h e a p o c a l y p t i c premonitions o f r e l i g i o u s t r a d i t i o n .
As L i f t o n g o e s on t o s u g g e s t , t h e s p e c i a l a u r a o f urgency i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s
around a t o m i c e s p i o n a g e i s s u e s d u r i n g t h e 1 9 5 0 s , cul.minating i n t h e i n c r e d i b l e
r i t u a l o f c a p i t a l punishment e n a c t e d i n r e s p o n s e t o " t h e c r i m e s " o f E t h e l and
J u l i u s Rosenberg, was a s s o c i a t e d w i t h g u a r d i n g t h e u n p r e c e d e n t e d power and
w i t h a n x i e t y a b o u t t h e p o t e n t i a l v u l n e r a b i l i t y c r e a t e d by n u c l e a r weaponry.
The f u l l a b s u r d i t y o f t h e s e c u r i t y p r e t e x t f o r i n t e r n a l r e p r e s s i o n became e v i d e n t o n l y two d e c a d e s l a t e r when bomb d e s i g n s were w r i t t e n up a s u n d e r g r a d u a t e
s t u d e n t e x e r c i s e s and d o - i t - y o u r s e l f bomb-producing t e c h n o l o g y became t h e subj e c t m a t t e r of monthly magazine a r t i c l e s . What i s n o t a b s u r d , however, i s t h e
governmental need t o f r i g h t e n i t s own c i t i z e n r y i n t o s u b s e r v i e n c e by i n s i s t i n g
t h a t noone c h a l l e n g e t h e awesome a u t h o r i t y o f t h e government t o engage f u l l y
and s e c r e t l y i n t h e a p o c a l y p t i c end-game o f e x t e r m i n i s m . We n o t e t h e r e c e n t
r e f l e x o u t b u r s t by Ronald R e a g a n ' s N a t i o n a l S e c u r i t y A d v i s o r , R i c h a r d A l l e n ,
i n r e a c t i o n t o t h e European g r a s s r o o t s movement a g a i n s t n u c l e a r weaponry.
In
a r a r e p s t - 1 9 4 5 breakdown o f A t l a n t i c i s t decorum, A l l e n p u b l i c l y c a s t i g a t e d
t h e emergent European mood, s a y i n g t h a t
o u t r i g h t p a c i f i s t sentiments are
s u r f a c i n g abroad.
One r e c e n t i n c i d e n t o f concern i s t h e s p l i t i n t h e B r i t i s h
Labor P a r t y .
R i g h t now t h e second l a r g e s t p a r t y i n G r e a t B r i t a i n h a s a d o p t e d
a s p a r t of i t s o f f i c i a l p l a t f o r m t h e r e n u n c i a t i o n o f n u c l e a r weapons.
We a r e
even h e a r i n g , i n o t h e r c o u n t r i e s , t h e c o n t e m p t i b l e ' b e t t e r r e d t h a n d e a d ' s l o g a n
o f a g e n e r a t i o n ago".l%/
A l i e n ' s words l e n d s u b s t a n c e t o L i f t o n ' s f e a r o f " t h e
p a r t i c u l a r l y dangerous r a d i c a l r i g h t embrace o f American n u c l e a r weapons" t h a t
"might w e l l l e a d one t o s e e k n u c l e a r Armageddon a s a way o f a c h i e v i n g t o t a l
"...
purification".
The animus of t h e r e v i v a l o f a n t i - s o v i e t , anti-Communist h a t r e d ,
t h e resumption o f t h e Cold War and arms r a c e , marks t h e c u r r e n t p e r i o d a s a
p e c u l i a r l y dangerous phase w ~ t h i nt h e w i d e r c o n t e x t of n u c l e a r i s m
A s such,
we can e x p e c t an i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n o f a n t i - d e m o c r a t i c i n s t i t u t i o n a l i n i t i a t i v e s .
Such an e x p e c t a t i o n h a s been confirmed i n t h e e a r l y months o f t h e Reagan p r e s i dency by such s t e p s a s an upgrading o f t h e CIA, a renewed s t r e s s on t h e l i n k a g e
between n a t i o n a l s e c u r i t y and b r o a d governmental p r e r o g a t i v e s o f o f f i c i a l s e c r e c y and s u r v e i l l a n c e p r o c e d u r e s , an a t t a c k on t h e Freedom o f I n f o r m a t i o n A c t ,
and an impending p r o p o s a l t o r e i n s t a t e c a p i t a l punishment. i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e
f e d e r a l crime o f e s p i o n a g e . A c o n c r e t e i n s t a n c e o f t h i s a t t i t u d e o f s u f f e r a n c e toward t h e c i t i z e n r y o c c u r e d on September 1 9 , 1980 when a monkey wrench
dropped i n a T i t a n I 1 s i l o l o c a t e d n e a r Damascus, Arkansas p r o d u c i n g a l a r g e
explosion.-"-'
Local r e s i d e n t s were n a t u r a l l y a n x i o u s t o d i s c o v e r whether l a r g e
amounts o f r a d i a t i o n had been r e l e a s e d .
A s t o n i s h i n g l y , t h e Pentagon took t h e
i n c r e d i b l y a r r o g a n t p o s i t i o n t h a t i t would n e i t h e r c o n f i r m nor deny t h e r e p o r t s
t h a t a n u c l e a r e x p l o s i o n had o c c u r r e d , o r t h a t t h e r e was a f a l l o u t d a n g e r . And
more a s t o n i s h i n g l y , t h e p u b l i c g e n e r a l l y a c q u i e s c e d i n t h i s d i s p l a y o f o f f i c i a l
arrogance.
I n c i d e n t s of t h i s s o r t , i n h e r e n t l y r e v e a l i n g , a r e a l s o i n d i c a t i v e
o f a p r o c e s s whereby t h e c i t i z e n r y i s t h o r o u g h l y demoralized w i t h r e s p e c t t o
c i t i z e n r i g h t s and d u t i e s , b e i n g s u b j e c t e d t o an e x p e r i e n c e o f l e a r n e d h e l p lessness.
.S/
One s c a r c e l y - n o t i c e d dimension o f n u c l e a r i s m i s t h e dubious l e g a l i t y o f n u c l e a r
weapons.^/
I n f a c t , t h e e n t i r e e d i f i c e o f t h e law o f war r e s t s upon t h e c e n t r a l
p r o h i b i t i o n o f i n d i s c r i m i n a t e k i l l i n g o f i n n o c e n t c i v i l i a n s and i n c l u d e s separ a t e p r o h i b i t i o n s f o r weapons t h a t c a u s e v i c t i m s "unnecessary s u f f e r i n g " o r
d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e damage
I t h a r d l y r e q u i r e s a l e a r n e d d i s q u i s i t i o n t o comprehend t h e r a d i c a l i n c o n s i s t e n c y between t h e minimum r e a d i n g o f t h e law o f
war and t h e i n s i s t e n c e on n a t i o n a l d i s c r e t i o n t o t h r e a t e n and use n u c l e a r
weaponry.
Such an i n c o n s i s t e n c y i s p e c u l i a r l y s i g n i f i c a n t f o r d e m o c r a t i c pol i t i e s a s t h e i r d e e p e s t p l e d g e i s t o g o v e r n w i t h i n a framework of law ( a government o f laws n o t men). Furthermore, a l l "mature democracies" i n s i s t t h a t e v e r y
p o l i t i c a l e n t i t y claiming sovereign r i g h t s accept t h e o b l i g a t i o n s of t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l l e g a l o r d e r , v i r t u a l l y a s evidence o f i t s i n t e n t i o n t o p a r t i c i p a t e a s
a s t a t e i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l l i f e . The hue and c r y d i r e c t e d a t t h e I r a n i a n govern i n g a u t h o r i t i e s f o r t h e i r f a i l u r e t o uphold t h e immunity o f American d i p l o m a t s
and embassy p r e m i s e s d u r i n g t h e 1979-81 Teheran h o s t a g e c r i s i s was b a s e d on t h e
a p p a r e n t r e j e c t i o n b y t h e Khomeini l e a d e r s h i p o f t h i s b e h a v i o r a l s t a n d a r d .
Theclaims of i n t e r n a t i o n a l law i n t h e war/peace a r e a a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y s t r o n g
I t was,
i n r e l a t i o n t.o t h e United S t a t e s ' c o n c e p t i o n o f p o l i t i c a l l e g i t i m a c y .
a f t e r a l l , t h e United S t a t e s t h a t had t a k e n t h e l e a d t h r o u g h o u t t h e c e n t u r y t o
c i r c u m s c r i b e s o v e r e i g n d i s c r e t i o n i n r e l a t i o n t o f o r c e and had a f t e r t h e 193245 War i n s i s t e d on c r i m i n a l l i a b i l i t y f o r p o l i t i c a l l e a d e r s who commit war
crimes.
Some a p o l i g i s t s f o r n u c l e a r i s m c o n t e n d lamely t h a t under i n t e r n a t i o n a l law t h e
s o v e r e i g n i s p e r m i t t e d t o do e v e r y t h i n g t h a t h a s n o t been e x p r e s s l y p r o h i b i t e d .
There i s some b a s i s f o r such a c o n t e n t i o n i n r e l a t i o n t o c e r t a i n s u b j e c t m a t t e r ,
b u t i t h a r d l y seems a p p l i c a b l e t o n u c l e a r weaponry.
I n this s e t t i n g law f o l l o w s
c l o s e l y t h e minimum i m p e r a t i v e s o f m o r a l i t y ; i n t e r n a t i o n a l law h a s s i n c e t h e
1 7 t h c e n t u r y been a n uneasy b l e n d o f governmental c o n s e n t f o r c o n t r i v e d r u l e s
and p r o c e d u r e s and n a t u r a l law p o s t u l a t e .
I n o u r t i m e , c o n v e n t i o n a l moral
o u t r a g e i s c o n c e n t r a t e d upon " t e r r o r i s m " , t h e v i c t i m i z a t i o n o f t h e i n n o c e n t
f o r t h e sake of u l t e r i o r p o l i t i c a l motives.
I t h a r d l y t a k e s a master m o r a l i s t
t o reach t h e conclusion t h a t n u c l e a r weaponry and s t r a t e g y r e p r e s e n t s t e r r o r i s t l o g i c on t h e g r a n d e s t s c a l e imaginable, y e t t h e popular d i s c u s s i o n o f
t e r r o r i s m u s u a l l y exempts n u c l e a r weapons d e s p i t e t h e currency o f such phrases
a s "the balance o f t e r r o r " . The p o i n t h e r e i s t h a t law and m o r a l i t y converge
t o condemn nuclearism, an acknowledgment i n c r e a s i n g l y b e i n g made by r e l i g i o u s
and c u l t u r a l l e a d e r s of independence and s t a t u r e *
To s u g g e s t t h a t n u c l e a r weapons a r e i l l e g a l and immoral, and t h a t l e a d e r s who
t h r e a t e n o r contemplate t h e i r use a r e g u i l t y o f crimes o f s t a t e , i s t o r a i s e
c o r e q u e s t i o n s about t h e l e g i t i m a c y o f any governance s t r u c t u r e . Reliance on
n u c l e a r weapons i s n o t j u s t one o f many governmental f u n c t i o n s , i t i s i n many
ways t h e d e c i s i o n undertaking of n a t i o n a l p o l i t i c a l l e a d e r s h i p , t h e one upon
which almost everyone a g r e e s , a l l e l s e h i n g e s . I f t h a t undertaking i s perceived by a s u b s t a n t i a l fragment o f t h e c i t i z e n r y a s a c r i m i n a l e n t e r p r i s e
then it w i l l be impossible f o r p o l i t i c a l l e a d e r s t o achieve l e g i t i m a t e author i t y . Deception, s e c r e c y and c o e r c i o n w i l l become i n c r e a s i n g l y i n d i s p e n s a b l e
i n s t r u m e n t s of governance, n o t t o handle a n t i - s o c i a l d e v i a n t s , b u t t o prevent
c i t i z e n s of t h e h i g h e s t moral a u t h o r i t y from c h a l l e n g i n g t h e a b s o l u t i s m of t h e
s t a t e . Criminal p r o s e c u t i o n s of those who d a r e expose t h i s s t a t e s e c r e t of
i l l e g i t i m a c y d i s c l o s e t h e i n e v i t a b l e dilemma of "democratic" governments t h a t
embrace n u c l e a r i s m .
E i t h e r t h e government i g n o r e s such p r o t e s t s and a c t s o f
r e s i s t a n c e d e s p i t e t h e l o s s of l e g i t i m a c y o r i t p r o s e c u t e s i t s c l e a r e s t moral
v o i c e s d e s p i t e t h e l o s s of l e g i t i m a c y . There i s no way f o r a democratic p o l i .
t i c a l l e a d e r s h i p t o r e t a i n i t s l e g i t i m a c y i n t h e eyes o f i t s c i t i z e n r y f o r
very long i f a s u s t a i n e d campaign around t h e l e g a l and moral s t a t u s o f n u c l e a r
weapons i s mounted. Some o v e r a r c h i n g q u e s t i o n s emerge. Can democratic forms
r e t a i n even p r o v i s i o n a l v i t a l i t y when t h e i r substance i s s o deeply p e r v e r t e d ?
Or do t h e s e forms become a t r o p h i e d , r i t u a l s t h a t d i s g u i s e t h e p a s s i n g of democ r a c y from t h e scene? Can t h e n u c l e a r q u e s t i o n be k e p t cordoned o f f from t h e
o v e r a l l , r o u t i n e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of s t a t e power? Responses t o t h e s e q u e s t i o n s
vary from country t o country and depend on t h e consciousness of t h e c i t i z e n r y
and t h e p e r c e p t i o n s of n a t i o n a l l e a d e r s , a s well a s upon t h e t e n s i o n l e v e l of
i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s . In general the higher the tension l e v e l , t h e g r e a t e r
t h e anti-democratizing impact o f t h e l e g i t i m a c y dilemma a r i s i n g from t h e e x i s tence of n u c l e a r weaponry.
The f o c u s on t h e United S t a t e s is n o t meant t o exempt t h e S o v i e t Union from
s c r u t i n y , b u t s i n c e t h e S o v i e t system seems p r o c e d u r a l l y anti-democratic i n
i t s e s s e n c e it f a l l s o u t s i d e t h e s t r i c t scope of t h i s i n q u i r y . To t h e e x t e n t
t h a t t h e S o v i e t p o l i t i c a l l e a d e r s h i p r e l i e s on n u c l e a r weaponry a c r u c i a l d i mension of a u t h o r i t a r i a n governance i s added. By now, whatever may be s a i d
about i t s e a r l i e r ambivalence, t h e S o v i e t Union seems t o be f u l l y committed t o
a r e l i a n c e on n u c l e a r weapons a s a means o f upholding i t s i n t e r e s t s . Because
s e c r e c y and p u b l i c p a r t i c i p a t i o n a r e s o c u r t a i l e d i n t h e S o v i e t p o l i t i c a l system, t h e r e seems t o be l i t t l e o p p o r t u n i t y f o r c i t i z e n o p p o s i t i o n t o nuclearism,
while a t t h e same time, r e l i a n c e on n u c l e a r weapons p l a c e s formidable, r a r e l y
acknowledged c o n s t r a i n t s on t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f democratizing reform t a k i n g
hold w i t h i n S o v i e t s o c i e t y .
Of c o u r s e , I am n o t a r g u i n g t h a t n u c l e a r weapons n u l l i f y a l l democratizing
I t i s c e r t a i n l y p o s s i b l e t o a l t e r government/
impulses a t t h e s t a t e l e v e l .
c i t i z e n r y r e l a t i o n s i n a democratizing d i r e c t i o n d e s p i t e a r e l i a n c e , d i r e c t l y
or i n d i r e c t l y , upon n u c l e a r weapons. I t i s r a t h e r a m a t t e r of s t r u c t u r a l
c o n s t r a i n t t h a t b e a r s on t h e most e s s e n t i a l i s s u e of s t a t e power i n a manner
t h a t i s a n t i - d e m o c r a t i c i n an extreme s e n s e ( h e r e , democracy r e f e r s n o t o n l y
t o t h e c o n s e n t of t h e governed, b u t a l s o t o t h e i d e a of a government of l a w s ,
n o t men, which given s h a r e d human v u l n e r a b i l i t y h a s t o i n c l u d e p o l i c i e s a t
t h e s t a t e l e v e l b e a r i n g on war/peace, r e s o u r c e u s e , and e n v i r o n m e n t a l p r o t e c tion).
The b r o a d i m p l i c a t i o n s of t h i s a n a l y s i s a r e two-fold: t h e r e s t o r a t i o n o f democ r a t i z i n g p o t e n t i a l a t t h e s t a t e l e v e l depends on t h e downgrading and e v e n t u a l
e l i m i n a t i o n o f n u c l e a r weapons a s an element of i n t e r n a t i o n a l p o l i t i c a l l i f e ;
s e c o n d l y , normative o p p o s i t i o n t o n u c l e a r weapons o r d o c t r i n e s i n e v i t a b l y draws
i n t o q u e s t i o n t h e l e g i t i m a c y o f s t a t e power and i s , t h e r e f o r e , more t h r e a t e n i n g
t o governmental p r o c e s s t h a n a mere d e b a t e a b o u t t h e p r o p r i e t y o f n u c l e a r
weapons a s i n s t r u m e n t s o f s t a t e c r a f t . The M a c h i a v e l l i a n q u e s t i o n i s f o r e m o s t :
can a system o f s o v e r e i g n s t a t e s e v e r manage t o g e t r i d o f a d e c i s i v e weapon
by which an unscrupulous l e a d e r might impose h i s w i l l ? The c o u r s e o f i n t e r national history strongly supports a negative reply.
I n e f f e c t , democracy, a s
a p o l i t i c a l framework, seems t o be a permanent c a s u a l t y o f t h e n u c l e a r a g e ,
a l t h o u g h d e m o c r a t i c forms a s an i n c r e a s i n g l y empty s h e l l , can p e r s i s t , d i s g u i s i n g f o r some time t h e a c t u a l i t y of t h e i r i n n e r c o l l a p s e . The t r e n d toward
a u t h o r i t a r i a n governance, a l t h o u g h prompted mainly by o t h e r f a c t o r s , may a l s o
b e , i n p a r t , a consequence o f t h e a n t i - d e m o c r a t i c i n f l u e n c e s o f t o t a l i s t a t t i t u d e s and c a p a b i l i t i e s o p e r a t i v e even i n non-nuclear s t a t e s ( o f t e n r e i n f o r c e d
by way o f a l l i a n c e o r a c c e p t a n c e o f "a n u c l e a r u m b r e l l a " ) .
The e r o s i o n o f democracy by
Of c o u r s e , t h e r e i s a n a p p a r e n t paradox p r e s e n t .
way o f n u c l e a r i s m i s , a t t h e same t i m e a s t h e European movement s u g g e s t s , a
s t i m u l u s t o democracy.
I t may y e t be p o s s i b l e f o r c i t i z e n s t o o r g a n i z e i n
such a way a s t o e x e r t some measure o f democratic c o n t r o l o v e r n u c l e a r weaponr y s h o r t of a c h i e v i n g i t s t o t a l e l i m i n a t i o n . Advocacy of a no f i r s t use
d e c l a r a t i o n and p o s t u r e c o u l d p r o v i d e a r e a l i s t i c g o a l f o r d e m o c r a t i c movements s e e k i n g t o r e s t o r e b a l a n c e i n t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between qovernment and
c i t i z e n r y and s a n i t y t o t h e q u e s t f o r i n t e r n a t i o n a l s e c u r i t y .
The f u t u r e o f democracy t h e n i s a t one w i t h two i n t e r t w i n e d e x p l o r a t i o n s : t h e
p o s s i b i l i t y o f a p o s t - M a c h i a v e l l i a n i n t e r n a t i o n a l p o l i t i c a l o r d e r and of a
p o s t - n u c l e a r world.&/
I n c e n t r a l r e s p e c t s , s a f e g u a r d i n g and r e s t o r i n g t h e dem o c r a t i c p r o s p e c t f o r mature c a p i t a l i s t p o l i t i e s depends on a comprehensive
world o r d e r s o l u t i o n .
The b e g i n n i n g o f such a s o l u t i o n may i n v o l v e d e l e q i t i mizing t h e s t a t e i n t h e a r e a o f n a t i o n a l s e c u r i t y .
For t h i s r e a s o n t h e r e l i g i o u s , m e d i c a l and l e g a l campaign a g a i n s t n u c l e a r i s m seems o f v i t a l r e l e v a n c e
t o t h e very p o s s i b i l i t y of a democratic r e v i v a l .
FOOTNOTES
-l /
David C. Gompert and o t h e r s , Nuclear Weapons and World P o l i t i c s
(New York: McGraw-Hill, 1 9 7 7 ) , pp. 4-5 (emphasis added).
2/ Nuclear Armament:
An I n t e r v i e w , pamphlet of The C o n s e r v a t i o n P r e s s s ,
undated.
-31
The Nuclear R e v o l u t i o n
For d i s c u s s i o n s e e Michael Mandlebaum,
(Cambridge U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 8 1 ) , pp. 177-183.
Alan Wolfe, The Limits of Legitimacy (New York:
Andre Glucksmann, The Master Thinkers
l98O), p. 151.
Free Press, 1977).
(New York:
Harper & Row,
Same, p. 150; Simone Weil and Stanley Diamond push the argument back
further, maintaining that the fundamentally coercive nature of the
state has been the ground for all subsequent modes of official violence.
For brief discussion of their views see Falk, Human Rights and State
Sovereignty (New York: Holmes and Meier, 1981), pp. 128-131.
Jaspers' book not discussed here is The Future of Mankind
of Chicago, 1961).
(University
Edward Thompson, "Notes on Exterminism, the Last Stage of Civilization",
New Left Review, (No. 121, May-June 1980), pp. 3-31.
Robert Jay Lifton, The Broken Connection
1979), p. 335.
(New York:
Simon and Schuster,
Text of "Remarks by Richard U. Alien Before the Conservative Political
Action Conference 19811',Washington, D.C., March 21, 1981, p. 10.
This danger is heightened by adoption of first-strike strategic thinking,
by new weapons innovations, and by conflicts and instabilities that
threaten hegemonic patterns of Western influence over resource-producing
countries in the Persian Gulf and southern African regions.
See report of "U.S. Nuclear Weapons Accidents",
No. 5, 1981, p. 11.
The Defense Monitor, X,
Typical of discussion is the assumption that international law currently
imposes no restraints on the discretion of governments to use nuclear
weapons. See for example Michael Mandlebaurn, "International Stability
and Nuclear Order: The First Nuclear Regime", in Gompert, cited note 1
at pp. 23-24, where such discretion is connected with the absence of
express treaty restrictions and the general unenforceability of international law. For refutation see paper cited in note 14.
For comprehensive treatment of this and related issues see Falk, Lee
Meyrowitz, and Jack Sanderson, "Nuclear Weapons and International Law",
(unpublished paper, date February 1981).
See e.g. James W. Douglass, Lightning East to West (Portland, Oregon:
Sunburst Press, 1980); see also Delhi Declaration on the Prohibition
of Nuclear Weapons (1978).
The main focus of a book to be written jointly by Robert Jay Lifton
and myself, bearing the tentative title Toward a Post-Nuclear World:
An Exploration.
MARKINGS
DEVELOPMENT AND JUSTICE
by A l f r e d o Novak, E i s h o p of Sao P a u l o
(The fotlowing t e x t introduced one o f the discussions a t the International
Council of Voluntayy Agencies's General Conference which took place i n
Colombo, S r i Lanka, i n November. The author o f t h i s paper i s Alfredo Ernest
Novak; he i s one of the a u x i l i a r y bishops who, w i t h Cardinal Arns, a member
o f the IFDA Council, c o n s t i t u t e s t h e Episcopal College of Sao Paulo, B r a z i l . )
1.
DEVELOPMENT AND DEPENDENCY
1.1
Development and economic growth
Development i s f r e q u e n t l y c o n s i d e r e d an economic i s s u e .
i n GNP (Gross N a t i o n a l P r o d u c t ) ;
structure;
Increase
d i v e r s i f i c a t i o n o f t h e economic
e x p a n s i o n o f f o r e i g n t r a d e a r e i n d e e d e l e m e n t s and
i n many c a s e s
-
p r e - r e q u i s i t e s f o r development.
ment i s more t h a n t h a t .
-
However develop-
A s many a u t h o r s have d e f i n e d , development
i s a c o n t i n u o u s and s e l f - s u s t a i n e d p r o c e s s o f s t r u c t u r a l changes
i n t h e economy and i n t h e s o c i e t y .
I n t h i s s e n s e , improvements
i n t h e q u a l i t y o f l i v i n g and p o l i t i c a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f t h e masses
a r e j u s t a s i m p o r t a n t f o r development a s economic d i v e r s i f i c a t i o n
and i n c r e a s e d p r o d u c t i o n .
C o n s e q u e n t l y , development c a n a l s o mean
b e t t e r e d u c a t i o n a l and h e a l t h s t a n d a r d s , a d e q u a t e h o u s i n g f o r t h e
p o p u l a t i o n a s w e l l a s p o l i t i c a l freedom, a s s u r i n g more o p p o r t u n i -
t i e s f o r p o p u l a r p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n economic and p o l i t i c a l d e c i s i o n s .
1.2
The " p e r v e r s e " development o f T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s
According t o t h i s l a t t e r c o n c e p t r e g a r d i n g development, i t i s h a r d
t o admit t h a t L a t i n American c o u n t r i e s a r e r e a l l y d e v e l o p i n g . Even
c o u n t r i e s which p r e s e n t h i g h e r r a t e s o f economic growth
-
i n some
c a s e s comparable t o t h e r a t e s o f t h e i n d u s t r i a l i s e d c o u n t r i e s
-
a r e n o t d e v e l o p i n g because i n many c a s e s s t a t i s t i c a l d a t a d o e s n o t
r e v e a l r e a l income c o n c e n t r a t i o n and m a r g i n a l i z a t i o n o f l a r g e
portions of t h e population.
S e v e r a l s t u d i e s p e r f o r m e d by U n i t e d N a t i o n s ' a g e n c i e s , a s f o r
e x a m p l e , ECLA (Economic Commission f o r L a t i n A m e r i c a ) a n d F A O
(Food a n d A g r i c u l t u r e O r g a n i z a t i o n ) r e v e a l t h a t , i n t h e l a s t dec a d e s , e c o n o m i c growth i n L a t i n American c o u n t r i e s was a s s o c i a t e d
w i t h income c o n c e n t r a t i o n , i n c r e a s i n g d e p e n d e n c e o f n a t i o n a l
e c o n o m i e s on f o r e i g n c a p i t a l ;
a c c e l e r a t e d e x p a n s i o n and p e n e t r a -
t i o n of t r a n s n a t i o n a l corporations;
impoverishment o f l a r g e
s e c t o r s o f population both i n urban
and r u r a l a r e a s .
These s t u d i e s p o i n t o u t t h a t such a c o n t r a d i c t o r y p r o c e s s i s due,
mainly, t o t h e p a r t i c u l a r type of expansion of c a p i t a l i s t i c e n t e r p r i s e s which i s t a k i n g p l a c e i n t h e c o n t i n e n t .
c a p i t a l i s t i c expansion
-
In fact, t h i s
under t h e l e a d e r s h i p o f t h e t r a n s n a t i o n a l
c o r p o r a t i o n s and t h e s u p p o r t o f a u t h o r i t a r i a n o r " p o p u l i s t " p o l i t i c a l regimes - is very r a p i d , both i n t h e c i t i e s and i n t h e
rural areas.
A s a c o n s e q u e n c e , medium-sized
and s m a l l e n t e r p r i s e s
( a g r i c u l t u r a l , c o m m e r c i a l and i n d u s t r i a l ) a r e s u b s t i t u t e d by l a r g e
corporations.
T h i s s u b s t i t u t i o n does n o t r e p r e s e n t a l a r g e r (and
l e s s c o s t l y ) p r o d u c t i o n o f wage goods b u t i n c r e a s e d p r o d u c t i o n o f
l u x u r y g o o d s , w h i c h o n l y t h e s m a l l , p r i v i l e g e d , upper-income s t r a t a
can a f f o r d .
I t r e p r e s e n t s a l s o d r a s t i c and very r a p i d changes i n
t h e t e c h n o l o g i e s o f production, causing premature d e p r e c i a t i o n o f
c a p i t a l , f o r e i g n i n d e b t n e s s a n d unemployment, s i n c e t h e new t e c h n i q u e s i n t r o d u c e h i g h e r automation l e v e l s , and reduce l a b o u r
demands.
I n t h e r u r a l a r e a s t h e consequences o f t h i s s u b s t i t u t i o n process
are particularly serious.
The a c c e l e r a t e d g r o w t h o f c o m m e r c i a l
f a r m s c a u s e s t h e e x p u l s i o n o f i n d i g e n o u s and p e a s a n t p o p u l a t i o n s
from a r e a s where t h e s e have l o n g e s t a b l i s h e d a k i n d o f family subsistence agriculture.
T h i s i s t h e c a s e i n a l l o f t h e L a t i n Ameri-
can c o u n t r i e s , c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y e v i d e n t i n t h e i n t e r i o r of B r a z i l .
The e x p u l s i o n o f t h e s e p o p u l a t i o n s ( o f t e n w i t h v i o l e n c e ) from
t h e i r t r a d i t i o n a l l a n d s c a u s e s m i g r a t i o n t o t h e urban c e n t e r s and
t o s t i l l 'undeveloped'
territories.
In the f i r s t case, t h i s large
m i g r a t i o n c a u s e s s e r i o u s s o c i a l problems s i n c e t h e c i t i e s a r e n o t
p r e p a r e d t o o f f e r employment, h o u s i n g , a n d u r b a n f a c i l i t i e s t o
t h e migrants.
The r e s u l t i s i n c r e a s e d numbers o f s l u m s a n d s h a n t y
towns, urban c r i m i n a l i t y , p r o s t i t u t i o n ,
and m a r g i n a l i t y .
In the
second c a s e , t h e migrants s e t t l e precariously i n d i s t a n t regions,
where t h e y r e - c r e a t e t h e same k i n d o f t r a d i t i o n a l f a m i l y s u b s i s tence agriculture.
Soon t h e y a r e d i s c o v e r e d a n d e x p e l l e d a g a i n
by a new i n f i l t r a t i o n o f c o m m e r c i a l f a r m s .
For t h i s reason t h e
c o n c l u s i o n o f FAO s t u d i e s i s t h a t t h i s k i n d o f c a p i t a l i s t i c e x pansion
-
o f t e n c a l l e d " a g r i c u l t u r a l modernization" - destroys
while re-creating
t r a d i t i o n a l a g r i c u l t u r e i n L a t i n America.
Economic e f f e c t s o f t h i s p r o c e s s o f " p e r v e r s e " a g r i c u l t u r a l
development a r e very negative:
agricultural productivity increases
s l o w l y , b e c a u s e t h e g a i n s o b t a i n e d by t h e modern c o m m e r c i a l f a r m s
a r e o f f s e t by t h e d e t e r i o r a t i o n o f t h e s u b s i s t e n c e f a r m s ;
social
e x p e n d i t u r e s must i n c r e a s e i n o r d e r t o a l l e v i a t e t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s
o f t h e impoverishment o f t h e s m a l l f a r m e r s ;
food production does
n o t i n c r e a s e i n a pace compatible w j t h p o p u l a t i o n growth, because
c o m m e r c i a l f a r m s a r e p r e d o m i n a n t l y o r i e n t e d t o w a r d s e x p o r t commodities;
e c o l o g i c a l e q u i l i b r i u m i s o f t e n d i s r u p t e d , s i n c e commercial
f a r m s u s u a l l y a d o p t u n f a v o u r a b l e and d e s t r u c t i v e methods of
f o r e s t clearance.
Economic e f f e c t s , h o w e v e r , a r e n o t t h e most s e v e r e .
P e a s a n t econo-
mies and p e a s a n t c u l t u r e s a r e o f t e n t o t a l l y d e s t r o y e d w i t h t h e
expansion o f commercial a g r i c u l t u r e i n t h e s e r u r a l a r e a s , f r e q u e n t l y i n v o l v i n g even v i o l e n c e and p h y s i c a l c o n f r o n t a t i o n .
Peasants
a r e e x p e l l e d w i t h o u t any r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e i r r i g h t s t o t h e l a n d
and t o t h e b e n e f i t s o f t h e i r l a b o u r i n c l e a r i n g v i r g i n a r e a s .
T h i s i s t h e main r e a s o n why C a t h o l i c b i s h o p s a n d p r i e s t s a r e b e coming i n c r e a s i n g l y i n v o l v e d i n c o n f l i c t s w i t h g o v e r n m e n t a u t h o r i t i e s i n L a t i n America.
A s a matter of fact,
they
a r e i n many i n -
s t a n c e s t h e o n l y r e f u g e and s u p p o r t t h e p e a s a n t s have i n t h e i r
d i s p u t e s w i t h t h e l a r g e landowners.
2-
JUSTICE IN VIEW O F CONTRADICTORY REALITIES
2.1
This b r i e f d e s c r i p t i o n i s s u f f i c i e n t t o demonstrate t h a t
w h a t h a p p e n s p r e s e n t l y i n L a t i n America i s n o t a n i n t e g r a t e d
development, b u t r a t h e r a p e r v e r s e and c o n t r a d i c t o r y p r o c e s s o f
economic growth.
From an e t h i c a l p o i n t o f view, t h i s p r o c e s s i s e v i d e n t l y un-
2.2
just,
many.
f a v o u r i n g t h e e n r i c h m e n t o f few and t h e impoverishment o f
To s a n c t i o n and s o l i d i f y t h i s r e a l i t y , a u t h o r i t a r i a n
r e g i m e s have d e v e l o p e d and " i n v o k e d " t h e d o c t r i n e o f N a t i o n a l
S e c u r i t y , t h u s b e i n g a b l e t o s i l e n c e a n d , i n many c a s e s , t o t a l l y
e l i m i n a t e u n d e s i r a b l e p o l i t i c a l and e c c l e s i a s t i c a l o p p o s i t i o n .
T h i s s i t u a t i o n h a s i t s r o o t s i n a c a p i t a l i s t i c economic s y s -
2.3
tem t h a t f o s t e r s dependence.
The a c t u a l p o l i c y o f North-South
economic r e l a t i o n s m a i n t a i n s t h i s c o n t r a d i c t o r y and u n j u s t s i t u a tion.
I w i s h t o c a l l t o mind a few p o i n t s r e g a r d i n g t h i s r e l a t i o n -
s h i p o f i n e q u a l i t y and v i o l e n c e a g a i n s t t h e T h i r d World:
D i v i s i v e n e s s o f I n t e r n a t i o n a l Labour I n t e r e s t s .
Often t r a n s n a t i o n a l s a r e i n s t r u m e n t s o f s t r i p p i n g t h e n a t i o n a l economies,
and i n d u s t r i a l d i s t r i b u t i o n p o l i c i e s t u r n t h e T h i r d World
i n t o e i t h e r a dumping ground f o r p o l l u t i o n o r an open f i e l d
for extracting riches.
E x p l o i t a t i o n o f d e p e n d e n t c o u n t r i e s ' raw m a t e r i a l s e x i s t s
a l o n g w i t h t h e e x p l o i t a t i o n o f i t s work f o r c e c h a r a c t e r i z e d
by l a m e n t a b l e work c o n d i t i o n s and u n j u s t wages.
P o l i t i c a l s u p p o r t i s g i v e n t o a u t h o r i t a r i a n governments i n
o r d e r t o m a i n t a i n a s i t u a t i o n w i t h o u t p o s s i b i l i t y o f change.
S u p p o r t and development o f t h e i d e o l o g y o f "communist" d a n g e r
i s e v i d e n t where e v e r y and any economic change i s s e e n t o
weaken t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e West and s t r e n g t h e n "communistic
invasion".
T h i s i d e o l o g y becomes t h e j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r re-
p r e s s i v e s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l p r e s s u r e i n t h e . T h i r d World;
r e p r e s s i o n i s e x e r c i s e d on c e n t r a l p o i n t s o f change s u c h a s
l a n d and a g r a r i a n r e f o r m , o r g a n i z a t i o n of worker movements,
a n d t h e i r j u s t demands,
THE TASK OF VOLUNTARY DEVELOPMENT A G E N C I E S
The c o n t r i b u t i o n o f v o l u n t a r y development a g e n c i e s t o t h e L a t i n
American p e o p l e s h o u l d be c o n s i d e r e d i n t h e framework o f t h e
r e a l i t y here b r i e f l y described.
A s a g e n e r a l r u l e i n more r e c e n t t i m e s ,
i n t e r n a t i o n a l development
a g e n c i e s have been g i v i n g f i n a n c i a l and t e c h n i c a l a i d t o p r o j e c t s
which t r y t o a l l e v i a t e t h e s e v e r e e f f e c t s o f t h e s e economic and
s o c i a l modernization processes.
There i s no need t o s t r e s s t h e
i m p o r t a n c e o f t h i s p o l i c y o r i e n t a t i o n . However, an i m p o r t a n t
question should b e r a i s e d i n r e l a t i o n t o t h i s policy:
Are t h e s e
p r o j e c t s c a p a b l e of r e s o l v i n g t h e consequences o f t h i s " p e r v e r s e "
p r o c e s s of economic growth g o i n g on i n L a t i n America?
A s a m a t t e r of f a c t , i n t e r n a t i o n a l a g e n c i e s
voluntary i n t e r n a t i o n a l agencies
-
-
and e s p e c i a l l y ,
do n o t p o s s e s s s u f f i c i e n t
f i n a n c i a l r e s o u r c e s t o fund p r o j e c t s which c o u l d r e p r e s e n t a
r e a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n i n t.he s i t u a t i o n o f t h e poor i n L a t i n America.
Hundreds o r e v e n t h o u s a n d s o f s m a l l p r o j e c t s aimed a t p r o v i d i n g
b e t t e r health f a c i l i t i e s , technical assistance o r c r e d i t t o small
f a r m e r s , o r sewage and e l e c t r i c i t y t o t h e s e v e r a l m i l l i o n s who
l i v e i n t h e " f a v e l a s " w i l l n o t change t h e s i t u a t i o n s u b s t a n t i a l l y .
The o n l y way t o e f f e c t i v e l y s o l v e t h e p o v e r t y problem i s t h r o u g h
s t r u c t u r a l changes i n t h e economy o f L a t i n American c o u n t r i e s . I n
t h e c o n t e x t o f t h i s c o n t i n e n t , s t r u c t u r a l changes mean: a g r a r i a n
r e f o r m ; r e d u c t i o n o f t h e e x t e r n a l dependence; w e a l t h and income
d i s t r i b u t i o n by means o f d r a s t i c t a x r e f o r m s .
ly, political issues.
These a r e , o b v i o u s -
Needless t o say, such s t r u c t u r a l reforms
w i l l n o t b e g r a n t e d g r a c i o u s l y t o t h e p e o p l e by t h o s e who e n j o y
the privileges i n the present situation.
Only t h r o u g h p o l i t i c a l
p r e s s u r e , e x e r t e d by t h e p o o r , w i l l i t b e p o s s i b l e t o change t h e
s t r u c t u r e s which c r e a t e and r e - c r e a t e p o v e r t y
i n L a t i n America.
The p o o r p e o p l e , by t h e v e r y f a c t o f t h e i r c o n d i t i o n , a r e n o t cons c i o u s o f t h e i r r i g h t s and n o t p r e p a r e d t o t r a n s f o r m them i n t o
clear political targets.
This r e q u i r e s a l e v e l of consciousness
and o r g a n i z a t i o n which t h e y have n o t a s y e t r e a c h e d .
Therefore,
t h e f i r s t p r i o r i t y f o r t h o s e s i n c e r e l y engaged i n e l i m i n a t i n g
p o v e r t y i n L a t i n America s h o u l d b e t o s t i m u l a t e and improve methods
o f CONSCIENTIZATION and ORGANIZATION o f t h e r u r a l and u r b a n masses.
4.
PROJECT FOR CONSCIENTIZATION AND ORGANIZATION
I n o r d e r t o a t t a i n t h i s d u a l o b j e c t i v e o f " c o n s c i e n t i z a t i o n " and
" o r g a n i z a t i o n " , two dimensions s h o u l d b e c o n s i d e r e d and i n t e g r a t e d i n t h e p r e p a r a t i o n of t h e "development p r o j e c t s " t o be sponsored:
.
C r i t e r i a f o r t h e s e l e c t i o n of p r o j e c t s should give h i g h e r
p r i o r i t y t o projects directly related t o training, research,
and communication ( p r e s s , r a d i o , f i l m s , TV) p r o v i d e d t h e y
demonstrate t h e i r c l o s e connection with e f f e c t i v e popular
movements.
.
I n t h e framework of a s s i s t a n c e p o l i c i e s o r i e n t e d toward t h e
e l i m i n a t i o n of p o v e r t y , i n d i v i d u a l p r o j e c t s s h o u l d b e cons i d e r e d a s " p i l o t p r o j e c t s " , aiming mainly a t c r e a t i n g organi z a t i o n s o f w o r k e r s , p e a s a n t s , poor p e o p l e , women and m i n o r i t y g r o u p s , h e l p i n g them t o d i s c o v e r t h e i r b a s i c d i g n i t y a s
human p e r s o n s and awakening w i t h i n them a new awareness o f
j u s t i c e and p a r t i c i p a t i o n .
.
The f i r s t s t e p o f v o l u n t e e r Agencies s h o u l d be t h e c o n s i d e r a t i o n and e x a m i n a t i o n o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s i n t h e i r own c o u n t r i e s
of o r i g i n .
An i n d i s p e n s a b l e c r i t e r i a f o r a c t i o n i s u n i v e r s a l
p r e s s u r e a g a i n s t t h e s o u r c e s o f economic i n j u s t i c e s .
All
p r o j e c t s which promote s o l i d a r i t y w i t h t h e worker movements
and d e f e n s e o f worker r i g h t s i n t h e T h i r d World would become
t h e o b j e c t i v e f o r any s e r v i c e agency endeavour.
On t h e same
l e v e l , e f f o r t s t o combat m a n i p u l a t e d f e a r s o f communism among
men w i t h v e s t e d i n t e r e s t s i n t h e e s t a b l i s h e d economic s y s t e m
o r among t h e s i m p l e p e o p l e must a l s o be c r i t e r i a f o r s e r v i c e s
o r p r o j e c t s t h a t w i l l be d e v e l o p e d .
I f v o l u n t a r y development a g e n c i e s a d o p t t h i s p o l i c y o r i e n t a t i o n ,
t h e p r o j e c t s t h e y s p o n s o r w i l l have a m u l t i p l y i n g e f f e c t i n t h e
a c c u m u l a t i o n o f p r e - c o n d i t i o n s f o r r e a l s o c i a l change. Otherwise,
t h e y w i l l be l i m i t e d t o p h i l a n t h r o p i c g o a l s t h a t may be v e r y j u s t i f i a b l e on h u m a n i t a r i a n t e r m s , b u t which c o n t r i b u t e more t o t h e
maintenance of t h e " s t a t u s quo" t h a n t o a r e a l change i n an i n f r a human and u n a c c e p t a b l e s o c i a l s i t u a t i o n .
IFDA DOSSIER
28
MARCH/APRIL
1982
INTERACTIONS
THE ROLE OF FINANCIAL POLICIES Il! THE TRANSITION TO
SOC IALISM
by Stephany G r i f f i th-Jones */
Recent r e p o r t s suggest t h a t d u r i n g Zimbabwe's f i r s t y e a r o f independence,
remarkable successes i n d e f u s i n g p o l i t i c a l and r a c i a l t e n s i o n s have been
accompanied by i n c r e a s i n g economic and f i n a n c i a l d i f f i c u l t i e s . I m p o r t a n t
i n c r e a s e s i n incames and a r i s i n g government budget d e f i c i t have l e d t o r a p i d l y growing consumer demand. During t h e f i r s t y e a r o f independence, t h e
Zimbabwe economy achieved v e r y i m p r e s s i v e r e a l growth r a t e of o v e r 8%; however,
t h e i n c r e a s e i n t o t a l demand has been so l a r g e t h a t growth i n p r o d u c t i o n i s
i n c r e a s i n g l y i n s u f f i c i e n t t o s a t i s f y i t . As a r e s u l t , i n f l a t i o n a r y pressures
a r e b u i l d i n g up and t h e f o r e i g n exchange reserves have d e c l i n e d q u i t e r a p i d l y ,
as i m p o r t s r i s e much f a s t e r t h a n e x p o r t s .
Although t h e r e a r e many p o s i t i v e aspects i n Zimbabwe's economic
( i n c l u d i n g t h e c o u n t r y ' s l a r g e p o t e n t i a l i n a g r i c u l t u r e as w e l l
s t a n t i a l c r e d i t and a i d f l o w s which t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l communi t y
t o Zimbabwe), i t seems of g r e a t p r i o r i t y t h a t economic measures
t o p r e v e n t l a r g e f i n a n c i a l d i s e q u i l i b r i a developing.
prospects
as t h e subhas committed
a r e taken soon
As r e c e n t experiences have c l e a r l y shown ( f o r example, i n Jamaica, P o r t u g a l
and C h i l e d u r i n g t h e s e v e n t i e s ) , v e r y l a r g e f i n a n c i a l d i s e q u i l i b r i a a r e i n f a c t
p a r t i c u l a r l y harmful i n s i t u a t i o n s where a government i s i n t r o d u c i n g i m p o r t a n t
s o c i a l and economic reforms which i t hopes w i l l l e a d t h e c o u n t r y t o s o c i a l i s m .
The g r e a t importance o f c o r r e c t f i n a n c i a1 p01 ic i e s d u r i n g a t t e m p t s a t t r a n s i t i o n t o s o c i a l i s m and t h e f a c t t h a t i t i s p r e c i s e l y s o c i a l i s t governments,
more than c o n s e r v a t i v e ones, which need most t o f o l l o w d e l i b e r a t e and o f t e n
s t r i c t f i n a n c i a l p o l i c i e s i s v e r y r a r e l y recognised b y economists and p o l i t i c i a n s on t h e L e f t . N e g l e c t o f f i n a n c e has been p a r t i c u l a r l y common d u r i n g
t h e i n i t i a l stages o f s o c i a l i s t r e v o l u t i o n s t h r o u g h o u t d i f f e r e n t c o u n t r i e s ;
i t was perhaps b e s t summed up by K r i s t i n s k i i , t h e f i r s t S o v i e t Comissar
( M i n i s t e r ) o f Finance, when i n 1919 he s a i d :
"Finance s h o u l d n o t e x i s t i n a s o c i a l i s t community.
g i s e f o r speaking on t h e s u b j e c t ! "
-
I t h e r e f o r e apolo-
Stephany Griffith-Jones is a Research Fellow at the Institute of Development
Studies at Sussex ( U K ) .
Formerly, she was head of the Department of Credit
for nationalized enterprises at the Central Bank of Chile and Director of the
First Commercial Bank nationalized by the Allende Government. This article
summarizes the findings of a book recently published by the author entitled
The role of finance in transition to socialism (London: Frances Pinter, and
New York: Allan Osmun, 1981). The book is largely based on her experience
in Chile.
S u r p r i s i n g l y s i m i l a r statements c o u l d be found i n most attempts a t b u i l d i n g
socialism.
However, as p a s t experiences have r e p e a t e d l y shown, s o c i a l i s t governments
p a r t i c u l a r l y need an adequate f i n a n c i a l p o l i c y so as t o a v o i d t o o l a r g e an
expansion o f t o t a l demand, as t h i s w i l l i n e v i t a b l y l e a d t o s c a r c i t i e s , h i g h
i n f l a t i o n and f o r e i g n exchange c r i s i s . These have s e v e r a l p a r t i c u l a r l y negat i v e e f f e c t s f o r a government a t t e m p t i n g a t r a n s i t i o n t o s o c i a l i s m . Very h i g h
l e v e l s o f i n f l a t i o n w i l l n o t o n l y d i s r u p t market l i n k s w i t h i n t h e r e m a i n i n g
p r i v a t e s e c t o r , b u t even more i m p o r t a n t l y w i l l make an e f f e c t i v e system o f
p l a n n i n g and c o n t r o l o f t h e r a p i d l y growing S t a t e s e c t o r v e r y d i f f i c u l t , i f
n o t meaningless. Furthermore, as C h i l e a n and Jamaican p l a n n e r s d i s c o v e r e d i n
t h e s e v e n t i e s , (and S o v i e t p l a n n e r s had d i s c o v e r e d i n t h e e a r l y t w e n t i e s ) t h e
innumerable problems and d i s r u p t i o n s r e s u l t i n g from l a r g e f i n a n c i a l d i s e q u i l i b r i a d i s t r a c t v a l u a b l e t i m e and e f f o r t from e s s e n t i a l tasks, such as development o f an e f f e c t i v e p l a n n i n g apparatus. Too r a p i d an i n c r e a s e i n t o t a l demand w i l l a l s o i n e v i t a b l y l e a d t o l a r g e increases i n i m p o r t s : i f t h i s i s n o t
accompanied by e x p o r t growth and/or n e t i n f l o w o f f o r e i g n c r e d i t , f o r e i g n exchange reserves w i l l be exhausted (as o c c u r r e d f o r example towards t h e end o f
A l l e n d e ' s Popular U n i t y Government i n C h i l e and o f Manley's government i n
Jamaica). When f o r e i g n exchange r e s e r v e s a r e exhausted, i t i s d i f f i c u l t f o r
any government t o o b t a i n a d d i t i o n a l e x t e r n a l f i n a n c e f r o m p r i v a t e banks o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l f i n a n c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n s ; i n such circumstances i t w i l l be p r a c t i c a l l y i m p o s s i b l e f o r a s o c i a l i s t government t o o b t a i n such finance, u n l e s s i t
accepts c o n d i t i o n s i n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h i t s s o c i a l i s t aims. I t should t h e r e f o r e
be a c r u c i a l t a r g e t o f economic p o l i c y o f c o u n t r i e s t r y i n g t o c a r r y o u t soc i a l i s t changes t o pursue o r accumulate a p r u d e n t l e v e l o f f o r e i g n exchange
reserves, p e r m i t t i n g thus a much l a r g e r degree o f autonomy f r o m f o r e i g n p r e s sures and p r o t e c t i n g t h e c o u n t r y f r o m unexpected u n f a v o u r a b l e changes i n t h e
i n t e r n a t i o n a l environment o r n e t o u t f l o w s o f c a p i t a l by t h o s e f r i g h t e n e d o f
s o c i a l i s m . Large f o r e i g n exchange reserves o b t a i n e d through p r u d e n t f i n a n c i a l
management a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y c r u c i a l - even though s p e c i a l l y h a r d t o a t t a i n i n t h e d i f f i c u l t i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o n d i t i o n s ( o f r i s i n g i m p o r t c o s t s and low
growth o f w o r l d t r a d e ) which w i l l p r o b a b l y f a c e most o i l i m p o r t i n g T h i r d World
countries during the eighties.
I f f i n a n c i a l d i s e q u i l i b r i a became v e r y l a r g e , t h e y may c h a l l e n g e t h e v i a b i l i t y
o f t h e economy and o f t h e s o c i a l i s t government. I n such cases, t h e y may become an i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r ( o r excuse) l e a d i n g t o t h e government's d o w n f a l l
The d e f e a t of
e i t h e r through e l e c t i o n s o r through v i o l e n t c o u n t e r - r e v o l u t i o n .
Manley i n Jamaica l a s t y e a r i l l u s t r a t e s t h e former, w h i l e t h e m i l i t a r y coup
i n 1973 i n C h i l e t r a g i c a l l y i l l u s t r a t e s t h e l a t t e r case. Furthermore, b o t h
experiences suggest t h a t v e r y l a r g e f i n a n c i a l d i s e q u i l i b r i a n o t o n l y s t r e n g t h ened those s o c i a l f o r c e s most s t r o n g l y opposed t o s o c i a l i s m b u t a l s o s t r e n g t h ened those most committed t o s t r i c t economic o r t h o d o x y and " f r e e market" economi CS.
A prudent f i n a n c i a l p o l i c y i s d i f f i c u l t t o implement i n a c o u n t r y a t t e m p t i n g
t o i n t r o d u c e s o c i a l i s m . O f t e n s o c i a l i s t governments t a k e power when t h e
economic s i t u a t i o n i s a l r e a d y r a t h e r c r i t i c a l ( f o r example, when t h e
B o l s h e v i k s t o o k power i n 1917;). Furthermore, t h e t r i u m p h o f a s o c i a l i s t
government o r r e v o l u t i o n r a i s e s tremendous pressures on t h e government t o
g r e a t l y i n c r e a s e r e a l wages and s a l a r i e s , t o spend much more on housing,
education and health. The international or internal situation may require
increases in defence spending. A t the same time, i t may often be d i f f i c u l t
to increase taxes s i g n i f i c a n t l y , as the rich will inevitably be reluctant t o
finance a s o c i a l i s t government 'S increased expenditure. This was particularly clear in Chile, where the Congress - controlled by the opposition - rejected systematically most of President Allende's taxation i n i t i a t i v e s . The
large d e f i c i t s in the Government Budget resulting from such trends will lead
inevitably t o very large increases in the money supply, with negative mediumterm e f f e c t s on i n f l a t i o n and balance of payments.
Though i t i s d i f f i c u l t , the task of defining adequate financial policies
during the t r a n s i t i o n t o socialism i s by no means impossible. I t requires
in the f i r s t place t h a t s o c i a l i s t t h e o r i s t s , who have t o date concentrated
mainly on a c r i t i q u e of the c a p i t a l i s t system or on the p o l i t i c a l aspects of
the t r a n s i t i o n t o socialism - such as the nature of the class struggle devote more of t h e i r time and e f f o r t t o the study of short-term economic management f o r countries trying t o pursue s o c i a l i s t policies. The study of past
experiences - both of successes and f a i l u r e s - should provide very valuable
i n s i g h t , even though obviously they cannot be mechanically applied in different
contexts. Perhaps even more important than t h i s academic o r theoretical purs u i t i s a thorough discussion within s o c i a l i s t parties of these issues, both
when s o c i a l i s t s are in office and before they gain power. A point which needs
t o be c l a r i f i e d a t grass-roots level i s t h a t even under socialism, there are
real constraints t o economic growth; as a consequence, i t i s necessary to decide the increase i n incomes which different groups and sectors can receive
without leading via excessive demand to financial c r i s i s . A1 though there may
be i d l e spare capacity in industry and unemployment of the work-force a t the
time when the s o c i a l i s t government takes over power, i t i s necessary t o c l a r i f y
the extent to which production can r i s e i f these resources are f u l l y used.
What are the bottlenecks in the economy which will i n h i b i t t h e i r f u l l use?
What are the additional problems - of management and planning - which recently
nationalised enterprises may face in the short term and which may further limit
production increases? These questions traditionally receive insufficient
attention by parties on the Left, particularly during the i n i t i a l enthusiastic
stages of a revolution, when so many of t h e i r followers over-estimate the shortterm economic potential of s o c i a l i s t transformations and implicitly believe
t h a t financial problems tend to disappear as structural reforms are carried
out.
-
A t a more concrete l e v e l , i t seems essential t o discuss
even before elections
which may r e s u l t i n a s o c i a l i s t victory - necessary measures t o a v o i d aggregate
demand reaching levels f a r above potential supply. The definition of an incomes policy seems c r u c i a l , such t h a t will not only guarantee income increases
mainly t o those who are l e a s t well paid, but which will also establish limits
t o the general level of wages and salary growth, consistent with the existing
constraints.
Simultaneously, taxation measures need t o be defined which will reduce the
purchasing power of the richer groups. If there i s opposition t o higher taxes
in Parliament (as occurred in Allende's Chile and may even occur in Mitterand's
France), alternative measures t o reduce the income of the richer groups must
be found s o as t o finance higher levels of incomes f o r the poorer groups as
well as higher welfare spending.
The problems o f d e f i n i n g c o r r e c t f i n a n c i a l p o l i c i e s i n t r a n s i t i o n t o s o c i a l i s m
pose an i m p o r t a n t c h a l l e n g e t o s o c i a l i s t s n o t o n l y i n t h e T h i r d World, b u t
a l s o i n t h e i n d u s t r i a l i s e d c o u n t r i e s . Today, t h e y a r e o f g r e a t r e l e v a n c e i n
France; tomorrow, t h e y may be of c r u c i a l importance i n B r i t a i n . Even if a
s o c i a l i s t government i n B r i t a i n took o v e r power a f t e r t h e p r e s e n t shock o f
m o n e t a r i s t p o l i c i e s , and would t h e r e f o r e f i n d an economy w i t h ample i d l e r e sources, t h e dichotomy between an e x p l o s i o n o f e x p e c t a t i o n s and t h e s i g n i f i c a n t - b u t c l e a r l y l i m i t e d - p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f i n c r e a s e d p r o d u c t i o n would s t i l l
be a v e r y i m p o r t a n t one.
As we saw, i n 1919 t h e S o v i e t Comissar f o r Finance a p o l o g i s e d f o r s p e a k i n g
on f i n a n c e , as i t s h o u l d n o t e x i s t i n a s o c i a l i s t community. One hopes t h a t
i n f u t u r e experiences of t r a n s i t i o n t o s o c i a l i s m , economists i n t h e M i n i s t r i e s
o f Finance, C e n t r a l Banks and t r a d e u n i o n o r g a n i s a t i o n s , w i l l be t o o busy w i t h
t h e complex t a s k o f d e s i g n i n g i m a g i n a t i v e and f e a s i b l e f i n a n c i a l p o l i c i e s f u n c t i o n a l t o t h e s u r v i v a l and success o f t h e i r government - t o have t h e t i m e
o r t h e w i l l i n g n e s s t o a p o l o g i s e f o r t h e i r work.
STRATEGIES ALTERNATIVES DE DEVELOPPEMENT DE LA REGION
MEDITERRANEENNE - RELATIONS ENTRE LES STRATEGIES NATIONALES
REGIONALES ET MONDIALES
t
Ce programme, finance par le Departement de la cooperation pour le developpement
de la Republique Italienne, fait partie de l'ensemble des programmes de I'UNITAR
pour lfAfrique, ensemble intitule Strategies pour le Futur de lv~friqueL', donc
le siege est a Dakar sous la direction de Samir Amin, egalement coordinateur de
ce programme particulier.
1.
Couverture du projet, champ des recherches, duree.
1.1 Le Programme couvre l'ensemble de la region mediterraneenne lato sensu.
S'agissantd'un programne
de reflexion sur les strategies du d6veloppement et
. de la cooperation Gconomique et sociale, et non d'un programme technique
portant sur la MediterranGe en tant que mer, il couvrira au Nord les pays suirants: Espagne, Portugal, France, Italie, Yougoslavie, Albanie, Grgce, Turquie,
Malte et Chypre ; au Sud, l'ensemble des pays arabes, y compris ceux non
riverains de la Mediterranee, la coupure du groupe arabe selon que ses composants out ou non une facade sur cette mer nlayant aucun sens economique et
politique.
I1 a pour objet d'examiner les relations (de coherence ou d'incoherence) entre
les diffsrentes strategies nationales en cours ou qui pourraient etre consider
r6es dans la ers ective d'une cooperation approfondie en vue du developpement
d e ~ e n s e m b l e d e;a r e g i ~ .
Bien entendu, les pays de la region ne sont pas isoles du reste du monde et
entretiennent des relations avec d'autres partenaires que ceux de la region.
Par exemple, certains pays dfEurope ont opt6 pour la Comrnunaute Europeenne; la
Yougoslavie et les pays arabes font partie du groupe des Non alignes et du
Tiers Monde (les "77" a u Nations Unies);
les Etats arabes ont opt6 en principe
pour une integration arabe prioritaire etc... A l'exception de llAlbanie, tous
les pays de la region sont largement ouverts sur la division mondiale du
travail, independennnent de leurs options sociales (liberales ou socialistes),
et entretiennent des relations avec toutes les regions du monde industrialise
de lr0uest et de 1'Est. De surcroTt, les pays europens de la region ont, par
Ie biais de la CEE, des relations particulisres avec certains groupes du Tiers
Monde, notament les ACP (dont 4 pays arabes), tanxlis que les Etats de la
Ligue arabe et ceux de 1'O.U.A. (dont sont membres l&s 9 pays arabes dtAfrique)
donncnt a la cooperation afro-arabe une place particuli-ere dans Ie cadre de
la cooperation generale Sud-Sud.
Dans ces conditions, il est necessaire d'examiner non seulement les politiques
nationales, mais egalement celles des regions et groupement consideres, comme
aussi les tendances et options qui se posent au niveau global, Le souci de
privilegier une cooperation mediterrancenne Gventuelle ne doit pas faire
nggliger les autres contraintes qui pgsent sur les pays de la region. I1 ne
s'agit pas,bien entendu,dTopposer un "bloc mediterraneen" eventuel au rests
du monde, ce qui ne correspond au souhait de personne, ni 2 aucune force reelle.
Ce programme est conqu dansuneperspective qui privilegie l'objectif du
developpement de ceux des pays de la region qui sont des pays du Tiers Monde.
Certes, il s'agitd'un programme de cooperation mediterraneenne en vue du developpement de l'ensemble de la region, rives Nord et Sud. Neanmoins les objectifs de l'affermissement de l'autonomie (non autarcique bien entendu)
nationale et globale arabe doivent Stre consid6res dss Ie depart comme essentiels 2 la perspective. D'ailleurs ne peut-on pas considerer que cet objectif
d'un meilleur developpement autocentre des pays du Tiers Monde, pris individuellement et collectivement, loin d'etre un objectif hostile au developpement
global de la plangte, est peut-Stre 1'un des elements essentiels dfun
developpement, pour les pays industrialises connne pour ceux qui le sont moins?
La crise contemporaine pose ces questions, tant au plan des orientations internes du developpement national qu'a celui du systgme mondial. Si l'objectif
d'un monde polycentrique est souhaitable, une plus grande autonomic globale des
pays de la region, au Nord et au Sud de la Mediterranee vis-a-vis des Puissances
dominantes plus fortes economiquement et militairement, n'est-elle pas possible,
et meme necessaire 2 la realisation de cet objectif?
Cette perspective est la raison d'etre meme de ce programme, en sa qualite de
programme associe, integre dans l'ensemble des programmes "Strategies pour le
Futur de l'Afriquel'. Evidemment, en choisissant de retenir la cooperation
mediterrangenne on a accept6 implicitement I'idee que cette cooperation peut
etre coherente avec la priorit6 des objectifs nationaux et populaires arabes.
-l/
-2 /
Coordinateur du programme, Samir Amin, B.P. 3501, Dakar, Senegal
Cf. Dossier FIPAD
1.2. Ce programme de recherches est concu dans un esprit de collaboration
acadgmique entre les groupes de chercheurs interesses. Le programme envisage
de reunir dans les differents groupes de travail qui restent 2 definir 60 2
80 chercheurs de la region mgditerraneenne, en veillant 5 ce que la proportion
de moitie pour Ie Nord et moiti6 pour Ie Sud soit respectee et que chaque
groupe soit transmgditerraneen. Les groupes poursuivront leurs recherches en
commun aussi longtemps qu'il leur paraitra necessaire. Le programme devra
neanmoins Stre pens6 sur la base d'un horizon de 2 2 3 ans. Certains groupes
pourraient etre constitues pour des periodes plus breves, se recomposant au
grg de l'evolution de la recherche d'ensemble. Ainsi done un maximum de
f lexibilite doit etre assure.
Le programme se deroulera sur deux phases. Au cours de la premiere phase de 12
mois, des groupes de recherches seront constitues en vue de la preparation d'un
colloque qui examinera collectivement les resultats de cette etape prgliminaire
et les suggestions de travail. Ce sont ces suggestions qui constitueront Ie
programme de la seconde phase, postgrieure au colloque, au cours de Laquelle les
travaux approfondis conduits dans le cadre des differents groupes feront l'objet
de debats au sein de reunions restreintes d'ateliers. La duree prevue pour la
seconde phase devrait etre assez longue pour permettre un plein epanouissement
du programme, bien que si des engagements moraux de financement couvrant 3 ou
4 ans peuvent etre obtenus, les credits ne seraient d6bloquCs que sur une base
annuelle, selon la coutume.
L'ampleur de la recherche implique un rassemblement pluridisciplinaire; meme si
l'accent est mis sur les problsmes et les options 6conomiques de developpement.
2.
Quelques observations sur la problematique de la recherche
2.1. Les pays de la region mediterraneenne partagent un fonds commun historique
que nu1 n'ignore. Sans tomber dans le discours culturaliste rappelant la place
de la region dans la civilisation universelle et singulierementcelledes mondes
euro-chretien et arabo-islamique, il n'est peut-etre pas inutile de considerer
dans l'histoire proche des elements qui ont pu fa~onner des singularites de
la region par rapport 2 d'autres.
On pourrait, 5 titre illustratif, considerer dans cette optique les themes
suivants:
a) La singularit6 des constructions gtatiques de la region permet-elle de parler
d'un "modSle" de "1'Etat mediterraneen", et de sa politique, par contraste avec
"1'Etat du Nord" ou 1'Etat d'autres regions du Tiers-Monde? Ou bien la division, meme si elle est recente, entre une Mediterranee Nord europeenne et
relativement developpee et une Mediterranee Sud faconnge par la domination
coloniale et semi-coloniale moderne, "sous-d6veloppee", a gomm6 une tradition
commune eventuelle?
Sans doute, dans un passe lointain, l'hellenisme, l'empire remain puis le
christianisme, ont-ils unifie jusqu'z un certain point des civilisations dont
certaines comptent panni les plus anciennes du monde. Qu'en reste-t-il? La
division Europe chretienne-Asie et Afrique musulmanes, le partage de 1'Europe
du Sud entre Rome et Byzance, l'unification ottomane ont-ils bris6 cet heritage
2 jamais? Ou plus reellement c'est le demarrage du capitalisme en Europe qui a
cr66 Ie fosse qui n'a cesse ensuite de se creuser pendant quatre siscles?
Touiours est-il que, aujourd'hui encore, des traits communs paraissent caracteriser 1'Etat et la vie politique dans l'ensemble de la region: classes dirigeantes fonctionnant plus c o m e des oligarchies que des bourgeoisies, rapports
de clans, clienteles et parentes se substituant aux systemes de carrisres etc...
Ces caracteres, que l'on peut qualifier rapidement de "sous-developpes", sontils propres 5 la region, 5 des degres divers, ou se retrouvent-ils ailleurs,
precisement partout oG le developpement capitaliste moderne est encore peu
avance? Proviennent-ils d'un fonds comun: d'une formation sociale qui, de la
fin de 1'Empire remain 5 la Renaissance Europeenne, sur les deux rives de la
Mediterrannee, dans ses formes italiennes iberique, byzantine, arabe et ottomane,
s'est demarque du feodalisme? On a par16 ici d'une "f6odalite"de dignitaires et
de marchands, par opposition 5 la feodalit6 des seigneurs ruraux du Nord. La
place relativement importance des rapports marchands dans la vie economique, dans
l'ideologie et dans l'organisation politique - l'importance urbaine - caract&rlse-t-elle la region et a-E-elle laisse des marques encore actives?
b) La singularits des formations sociales de la region permet-elle l5 aussi de
parler du modele de "societe m6diterran6enne1'.A l'epoque moderne en tout cas
la predominance de la composante agraire dans l'ensemble des classes dominantes
modernisees est un fait general. Fait de sous-developpement sans doute, mats
dont les formes specifiques puisent aux racines profondes de l'histoire.
L'object de cette recherche n'est certainement pas de repondre 5 ces questions
d'histoire, et encore moins de verser dans un quelconque historicisme. Car il
reste que - c'est l5 au moinsunehypothese de travail - la transformation de ces
formations au cours du dernier siecle a accentue des dest-ineesdivergentas. Au
Nord, avec plus ou moins de retard, on est progressivement entre dans l'ere
industrielle capitaliste. Au Sud, la colonisation a brise les tentatives de
renaissance autonome et a pGriphSris6 les societes. L'un des themes de la
recherche pourrait Stre precisement d'examiner - pour les opposer si cela est
correct - les modsles divergents de la modernisation de type central de 1'Italie
et de 1'Espagne (et aussi de la Yougoslavie, de la Grece et du Portugal) et de
celle de type peripherique des pays arabes.
2 . 2 Le caractere globalement moins avance de la region 5 l'epoque moderne et
contem oraine (par rapport 2 1'Europe du Nord ou 5 l"Am6r'ique du Nord) a leg&
Ã
des prob
‘I_
ernes auxquels tous les pays de la region se heurtent aujourd'hui,
notamment: (a) les formes sp6cifiques de l'exploitation de la force de travail
et, (b) le probleme alimentaire.
Ces deux sujets pourraient egalement constituer des themes de recherche transmediterraneens. Sugg6rons ici:
a)
En ce qui concerne les forces de travail:
On a remarque la place que l'emigration occupe ou a occup6 dans l'histoire
recente de presque tous les pays de la region. Mais ce fait c o m u n n'~vo1uet-il pas de manisre divergente aujourd'hui?
Au Nord de la Mediterranee, 1'6migration externe tend 2 se reduire, du moins
avec l'acc6leration de la croissance (en Italic et en Espagne).
Se substitue
5 celle-ci un nouveau mode "d'emploi" local, oG le travailleur est partiellement ouvrier (parfois encore ii l'exterieur) paysan et fournisseur de services
(tourisme).
Ce fait est-il en relation avec la division internationale du
travail europeenne? Temoigne-t-il d'une place relativement subalterne de
1'Europe du Sud, oG les formes de la domination formelle du capital ont encore une place importante? Est-il porteur de ph6nomSnes politiques propres,
c o m e le "populisme"?
Au Sud, l'emigration vers l'exterieur ou vers les villes locales procede
dlun modele plus classique de d6veloppement peripherique, dans lequel l'ecart
villes-campagnes se creuserait. S'y ajoute S l'epoque recente la grande migration intra-arabe.
Peut-on done rattacher ces formes differentes de la force de travail dans les
deux sous-regions 2 des places differences que celles-ci occupent dans la
division internationale du travail?
b) En ce qui concerne le probleme alimentaire:
Le deficit alimentaire est Ie produit recent d'une evolution divergente entre
l'agriculture et l'urbanisation. Cette evolution affecte tragiquement la
region arabe. L'Europe du Sud, en se pliant aux perspectives de la division
europeenne du travail, tant au sein de l'agriculture (renonciation 2 l'agriculture de cereales, de viande et de lait et accent sur l'agriculture de legumes.
et fruits export& vers le Nord) que d'une manicre plus globale, a repondu 2
ce probleme d'une manisre specifique. Le monde arabe doit-il en faire autant,
ou au contraire valoriser, dans le cadre d'une perspective d'autonomie alimentaire, son potentiel agricole? Et par quels moyens: l'appel 2 l'agribusiness
et 2 ses techniques, l'encadrement etatiste-cooperativiste de la petite
paysannerie, ou le contr6le des paysans sur certaines industries conques pour
servir le developpement rural?
2,3 Des elements nouveaux opgrent, produits de1'6volutionmondiale, pour
transformer (dans la meme direction ou dans des directionsdivergentes) ies
economies du Nord et du Sud de la Mediterranee.
On pourrait signaler, parmi les effets de ces evolutions nouvelles et les
problemes qu'elles posent, les questions suivantes:
a) La question de 116nergie vient evidemment en tzte de liste. L'Europe e s t ,
cornme on le salt, dependante 2 l'extreme dans ce domaine, particulierement 2
l'egard du Golfe et de 1'Afrique du Nord. De plus, cette dependance est
renforcee par la place que les petrodollars occupent dans le systeme financier
europeen et par la champ privilegie qu'offre le developpement industriel des
pays petroliers aux placements de capitaux europeens et aux exportations de
technologie.
b) La question de la construction europeenne et des conflits d1int6r6ts au
sein de lTEurope, notamment dans le domaine de la politique agricole commune.
Cette question rejoint celle des effets de l'elargissement de la CEE 2 la Grece,
2 1'Espagne et au Portugal, puisque cet Glargissement remet en cause les avantages consentis aux pays arabes associes, notamment maghr6bins
dont l'agriculture d'exportation est concurrente de celle des pays europeens mentionnes.
c) La question de la cooperation afro-arabe, dont l'ampleur se voit considerabiement .renforcGepar les moyens financiers des membres de 1'OPEP. Le
probleme est de savoir si cette cooperation s'inscrit dans la poursuite de la
tradition des relations Nord-Sud,dont elle renforcerait les moyens,ou si elle
amorce, ou pourrait aino<cer,un type nouveau de relations Sud-Sud concues dans
la perspective de l'autonomie collective ("collective self-reliance".)
d) La question des objectifs strategiques des transnationales (europgennes et
autres) et de leurs plans, dans la crise actuelle, de relocalisations 6ventuelles. Le problsme exige un examen detail16 par branche notamment pour (i) Ie
petrole et la petrochimie, (ii) la chimie, (iii) la siderurgie, (iv) les
industries de l'agribusiness, (v) les industries legsres de main d'oeuvre,
(vi) Ie tourisme. Pour chacune de ces branches, quelle place chacune des deux
sous-regions mediterrangenne, europeenne et arabe, occupe-t-elle dans la DIT,
en fonction des diffgrents scenarios dl&volution globale, regionale et locale?
Chacune de ces questions devrait normalement constituer l'objet d'une recherche
appropri6e d'un groupe transmediterraneen.
2.4 C o m e on l& voit par 1'6nonc6 meme des questions pr6~6dentes. beaucoup
des rgponses aux problemes auxquels les societgs mediterraneennes sont confront6es dependent d'evolutions globales. Crest-3-dire que 1'on ne saurait
Gluder de la problgmatique de la region la question de la politique des puis1'6gard de la Mediterranee. Car i1 y a longtemps que la Mgditerrange
sances
a cesse dlStre contSl6e par des Mgditerraneens: aprss le mare nostrum remain,
l'hegemonie arabe, puis celle des villesitaliennes, est venue 1'6re de la
Mediterranee britannique (Gibraltar, Malte et Suez) aux XIX erne siscle, a
laquelle a succgde, aprss Ie temps des conflits 1914-1945 (le conflit germanobritagnique), 1'Sre de la Mediterranee americaine peut etre remise en cause
par l'apparition dans la region d'autres puissances importantes.
Bien que la recherche envisagge ne porte pas sur la geopolitique mediterraneenne et les politiques des puissances, il est evident que l'impact de cellesci sur les developpements regionaux et nationaux ne saurait Stre efface.
2.5
Une appreciation critique des reponses nationales et regionales en cours
ou envisagges aux defis de notre Zpoque s'impose d ~ c Parmi
.
ces reponses on
signalera trois ensembles de problSmes:
Les problsmes de l'association economique de certains pays arabes 5 la
L'association en question repond-elle aux exigences d'une strategic de
developpement convenable pour les pays du Sud? Est-elle seulement un heritage
des structures faqonnees par la colonisation, notament franqaise,au Maghreb?
a)
CEE.
-
b) Les problemes du "dialogue euro-arabe" et du "trilogue euro-arabo-africain"
Ouels sont les enieux de ces &changes de vue et des neeociations 6ventuelles
qui pourraient en decouler? Comment s'inscrivent ces enjeux dans les strategies
globales de 1'Europe vis-a-vis des Etats-Unis, du Japon, de 1'URSS d'une part,
du monde arabe dans le cadre global du non alignement et de la strategic des
77 d'autre part?
c) Les problsmes des rgponses nationales 2 la crise. La crise represente en
effet un d6fi inungdiat qui appelle parfois des reactions contraires 3 des options 3 plus long terme. On salt qu'en 1929 la crise a entraine, notamment en
Europe du Sud, des replis nationalistes semi-autarcistes puis Ie ralliement
aux uns et aux autres dans le conflit des puissances de l'epoque. L1int6gration
internationale, infiniment plus profonde aujourd'hui , interdirait-elle des
reactions analogues? ~ ' ~ u r o pde
e la CEE resistera-t-elle 3 la crise? En 1929
les pays arabes, alors colonises ou semi-coloniaux, n'etaient pas en situation
de formuler leurs propres politiques de rgponse 2 la crise. Le sont-ils
aujourd'hui? Et comment reagissent-ils en fait ou pourraient-ils reagir?
L'objet de la recherche n'est certainement pas de formuler des recomm2.6
andations aux Etats de la region, mais seulement d'analyser les consequences
des differentes options possibles. I1 reste que ces options globales doivent
etre explicitees pour les uns et les autres.
La region dans son ensemble, avons-nous dit, se situe dans une g a m e de positions moyennes au plan de la division internationale du travail; les pays
europeens mediterraneens dans la gamine moyenne haute, celle de pays industrialises tardivement; les pays arabes, dans une differentiation trZs forte, dans
la gamine moyenne, celle des pays du Tiers Monde semi-industrialises.
La question est done: ces pays ont-ils interet a se rapprocher en se faisant
des concessions mutuelles et en s'octroyant des positions privilegiees, pour
constituer un ensemble plus fort collectivement vis-a-vis d'autres ensembles?
Poser la question dans ces termes c'est aborder evidement la question des preoccupations reelles prioritaires notanunent de 1'Europe. L'Europe se p16occupet-elle avant tout de sa comp6titivit6 avec ses concurrents industrialises, les
Etats-Unis et le Japon? Dans ce cas, elle serait tentee d'envisager ses reiations avec le monde arabe et llAfrique exclusivement comme un moyen de renforcer
cette competitivite, fut-ce au detriment d'un developpement mieux equilibre en ,
faveur du Sud. Si une autre strategic est possible - souhaitable?- fut-ce
precisement au detriment de cette competitivit6, quel pourraient en Stre les
axes principaux? Le "non-alignement" arabo-africain et plus generalement du
Sud, non alignement de faibles au plan economique, peut-il etre renforce par
un "non-alignement" a sa manisre de l'Europe?
3.
Les modalites de mise en oeuvre du programme
3.1 Ce programme de recherches sera conduit-comme un programme associe du
projet UNITAR "Strategies pour le Futur de llAfrique", I1 beoeficiera, comme
programme associe, de l'autonomie financiere, ayant son budget propre.
3.2 Le programme implique la collaboration de chercheurs et centres de.recherches tant europeens qu'arabes et africains. Les themes de travail des
diffsrents groupes, qui ressortent d'ailleurs des paragraphes precedants,
seront definis de maniere a impliquer la constitution de groupes transmgditerraneens. Certains sujets appellent la constitution de groupes afro-arabes
(par exemple le theme de la cooperation afro-arabe). D'autres, necessaires
2 l'intelligence d'ensemble de la recherche, n'impliquent logiquement que la
constitution de groupes europeens (comme par exemple l'analyse des reponses
nationales a la crise d'un pays mediterraneen europgen, ou l'analyse des
rapports Nord-Sud au sein de la CEE). Le soutien de la Cooperation italienne
etant destine 5 l'aide aux pays "en voie de developpement", les etudes de ce
genre ne seront pas financees par le programme. Elles sont nearnoins utiles,
et cela constitue un motif supplementaire pour une recherche active de cooperation.
La liste des centres de recherches et des chercheurs qui seront invites a
s'associer au programme sera determinee ulerieurement, lorsque les milieux
interesses auront et6 syst6matiquement sondes.
NATIVE AMERICANS' STRUGGLE FOR SURVIVAL
an Inter Press Service Feature
by Mario de Cautin
Some 600 million people inhabit the American continents. Thirty million of them
are native to this land, survivors of what has been characterised as 'the worst
genocide in human history'.
There are few detailed statistics concerning the problems of native peoples in
the Americas. Some Latin American countries proudly proclaim their racially
mixed heritage but for the most part, there is a general reticence when it
comes to racial minorities.
To discuss the situation and needs of indigenouspeople would open the subject
of their annihilation and the expropriation of their lands, not to mention contemporary racial discrimination and cultural subjugation.
It would also be difficult to do more than estimate the native population of
four and a half centuries ago, when the European conquerors began to arrive.
The Europeans came first to Mexico, Central America and the Caribbean, later to
South America and finally to North America.
Archeologists today are astounded by the accomplishments of, for example, the
Maya people of Southern Mexico and Northern Central America in the fields of
architecture, mathematics, astronomy, irrigation, etc.
In what is now the valley of Mexico, home of one of the largest metropolises of
the modern world, the Aztec people lived before Colombus came. They maintained
a high order of social organisation and were masters of metal working, jewelry
and trade.
The Inca civilisation of what is now the countries of Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and
part of Chile built 5,000 kilometres (about 3,000 miles) of highways seven
metres wide which were better and longer-lasting than those built in Europe a
century later.
During the conquest and colonisation of America, native people were hung as
'heretics', worked in Mexican and South American silver mines until they died,
and in North America they were simply massacred in large numbers and steadily
backed into the most remote and often least desirable land.
But virulent European diseases, to which the native Americans had no immunity
and for which they had no medicine, took the largest toll.
There were at least 13 million native Americans in what is now the United
States and Canada when the white man came. Now there are about a million left in
the United States and 175,000 in Canada.
The Mapuche people of Chile were never fully conquered, although they are now
beginning to mix with the European descendants. Of the over one million native
people in Chile, there are some 450,000 left.
I n B r a z i l , n a t i v e p e o p l e t o d a y a r e l e g a l l y c o n s i d e r e d a s ' m i n o r s ' , and t h e y
c a n t a k e no p a r t i n l e g a l o r c o n t r a c t u a l p r o c e e d i n g s w i t h o u t b e i n g r e p r e s e n t e d
by a ~ o v e r n m e n t - a p p r o v e d c o u n s e l .
Four c e n t u r i e s a g o , t h e r e were a t l e a s t a m i l l i o n n a t i v e p e o p l e i n B r a z i l ,
today t h e r e a r e s c a r c e l y 1 5 0 , 0 0 0 , most of then1 h i d d e n deep i n t h e Amazon.
The United N a t i o n s Human R i g h t s ~ o m m i s s i o n i n 1979 admonished B r a z i l f o r t h e
f r e q u e n t m a s s a c r e s o f i n d i g e n o u s p e o p l e c a r r i e d o u t by p l a n t a t i o n o w n e r s '
p r i v a t e a r m i e s and goveinment f o r c e s .
I n t h e p a s t t h e u s u a l r e a s o n s f o r k i l l i n g t h e n a t i v e s were g o l 4 , s i l v e r and f e r t i l e l a n d . Now most o f t h e gold and s i l v e r i s gone, b u t on r e s e r v a t i o n s s e t
a s i d e f o r i n d i g e n o u s p e o p l e , i f t h e l a n d i s f e r t i l e i t must be f o u g h t f o r .
Today, uranium, o i l , copper and lumber a r e f r e q u e n t l y t h e background of c l a s h e s
between n a t i v e p e o p l e and b u s i n e s s o r s t a t e i n t e r e s t s .
The s e v e n t h US c a v a l r y massacred a l m o s t a whole t r i b e of S i o u x p e o p l e a t Wounded
Knee, S o u t h Dakota i n 1890. Gold was a t s t a k e t h e n .
I n 1980, t h e US army r e t u r n e d t o Hounded Knee, a g a i n t o a t t a c k t h e S i o u x p e o p l e , t h i s time o v e r
uranium i.n S o u t h D a k o t a ' s Black H i l l s .
The Auca p e o p l e of t h e Ecuadorean Amazon a r e a were f o r c e d o f f t h e i r l a n d when
a Texaco-Gulf c o n s o r t i u ~d i s c o v e r e d o i l t h e r e . The l a n d of t h e Campa p e o p l e i n
t h e P e r u v i a n Amazon i s now b e i n g s o l d o f f i n l o t s t o European d e s c e n d a n t s , a f t e r
t h e Campas were c h a s e d away.
When g o l d and t i n were d i s c o v e r d i n t h e U r a r i c a a v a l l e y , on t h e b o r d e r between
Venezuela and B r a z i l , t h e Yanomami p e o p l e began t o d i e from b u b o n i c p l a g u e and
f o o d p o i s o n i n g , b o t h , s a y i n v e s t i g a t o r s , t h e r e s u l t of c h e m i c a l s s p r a y e d from
h e l i c o p t e r s by t h e w h i t e men.
Of t h e 15,000 Nambiquara p e o p l e l i v i n g i n t h e B r a z i l i a n Mato Grosso f o r e s t s a t
t h e t u r n of t h e c e n t u r y , o n l y 200 s u r v i v e t o d a y .
Reports i n t h e 1960's i n d i c a t e d t h a t 'someone' had dropped candy b a r s from p l a n e s i n t o Nambiquara l a n d s .
Once t h e n a t i v e p e o p l e had d e c i d e d t h e candy was s a f e t o e a t , t h e p l a n e s began
t o d r o p p o i s o n e d candy b a r s t o them.
Quiche Maya p e o p l e went t o Mexico l a s t y e a r t o t e s t i f y a t t h e B e r t r a n d R u s s e l
T r i b u n a l , where t h e y would o n l y a p p e a r w i t h t h e i r f a c e s c o v e r e d . The j a i l s of
n e i g h b o u r i n g Guatemala, where t h e y l i v e a r e f i l l e d w i t h Q u i c h e s , t h e y e x p l a i n e d .
S i x t y p e r c e n t of G u a t e m a l a ' s p o p u l a t i o n are. i n d i g e n o u s p e o p l e .
A c c o r d i n g t o t h e Q u i c h e s ' t e s t i m o n y , t h e Guatemalan army h a s begun r e g u l a r l y
t o r a i d t h e i r communities ' i n s e a r c h of g u e r r i l a s ' .
The r e a l r e a s o n , t h e Quiche
p e o p l e s a y , i s t h a t t h e y l i v e on t o p of t h e l a r g e s t o i l d e p o s i t i n C e n t r a l
America.
Since i t s d i s c o v e r y , t h e Quiches have been i n t e r m i n a b l y h a r a s s e d ,
they t e s t i f i e d .
I n B o l i v i a , where 3 . 3 m i l l i o n Quechua and Aymara p e o p l e make up 6 0 p e r c e n t o f
t h e p o p u l a t i o n , t i n i s t h e backbone of t h e n a t i o n ' s economy, and a l m o s t a l l t h e
m i n e r s a r e i n d i g e n o u s p e o p l e . The mines a r e t h e f o c u s of c i v i l i a n o p p o s i t i o n
t o t h e m i l i t a r y government and c o n s e q u e n t l y t h e f o c u s of government r e p r e s s i o n .
The Ayamard and Quechua p e o p l e l i v e h i g h i n t h e m o u n t a i n s , and t h e mines a r e
a t a h i g h a l t i t u d e a s w e l l , A f r e q u e n t punishment f o r n a t i v e p e o p l e who have
t r a n s g r e s s e d t h e w h i t e man's law i s banishment t o t h e t r o p i c a l lowlands o f
Eastern Bolivia.
P h y s i c a l l y unaccustomed t o l i v i n g i n t h e l o w l a n d s , t h e h i g h l a n d p e o p l e cont r a c t pneumonia and o t h e r r e s p i r a t o r y a i l m e n t s , o f t e n d y i n g i n t h a t u n f a m i l i a r
land.
But t h e r e a r e s t i l l 30 m i l l i o n n a t i v e p e o p l e i n t h e w e s t e r n h e m i s p h e r e , f i v e
p e r c e n t of t h e p o p u l a t i o n .
I n f i v e L a t i n American c o u n t r i e s , t h e y a r e t h e
m a j o r i t y : Guatemala, B o l i v i a , P a r a g u a y , P e r u , and Ecuador.
I n Mexico t h e r e a r e some s e v e n m i l l i o n N a h u a t l s ( d e s c e n d a n t s of t h e A z t e c s ) ,
Mayas, Otomies, Z a p o t e c s , M i x t e c s , T z o l t z i l e s and o t h e r n a t i v e p e o p l e s .
In
Venezuela, a m i l l i o n .
I n Honduras, o v e r 350,000, and a n undetermined number i n
o t h e r C e n t r a l American c o u n t r i e s . I n A r g e n t i n a , t h e r e a r e a few i n d i g e n o u s
p e o p l e i n t h e North and E a s t . I n Uruguay, t h e i n d i g e n o u s p e o p l e were e i t h e r
wiped o u t o r a s s i m i l a t e d i n t o t h e m a i n s t r e a m s o c i e t y .
But t h i s g e n o c i d e was n o t c a r r i e d o u t w i t h o u t c o s t t o t h e dominant c u l t u i e .
The r e v o l t s l e d by L a u t a r o (Mapuche), C a u p o l i c a n ( A r a u c a n i a n ) , Tupac Amaru
( I n c a ) , Cuahutemoc ( A z t e c ) , Hatuey, S i c t i n g B u l l , Geronimo and Red Cloud
frbm t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s p l a i n s r e g i o n , Wovoka, Cajeme and c o u n t l e s s o t h e r s a r e
a symbol o f n a t i v e Americans' c o n t i n u i n g r e s i s t a n c e .
As t h e R u s s e l T r i b u n a l s a i d i n i t s f i n a l s t a t e m e n t , ' t h e I n d i a n s of America
c o n f r o n t t h e machinery of economic e x p l o i t a t i o n and c u l t u r a l c a s t r a t i o n w i t h
t h e c i v i l i s i n g message of an a n c i e n t , unvanquished p e o p l e ' .
.
.
.
i!epo-Provera is a c o n t r a c e p t i v e i n j e c t i o n .
I t i s q i v e n t o t h o u s a n d s of
women a l l o v e r t h e T h i r d World.
Yet i t i s n o t c o n s i d e r e d s a f e enough f o r g e n e r a l u s e i n B r i t a i n o r t h e
U n i t e d S t a t e s o f America. Why a r e t h e r e s u c h d o u b l e s t a n d a r d s ?
The Campaign A g a i n s t D e p - P r o v e r a '5 b o o k l e t g i v e s d e t a i l e d e v i d e n c e o f t h e
d r u g ' s a b u s e by governments, d r u q companies a n d t h e m t e r n a t i o n a l f a m i l y
planning agencies.
. The b o o k l e t s e t s o u t t h e g r i m h e a l t h h a z a r d s o f t h e i n f e c t i o n - r i s k s o f
c a n c e r , Jaiiqei t o t110 c h i l d r e n o f women t a k i n g t h e d r u g , a l a r m i n g s i d e - e f f e c t s .
Women who r e i ' e i v ? t.he d r u q c a n s u f f e r from heavy and u n p r e d i c t a b l e m e n s t r u a l
iyleading, r a p i d weight g a i n , headaches, d e p r e s s i o n ,
loss.
. Monkeys g i v e n Depo-Provera d e v e l o p e d c a n c e r o f t h e womb, b e a g l e dogs developed cancerous b r e a s t tumours, and t h e s e animal experiments suggest t h a t
t h e d r u g i n t e r f e r e s w i t h t h e b o d y ' s n a t u r a l mechanisms f o r f i g h t i n g a l l k i n d s
o f i n f e c t i o n . Yet a l l t h i s e v i d e n c e h a s b e e n l a r g e l y i g n o r e d o r d i s m i s s e d ,
and t h e i n j e c t i o n i s q i v e n t o h e a l t h y women w i t h t h e aim o f c o n t r o l l i n g popul a t i o n growth.
The Campaign A g a i n s t Depo-Provera a r g u e s f o r a world-wide ban on t h i s
c o n t r a c e p t i v e and a c c u s e s t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l f a m i l y p l a n n i n g a g e n c i e s o f r a c i s t
d o u b l e s t a n d a r d s i n e n c o u r a g i n g t h e u s e o f t h i s h a z a r d o u s injection.
.
. k p o - P r o v e r a : a r e p o r t by t h e Campalqn A g a ~ n s tDepo-Prov=ra.
from: Campaign A g a i n s t D e p - P r o v e r a , 3 7 4 G r a y ' s Tnn Road, London W.C.I.
U.K.
Lokuyun i s a
by t h e Centre
ration with a
makers, i t i s
p r o j e c t on democratic and d e c e n t r a l i z e d development, sponsored
f o r t h e Study of Developing S o c i e t i e s . C a r r i e d o u t i n c o l l a b o l a r g e network o f concerned i n t e l l e c t u a l s , a c t i v i s t s and o p i n i o n a response t o t h e human s i t u a t i o n f a c i n g us i n t h e 1980's.
T h i s s i t u a t i o n a r i s e s o u t o f ( a ) a development and p l a n n i n g process t h a t has
i n c r e a s e d p o v e r t y and i n j u s t i c e and rendered m i l l i o n s o f human beings d e s t i t u t e , ( b ) a model of s c i e n c e and technoloqy t h a t has undermined t h e autonomy
and d i g n i t y o f d i v e r s e peoples, t h e i r sources o f sustenance and t h e i r t r a d i t i o n s o f mutual h e l p and s e l f - r e l i a n c e , ( c ) a p o l i t i c a l process t h a t has cent r a l i s e d power, undermined democratic i n s t i t u t i o n s , devalued pub1 i c standards,
and made t h e s t a t e an i n s t r u m e n t o f personal and p r i v a t e i n t e r e s t s , superpower
p e n e t r a t i o n and m i l i t a r i z a t i o n of m a j o r r e g i o n s o f t h e w o r l d .
A g a i n s t these p o w e r f u l s t r u c t u r a l and c u l t u r a l f o r c e s which t h r e a t e n t o undermine democratic i n s t i t u t i o n s t h e r e a r e a l s o some r a t h e r f a r - r e a c h i n g developments o f a p o s i t i v e k i n d a t work which need t o be i d e n t i f i e d , strengthened
and c o n s o l i d a t e d . Among these a r e ( a ) a f a r - r e a c h i n g process o f mass awaken i n g , c h a l l e n g i n g a g e - o l d hegemonies and a s s e r t i n g democratic r i g h t s o f t h e
people, ( b ) a process o f s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l consciousness among some sect i o n s of t h e educated classes who a r e w i l l i n g t o q u e s t i o n e a r l i e r assumptions
about development and technology, a r e engaged i n a v a r i e t y o f experiments,
and a r e w i l l i n g t o j o i n w i t h t h e u n d e r p r i v i l e g e d i n t h e i r b a t t l e a g a i n s t
v e s t e d i n t e r e s t s , and ( c ) a widespread f e e l i n g ( i n c l u d i n g among s e c t i o n s of
p01 it i c a l p a r t i e s and t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n ) t h a t t h e e x i s t i n g s t a t e apparatus
has become an o b s t a c l e and t h a t t h e r e i s need t o draw upon a wide a r r a y o f
a c t i v i s t s o u t s i d e t h e usual p o l i t i c a l and governmental framework - i n v o l u n t a r y i n s t i t u t i o n s , i n new experiments a t t h e g r a s s - r o o t s and i n l o c a l and
r e g i o n a l movements f o r s o c i a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n and d i g n i t y .
Lokayan i s based on t h e b e l i e f t h a t a new movement f o r change can be b u i l t by
drawing upon t h e l a t t e r s e t o f f o r c e s . I t seeks t o do t h i s by engaging t h e
v a r i o u s elements i d e n t i f i e d above - concerned i n t e l l e c t u a l s , g r a s s - r o o t s act i v i s t s and men and women o f t a l e n t and experience drawn f r o m d i v e r s e f i e l d s i n a s e r i e s o f d i a l o g u e s i n v a r i o u s r e g i o n a l c o n t e x t s as w e l l as across r e g i o n s on m a j o r i s s u e areas.
Lokayan a l s o o r g a n i s e s n a t i o n a l c o l l o q u i a , h e l d w i t h a view t o b r i n g i n g t o g e t h e r a c t i v i s t s , concerned p r o f e s s i o n a l s and e x p e r t s on a common p l a t f o r m t o
d i s c u s s c e r t a i n n a t i o n a l i s s u e s and i n p a r t i c u l a r those t h a t a f f e c t t h e
oppressed and p e r i p h e r a l segments o f s o c i e t y . The assumption i s t h a t so many
micro-movements t o which t h e a c t i o n groups a r e drawn a r e a response t o a
l a r g e r m a l a i s e and p r o v i d e t h e rudiments o f an a1 t e r n a t i v e model o f development. There i s a need t o a r t i c u l a t e t h e s e v a r i o u s responses i n t o a c o n s o l i d a t e d and s y s t e m a t i c c r i t i q u e o f t h e e s t a b l i s h e d models and a frame o f a c t i o n
I / Exchange Building, 13 Alipur Road, Delhi 110054, India
-
towards an a1 t e r n a t i v e .
Lokayan has a small research wing which engages i n dialogues with a crosss e c t i o n of the Indtan people i n various regions and t r i e s t o bring t h e i r
thinking, values and a s p i r a t i o n s a t the centre of our educational, economic
and p01 i t i cal i n s t i t u t i o n s .
In order t o f a c i l i t a t e t h i s l a r g e r p o l i t i c a l process, Lokayan puts out and
c i r c u l a t e s as widely as possible the r e s u l t s of a l l these a c t i v i t i e s , as well
as c r i t i q u e s t h e r e o f , so t h a t gradually t h e r e emerges a new ideological
c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n t h a t provides a b a s i s f o r a c t i o n a t various l e v e l s and i n
various f i e l d s .
F i n a l l y , and t h i s follows a11 t h a t i s s a i d above, Lokayan seeks t o c o n t r i b u t e
t o ending the i s o l a t i o n and fragmentation t h a t divides the various movements
f o r change and t o f o s t e r cohesion and unity in t h e ranks of those who would
l i k e t o a c t together but a r e , f o r various reasons, unable t o do s o .
Along these various l i n e s , Lokayan, which s t a r t e d i t s various a c t i v i t i e s in
mid-1980, has organised a s e r i e s of regional a s well as i n t e r r e g i o n a l dialogues
on p e r t i n e n t i s s u e s , and through t h e s e , seeks t o b u i l d a network of a c t i v i s t s ,
i n t e l l e c t u a l s and c i t i z e n s engaged in a wideranging c r i t i q u e of e x i s t i n g
theory and a c t i o n and i n a c t i v e l y moving towards an a l t e r n a t i v e framework of
theory and a c t i o n . The Lokayan B u l l e t i n ( a l s o brought o u t in Hindi and,
s h o r t l y , i n o t h e r regional languages) i s a medium t o f a c i l i t a t e such a network
and f o r moving towards a consolidated movement f o r s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l change.
During the f i r s t 18 months of i t s operation, thanks l a r g e l y t o the overwhelming
response of various l o c a l a c t i v i s t s , Lokayun w i l l have ( a ) organised eighteen
regional dialogues in eleven s t a t e s and union t e r r i t o r i e s , ( b ) held t h r e e
colloquia on major areas of national importance, ( c ) held three national l e v e l
c o n s u l t a t i o n s with e x p e r t s and a c t i v i s t s , ( d ) brought out t h r e e i s s u e s of i t s
B u l l e t i n in English, two i n Hindi and one in G u j a r a t i . B u l l e t i n s in other
regional languages a r e being planned.
~ h r o u ~ h a tl hl i s the Lokayan network has energised, d i r e c t l y and i n d i r e c t l y ,
a v a r i e t y of i n d i v i d u a l s engaged i n a c t i o n movements on behalf of t h e people,
mostly the underprivileged and deprived - t h e d a l i t s , t h e t r i b a l s and t h e
r u r a l poor generally. These a r e reported i n t h e B u l l e t i n . I t s e l f not an
a c t i v i s t o r g a n i s a t i o n , Lokayan seeks only t o c l a r i f y i s s u e s , bring people who
a r e anyway engaged in various a c t i v i t i e s t o g e t h e r and make them think and a c t
t o g e t h e r . Through the same process i t a l s o seeks t o h i g h l i g h t i n t e l l e c t u a l
and ideological i s s u e s imnanent in such s t r u g g l e s and which c a l l f o r systematic
study and debate with a view t o moving towards a new c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n of i s s u e s
and answers r e l e v a n t t o our time, the Indian s o c i e t y and i t s l a r g e r global
con t e x t .
LETTERS
I have i n t e n d e d t o w r i t e f o r some t i m e t o thank you most c o r d i a l l y f o r sending
me t h e IFDA D o s s i e r from t h e beginning, a D o s s i e r which I have come t o value
and p r e s e r v e , n o t o n l y f o r m y s e l f , b u t a l s o t o lend t o o t h e r s . I must honestl y a d m i t t h a t I was s c e p t i c a l o f t h e i d e a a t f i r s t . The reasons you w i l l understand: I have been guided through my l o n g c a r e e r i n development by t h e conv i c t i o n t h a t t r u e development comes from t h e u n f o l d i n g o f t h e s o c i e t i e s concerned, p r o p e l l e d m a i n l y by t h e i r own dynamic, i . e . by t h e h e a l t h y f o r c e s i n s i d e them. My s c e p t i c i s m , t h e r e f o r e , was one o f p r i n c i p l e , t o t h e e f f e c t t h a t
o u t s i d e i n f l u e n c e s a r e , i n t h e f i n a l a n a l y s i s , m a r g i n a l , o f t e n d i s t o r t i n g and,
a t b e s t , m e r e l y a general c o n t e x t w i t h d i v e r s e r e a c t i v e e f f e c t . You have conv i n c e d me t h a t a l i v e l y forum o f exchange o f n o v e l , o f t e n p i o n e e r i n g , ideas
u s u a l l y generated from w i t h i n d e v e l o p i n g s o c i e t i e s and w i d e l y disseminated can
have a profound i m p r e s s i o n on t h o u g h t and p r a c t i c e and can m a t e r i a l l y a i d t h e
s t i r r i n g and u n f o l d i n g which I have mentioned. I t a l s o serves as a c o r r e c t i v e
t o many, t h e dominant, ideas t h a t obscure issues and d i s t o r t understanding.
B u t I am n o t w r i t i n g t o l e c t u r e t o you. I have a modest r e q u e s t t o make and an
o f f e r t o mention. I have r e t i r e d from FAO, where I worked f o r a g r a r i a n r e f o r m
and r u r a l development, I have now completed a m a j o r a n a l y s i s - o f book s i z e o f
t h e p o l i t i c a l economy o f a g r a r i a n c o n f l i c t and r e f o r m on a w o r l d s c a l e aimed
a t e l u c i d a t i n g t h e f o r c e s a t work and t h e c o n t e x t , and I am r e t u r n i n g t o my
n a t i v e Cyprus t o work on " a l t e r n a t i v e development".
I f you w i s h t o c o n t i n u e
y o u r g e n e r o s i t y you can send me t h e D o s s i e r t h e r e . My o f f e r i s t h a t I would
be w i l l i n g t o c o n t r i b u t e t o y o u r cause i n any way t h a t w i l l h e l p you, now t h a t
I h o l d no o f f i c i a l p o s i t i o n . I t r u s t t h a t y o u r good work w i l l blossom f u r t h e r .
D. C h r i s t o d o u l o u , F l a t 21, Park Court, 6 Char. Mouskos S t r . N i c o s i a 162, Cyprus
We s i n c e r e l y a p p r e c i a t e y o u r p r i n t i n g o f "... Fear, A n x i e t y and Hate we s t i l l
keep ... b u t we know o u r lessons a l i t t l e b e t t e r now." - page 71 - 73 IFDA
D o s s i e r 26.
U n t i l t h e p r e s e n t , t h e r e has been no p o s i t i v e changes i n t h e l a n d i n q u e s t i o n .
Very s i g n i f i c a n t though t o us i s t h e s t r o n g and conscious s o l i d a r i t y o f t h e
people - t h e peasants i n v o l v e d i n t h e case. We w i l l w i n t h i s one. We know
t h e r e i s no hope i n t h e p r e s e n t system t o b r i n g t h a t about. We know our
lessons.
Again o u r s i n c e r e thanks f o r t h e awareness t h a t y o u r p u b l i c a t i o n o f t h e
a r t i c l e w i l l generate a11 over. We w i l l be happy t o share f u r t h e r t h e depth
o f t h i s e x p e r i e n c e w i t h more f r i e n d s .
L o t S. Miranda, P r e s i d e n t o f t h e Punla Foundation I n c o r p o r a t e d , P.O.
Quezon C i t y , P h i l i p p i n e s .
Box AC-378
DISARM OR DIE
That was the main message from the representative of over 70 million trade
unionists worldwide when a special session of an enlarged International
Confederation of Free Trade Unions Executive Board met in Brussels in
November. The special Board meeting, on the single topic of peace, security
and disarmament, examined the unions* vital role in efforts to achieve lasting peace. The Board adopted a detailed policy document and an Appeal for
Immediate Resumption of Negotiations on Disarmament.
Linking peace with the issues of unemployment, hunger, poverty and oppression,
the Appeal stresses that "defence requirements do not justify the arms race".
At the same time, states must, in line with the United Nations Charter,
"refrain from the threat or use of force against the territorial integrity or
political independence of any nation".
The ICFTU rejects "the myth that nuclear weapons are only for defence" and
says that their deterrent effect is "outweighed by the threat to security".
The idea of a limited nuclear war is "a fatalillusion". Condemning both "the
reliance on nuclear weapons" and "the build-up of conventional arms", and
pointing out that the one can be used as a pretext for the other, the ICFTU
insists that governments "must disarm or life will be obliterated". It
therefore appeals "to all governments concerned":
- to abandon the illusion that they can achieve security through increasing
nuclear and conventional forces;
- to resume immediately negotiations leading to effective disarmament
measures under international control;
-
to take and implement confidence-building measures;
-
to enforce fully existing treaties, particularly on non-proliferation
of nuclear arms;
-
to commit themselves to promoting detente between East and West and
the resolution of conflicts through negotiation and agreement: and
immediately
- to agree on the withdrawal and termination of production of SS 20 missiles
by the URSS and the abandonment of the production and deployment by the
USA ana its allies of Cruise and Pershing I1 missiles and the production
of enhanced radiation (neutron) weapons.
The nolicv document makes similar noints. More narticularlv. it emnhasises
the urgent need for effective international control of the arms trade and for
immediate steps towards general balanced disarmament under effective international control.
In addition to the disarmament measures mentioned in the Appeal, there should
be "agreement on the creation and progressive enlargement of nuclear-free zones".
The employment effects of disarmament are an important consideration, The
ICFTU document puts the number of people involved at about 60 million - half
in industry, half in the armed forces. The resources used for making armaments
could be better devoted to peaceful, constructive production which would "create
more jobs than the capital-intensive defence industries',' However, many highly
influential national and international companies have a "vested interest" in
maintaining arms production. Reconversion to alternative production must be
under public control, with union participation. Commitment to reconversion must
be part of future disarmament agreements. National and international action on
reconversion and the creation of alternative employment is essential.
The arms race, says the ICFTU, "diverts resources which are crucial for the development of the Third World", and it therefore insists that the armament
budgets of all nations should be cut and the resources reallocated to development.
For the reasons cited in the Appeal, the policy document stresses that
nuclear strategy endangers security.
The ICFTU and its affiliates undertake to promote all the above aims, and will
invite assistance in this from International Trade Secretariats and friendly
trade union organisations. The unions will campaign both by informing the
workers and the public at large of what is at stake and by influencing governments and intergovernmental organisations.
MEDECINE INDIGENE ET POPULAIRE D'AMERIQUE LATINE
Le rapport d'un Symposium international reuni 2 Rome en 1977 sur ce theme vient
de nous parvenir. Ce symposium, qui a reuni des specialistes de diverses disciplines (medecins, historiens, ethnologues, botanistes, pharmaciens), apporte une
contribution importante 2 l'etude scientifique de la medecine traditionnelle
latino-americaine. (Rome: Istituto Italo-Latino Americana, 1979).
Par un travail methodique rigoureusement contr616, les chercheurs s'efforcent
de decrire la medecine 'indienne' avec le souci permanent de la confronter avec
la medecine occidentale. Un exemple, la recherche de l'efficacite de la phytotherapie traditionnelle: le probleme essentiel, pour certains biologistes ayant
une formation anthropologique, est d'etudier un modele experimental pour l'analyse des plantes indigenes et l'evaluation des doses reproductibles.
L'etude comparative des valeurs respectives de la therapeutique traditionnelle
et de la medecine moderne occidentale constitue un travail de base indispensable; 11 ne devient fructueux que s'i1 est suivi d'une reelle evolution des mentalitgs qui permette une integration des deux medecines. De meme que l'observateur occidental doit se liberer de l'idee que la science medicate occidentale devenue "cosmopolite" - est la seule veritable, le therapeute indien doit pouvoir degager et reconnattre les valeurs effectives de la medecine traditionnelle et y integrer les elements de la mgdecine 'cosmopolite'.
Dans le discours medical qui s'instaure entre le m6decin et Ie patient, il existe un rituel therapeutique propre a chaque culture. C'est peut-Ztre sur cette
trame intime commune que l'on pourra essayer d'integrer differentes hedecines
au sein d'une communaute rurale ou urbaine. (Dr. Nguyen Ngoc Hanh).
FOOTNOTES / NOTES / NOTAS
L O C A L SPACE
.
l/
Mud, mud, by Anil Agarwal -
Housing may be the Third World's most unsolvable problem. In most cities of
Africa, Asia and Latin America, from one-quarter to over half the people live
in dilapidated, makeshift shelters in slums and shantytowns, and the numbers
are growing. Between 1975 and 2000, urban dwellers will double in East Asia,
increase tuo-and-a-half times in Latin America, and treble in Africa and South
Asia.
Third World planners have also neglected rural housing. A UN body reports:
'As many as seven out of ten homes in the rural areas of developing countries
are currently so unsuitable for human habitation as to require replacement or
major alteration". Even with the rush to the cities, it is likely that 46 percent of the world's population will still be living in Third World villages
by the torn of the century in extremely bad conditions under leaky, makeshift,
wormy roofs.
Many Third World governments have responded by setting up housing programmes,
yet their efforts at best, have proven futile. Most households are too poor
to pay for even the cheapest approved dwellings that can be built.
Against this background, Anil Agarwal examines what governments and aid agencies are doing about the problem - and what the poor can do for themselves.
Housing standards, he says, have mostly been adopted from the West Official
housing schemes have emphasized the "delivery of housing units", something
which the poor can do for themselves, given the right opportunities. Also,
housing schemes have paid little attention to local materials, and encourage
imports of cement and steel. Cement, argues Agarwal, is too expensive to meet
Third World housing needs. But mud, adobe, earthbricks, soil-cement and other
traditional materials are cheap enough to make a big impact. In addition, they
are readily available, require less capital, and can be produced and used by
poor people themselves.
Mud technology grew out of the cumulative experiences of peoples over hundred
of years. History shows that mud has built palaces and cathedrals, vaults and
arches. In the Nile Valley mud buildings have stood for three hundred years.
Even today, over half che Third World's population lives in mud buildings of
one form or another.
Mud homes provide excellent insulation; they are cooler in the summer and
hotter in winter than concrete. Although they are cheap and strong, mud is
easily eroded by water, does not easily stick to wood, and is difficult to
fashion into roofs. But improvements in design and technology can counter
these problems, Agarwal says, and he cites a variety o f interesting country
experiences.
-l/
(London:
Earthscan 1980), 100 pp.
(10 Percy Street, London W1P ODR).
The second half of !And, m 3 is devoted to studies in Iran, India, Afghanistan,
China and 16 other countries which illustrate the potential of earth-based
architecture in a variety of cultures and climates. It documents age-old
Dxilding techniques and designs and modern-day housing schemes that utilize
these. Here, Agarwal also acknowledges the contributions of Egyptian Hasan
Fathy, author of "Architecture for the Poor" - the first serious attempt to
focus on mud architecture. From CENDHRRA DEVELOPMENT MEMO, P.O. Box 458
Greenhills, San Juan, Metro Manila, Philippines.
.
Carlos Delgado, "Dcsarrollo y participaci6nW, Socialismo y Participacion
(no.16, Dirienbre 19dl), pp.23-33.
. Henk Thomas and Chris Lagan, Mondragon: An economic analysis (London:
George Alien & Unwin, 1982), 218p.
. Odida T. Quamina, The social organization of. Plantation Mackenzie: An
account of life in the Guyana mining enterprises (United Nations Research
institute for Social Development, Participation Occasional Paper, Report no.
61.4). mimec. 35pp.
. Warner Woodworth, "The emergency of economic democracy in the United States",
Economic Analysis and Workers' Management (vol.. XV no.21, pp.207-218.
p
.
-
.
Nandita Haksar, "The nineteenth century social reform movement in India and
the position of women", Man and Development (vol.111, no.4, December 1931),
pp. 119-133.
.
Assignment Children,"Breast-feeding and health" (55/56: 2/1981)
(UNICEF, Villa Le Bocage, Palais des Nations, 1211 GenGve 10), 224pp.
.
Kathleen Newland, Infant mortality and the health of societies, Worldwatch
Paper 47, December 1981 (Worldwatch Institute, 197'76 Massachusetts Avenue, N.W.
Washington, D.C. 20036, USA), 56pp.
. The Aga Khan Award for Architecture, Toward an architecture in the spirit
of Islam (Proceedings of Seminar One in the series "Architectural Transformations in the Islamic World" held in Aiqlemont, Gouvieux, France, April 1978),
119pp.
---- , Architecture as symbol and self-identity (Proceedings of Seminar Four
in the series "Architectural Transformations in the Islamic World", held in
Fez, Morocco, 9-12 October 1979), 107pp.
---- , Places of public gathering in Islam (Proceedings of Seminar Five in
the series "Architectural Transformations in the Islamic World", held in Amman,
Jordan, 4-7 May 1980), 151pp.
.
D. ThGry, "Le programme biogaz en Inde et en Chine - Une technologie
6cologiqueuient approprise dans des contextes socio-Gconomiques tres contrastC!s",
Nouvelles de 1'6cod6veloppement-.(no.18, Septembre lr481)
NATIONAL SPACE
.
Denis Goulet, Survival with integrity: Sarvodaya at the crossroads (Marga
Institute. 61, Isipathana Mawatha, Colombo 5, Sri Lanka, 1931), 106 p.
. Jon Halliday, "The North Korean Enigma", New Left Review ;'-,o.l27,May-June
1961), pp. 18-52.
p
, "The North Korean Model: Gaps and Questions", World Development
no.Y/iO, 1981j , pp. 889-905
. Hans-JGrgen Engelbrecht, The policy of export pronotion and its limitations
for the development of a semi-industrialised country: The case of South Korea
(University of East Anqlia, Development Studies Occasional Paper no.14, October
19811, mimeo. 74pp.
.
Brian Feqan, Rent-capitalism in the Philippines (University of the Philippines, Research and Working Papers, 'Third World Studies: Series no.?5, February 1981), mimeo. 32pp.
. Gary Hawes, The State, TNCs and agricultural development in the Philippines
(University of the Philippines, Research and Working Papers, Third World
Studies: Series no.24, January 1981), mimeo. 13pp.
.
Andre Gunder Frank, "Kampuchea, Vietnam, China: Observations and Reflections"
Alternatives (Vol.VI1, no.2, Fall 1981), pp.229-240.
.
Johannes B. Opschoor, zvironmental resources utilisation in communal
Botswana (National Institute of Development and Cultural Research, University
College of Botswana, Working Paper no.38), mimeo. 143pp.
.
Dag Poleszynski, The dominant. way of life In Norway: Positive and negative
aspects (University of Oslo, Goals, Processes and Indicators of Development
Project, UN University), mimeo. 38pp.
---- , Overdevelopment and alternative ways of life: The case of Norway
(University of Oslo, Goals, Processes and Indicators of Development Project,
UN University) mimeo. 35pp.
.
Autoqestions (no.7, automne 1981), "Irlande: Au-deiA du terrorisme"
THIRD
WORLD SPACE
. Pierre Judet, Les nouveaux pays industriels (Paris: Les editions ouvrieres
19811, 174pp.
.
Karl W. Menck, "Economic and technical co-operation among the developing
countries", Economics (vol.24, 19811, pp.87-108.
.
Rodolfo Stavenhagen, Between underdevelopent and revolution: A Latin
+ 204 pp.
American perspective (New Delhi: Abhinav Publciations, 19811, viii
-
.
Felipe Herrera, El escenario latinoamericano y el desafio cultural
(Santiago, Chile: Editorial Galdoc, 1981), 114pp.
.
Isaias Flit, "Integraci6n tecnoloqica en America Latina y el Caribe: Un
Plan de Accion", Socialismo y Participation (no.15, Setiembre 1981), pp.105-116.
.
.
Radomiro Tomic, " Que hacer?", Analisis No. 40 Ano IV. Nov.81 (separate)
Santiago, Chile.
Christian Liepert and Udo E. Simonis, "Social indicators and development
planning", Economics (vol.24, 1981), pp.47-67.
.
Samir Amin, "An alternative strategy for development: The role for indusno.83 (vol.14, no.5,
trialization in the service of agriculture", E,
September-October 1981), pp.27-32.
.
Lawrence R. Alschuler (ed.), Dependant agricultural development and agrarian
reform in Latin America (Ottawa, Ontario: University of Ottawa Press, 1981),
188pp.
. Khushi M. Khan (Hsrg.), Self-reliance als nationale und kollektive
Entwicklungsstrategie (MUnchen, Weltforum Verlag, 1980), 647pp.
GLOBAL SPACE
.
Johan Galtung, Peace and world structure (Essays in Peace Research, Vol.IV)
(Copenhagen: Christian Ejlers, 19801, 735pp. In this fourth of five volumes
of Essays in Peace Research, the author discusses the peace problematique
between societies. The book is divided into four parts: 1. International
interactions, 2. An analysis of the world structure, 3 . Technical assistance
and 4. Predictions for the 70s and 80s. In the section dealing with international interaction, such subjects as summit meetings, diplomacy, foreign
news and air communication are discussed, but also the East-West system and
Norway as an international actor are touched upon. Part 2 focusses on such
themes as integration and imperialism, non-territorial actors and general
world structure.
---- Peace problems: Some case studies (Essays in Peace Research, Vo1.V)
(Copenhagen: Christian Ejlers, 19801, 498pp. Peace problems: Some case studies
is the fifth and last volume in the series Essays in Peace Research. It differs from the others in being more focussed on concrete peace problems: on
European security and cooperation, on the Middle East, the Korean problem,
Cuba as a model of anti-imperialist struggle and socialist development; the
US in Indo-China and its aftermath (defining for a whole generation the essence
of peace politics). The second part of the volume, however, is concerned with
particular issues, such as the explorations into space, summit meetings, ecology and class politics, technical assistance as an instrument of Western
expansion, the Law of the Sea conferences; Puqwash as an approach is also
dealt with. In the final essay Galtung outlines new tasks for peace studies,
beyond the horizons of the 60s and 70s, and there is also a dialogue with some
of the critics of his approaches.
.
Johan G a l t u n g , World c o n f l i c t f o r m a t i o n p r o c e s s e s i n t h e 1980s: Prolegomenon
I 1 1 f o r a GPID world model ( U n i t e d N a t i o n s U n i v e r s i t y , P r o j e c t on G o a l s ,
P r o c e s s e s and I n d i c a t o r s o f Development, GSDP-GPID S e r i e s , 1 9 8 1 ) , mimeo. 64pp.
.
Roland G. Simbulan, U.S. f o r e i g n and militaryi n Asia: A T h i r d World
p e r s p e c t i v e ( U n i v e r s i t y o f t h e P h i l i p p i n e s , Research and Working P a p e r s T h i r d World s t u d i e s , S e r i e s no.26, May 1 9 8 1 ) , mimeo., 33pp.
.
Noam Chomsky, "The c o l d war and t h e superpowers", ~ o n t h l yReview ( v o l . 3 3 ,
no.6, November 1 9 8 1 ) , pp.1-10.
.
David M. K r i e q e r , Countdown f o r s u r v i v a l (Rotterdam: Foundation Reshaping
t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l Order (RIO), 1 9 8 1 ) , 30pp.
.
William M. Arkin, Research g u i d e t o c u r r e n t m i l i t a r y and s t r a t e g i c a f f a i r s
(Washington, D.C.: I n s t i t u t e f o r P o l i c y S t u d i e s , 1 9 8 1 ) , 232pp.
. J. C a b a l l e r o , G. N o t t , A. Wood and M. L a j o L . , I n t e r n a t i o n a l Monetary Fund
p o l i c i e s i n t h e T h i r d World: Case s t u d i e s of Turkey, Z a i r e and Peru
( U n i v e r s i t y o f E a s t A n g l i a , Development S t u d i e s O c c a s i o n a l Paper no.8,
F e b r u a r y 1 9 8 1 ) , mimeo. 22+12+34+13pp.
. A l b e r t o Jim6nez d e Lucio, "The E a s t , t h e South and t h e t r a n s n a t i o n a l
c o r p o r a t i o n s " , CEPAL Review, no. 1 4 , August 1981, pp. 51-61.
.
The M u l t i n a t i o n a l Monitor, v o l . 3 ,
on M u l t i n a t i o n a l C o r p o r a t i o n s .
no.1, J a n u a r y 1982: 1981 Annual R e p o r t
.
Frank Long, R e s t r i c t i v e b u s i n e s s p r a c t i c e s , t r a n s n a t i o n a l c o r p o r a t i o n s and
development: A s u r v e y (Boston/The Hague/London: M a r t i n u s N i j h o f f P u b l i s h i n g ,
19811, 166pp.
.
The S h i p p i n g Research Bureau, O i l t a n k e r s t o South A f r i c a
S h i p p i n g Research Bureau, 1 9 8 1 ) , 90pp.
(Amsterdam: The
.
Henk Kox an8 Arno van d e r Kruys, The p a s s e n g e r c a r i n d u s t r y : T e n d e n c i e s o f
r e l o c a t i o n o f p r o d u c t i o n t o p e r i p h e r a l c o u n t r i e s ( T i l b u r g U n i v e r s i t y , The
N e t h e r l a n d s , Development Research I n s t i t u t e , O c c a s i o n a l Paper no.11, 1981),42pp.
.
C. K l i j s and F. S c h u u r s , Technology and redeployment: A c a s e s t u d y i n
cocoa p r o c e s s i n g ( T i l b u r g U n i v e r s i t y , Development Research I n s t i t u t e , Occasiona l Paper no.12, 1 9 8 1 ) , 33pp.
. Davidson N i c o l , UNITAR, L u i s E c h e v e r r i a and A u r e l i o P e c c e i ( e d s . ) , Regiona l i s m and t h e New I n t e r n a t i o n a l Economic Order:
Studies presented a t t h e
UNITAR-CEESTEM-Club o f Rome Conference a t t h e United N a t i o n s (Oxford:
Perqamon P r e s s , 1 9 8 1 ) , 400pp.
.
J o r g e Loyoza and R o s a r i o Green ( e d s . ) , I n t e r n a t i o n a l t r a d e , i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n and t h e New I n t e r n a t i o n a l Economic Order (Oxford: Pergamon P r e s s , 1 9 8 1 ) ,
.
F r i e d r i c h E b e r t Foundation ( e d s . ) , Towards One World? I n t e r n a t i o n a l r e s p o n s e s
t o t h e B r a n d t Report (London: Temple Smith, 1 9 8 1 ) , 381pp.
.
John A. Mathieson, Basic needs and the New International Economic Order:
A n e n i n g for North-South collaboration in the 1980s (Overseas Development
Council, Washington, D.C., Working Paper no.4, 1981), 155pp.
. Antoine Brawand, Nord-Sud: D s a d6pendance t5conomique au d6veloppement
endogene (Institut universitaire d'etudes du developpement, Geneve, Itineraires
no. 17, 1981), 221pp.
.
Khushi M. Khan, Nord-Sud-Dialog und die Solidarisierung innerhalb der
Dritten Welt (Hamburg: Deutschen Obersee-Institut, 1981), 67pp.
.
Jean-Jacques de Dardel, La coop6ration au dGveloppernent: ~ e r t i t u d e s ~
interrogations (Geneve: Institut universitaire d'etudes du developpement, 1981)
405pp.
.
Institut universitaire d'etudes du d6veloppement, GenSve, -Annuaire SuisseTiers Monde / Jahrbuch Schweiz Dritte Welt, 1981, no.1 1Geneve: IUED, 1981),
333pp. with a paper by Beat Alexander Jenny.
.
Lynn Feintech, China's modernization strategy and the United States
(Overseas Development Council, Washington, D.C., Development Paper no.31, 1981)
7 2 ~ ~ .
.
Lester R. Brown, Building a sustainable society (New York: W.W. Norton
1981), 433pp.
&
CO,,
.
colin Norman, The god that limps: Science and technology in the ~ighties
(New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 1981), 224pp.
P E R I OD I CALS
.
Balai Quarterly Journal, published by Philippines based BALAI Fellowship
and edited by Sr. Mary Soledad Perpinan; 4 issues/year, 24pp. per issue. The
Asian word for 'house', BALAI is also an acronym that stand for 'Building
Asian Links Against Imperialism'. BALAI is open and welcoming to all who wish
to be in fellowship. Its binding force is a common concern for the peoples of
Asia, victims like others in the Third World of the insiduous effects of imperialism in all its forms. Each edition of the Balai Quarterly Journal serves
as a primer to a critical international issues. Simple and concise, popular
in form, the journal. is primarily published for those who cannot go to libraries nor subscribe to expensive periodicals. Another feature that distinguishes the journal from others is its firm conviction that, qiven the opportunity,
Asia has all the natural and human resources necessary for self-reliance.
(BALAI, P.O. Box SM-447, Sta. Mesa, Manila, Philippines).
.
The Arab Alternative Futures Dossier, no.2, September 1981. Published jointly
by.the United Nations University and the Third World Forum, in English and
Arabic. Third World Forum, Middle East Office, 39 Dokki St., P.O. Box 43, Orman,
Cairo, Egypt.
MATERIALS RECEIVED
L O C A L SPACE
.
Budd L. Hal1,Participatory research, popular knowledge and power (International council f o r Adult Education, 29 Prince Arthur Avenue, Toronto, Ontario,
Canada M5R 1B2), 9pp.
.
T.K. Moulik, Bureaucracy for people's participation: A contradiction or
congruence? (Indian Institute of Management, Ahmedabad-380 015, India), 21pp.
.
Alain Castille, J'ai rencontre Ie messie de 1'6nergie gratuite, & Crise de
1'6nergie: La solution (Centre des technologies appropriees, 54 rue de 1'Tle
aux Corbeaux, 4200 Silessin-Liege, Belgique), 2pp. & 4pp.
N A T I O N A L SPACE
.
Ricardo Lagos, Le secteur emergent de la bourgeoisie (PREALC, Casilla 618,
Santiago, Chile), 9pp.
.
Vinod Vyasulu, The Orissa aluminium complex (Indian Institute of Management,
33 Langford Road, Bangalore-560 027), 8pp.
.
g:
Manuel Berrera,
Autoritarismo qolZtico, aperturismo econ6mico y
politica laboral (Casilla 1021, Santiago 22, Chile), l2pp.
T H I R D WORLD SPACE
.
B.M. Udgaonkar, Science and technology capability building in developing
countries: Some issues (Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, Homi Bhabha Rd.,
Bombay-400 005, India), 8pp.
.
Marcos Kaplan, Human rights and political development in Latin America
(Torre dos de Humanidades, 4 Piso, Mexico), 25pp.
.
R. Coster , Public sector involvement in fertilizer import procurement in
Asia (ESCAP, Agricultural Division, Rajadamun Ave., Bangkok), 4pp.
.
Hari Mohan Mathur, Cooperation in administrative training among developing
countries: Experiences with sharing the Indian expertise (Ministry of Home
Affairs, Training Division, Department of Personnel and Administrative Reforms,
New Delhi-110 001), 13pp.
GLOBAL SPACE
.
.
B.M. Udgaonkar, UNCSTD revisited (see address above), 16pp.
E. Gelpsi, Division internationale du travail et politiques educatives
(UNESCO, Place de Fontenoy, 75007 Paris 7e), 20pp. + lOpp (annexe).
.
Ycjana Shanna, The EEC's inconsistent development policy (115 rue de Lausanne,
1202 GenZve), 3pp.
A MICROFICHE COLLECTION
2 0 ' 7 8 4 pages o n 213 f i c h e s r e p r o d u c i n g t h e complete s e t o f IFDA D o s s i e r
f r o m January 1978 t o December 1980 (nos 1 t o 20) and t h e complete s e t o f
t h e t h i r d system p r o j e c t papers w i t h i n d i c e s .
-P r i c e : Swiss f r a n c s 950.-
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