the role of cognition in religious development

Transcrição

the role of cognition in religious development
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THE ROLE OF COGNITION IN RELIGIOUS DEVELOPMENT
The contribution of Relational and Contextual Reasoning (RCR)
DE ROL VAN COGNITIE IN RELIGIEUZE VORMING
De bijdrage van Relationeel en Contextueel Redeneren (RCR)
(met een samenvatting in het Nederlands)
Proefschrift ter verkrijging van doctor aan de Universiteit Utrecht op gezag van de
Rector Magnificus, Prof. dr. W.H. Gispen, ingevolge het besluit van het College voor
Promoties in het openbaar te verdedigen op dinsdag 16 november 2004 des middags
te 12.45 uur door Karl Helmut Reich, geboren 7 mei 1923 te Krefeld, Duitsland.
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Supervisor:
Prof. J. A. van Belzen, oud-hoogleraar in de Faculteit der Godgeleerdheid
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION
1. 1 INTRODUCING AND DEFINING THE PRESENT RESEARCH THEME
1. 1. 1 Situating the present research in the field
Problem definition
State of the art
1. 1. 2 Definitions used here
Religion
Religiosity
Religious
Spirituality
Faith
Psychology of religion
Development
Cognition
1. 2 BASIC CHOICES
1. 2. 1 Metaphysical orientation
Introduction
Choice made
Contrasting the choice made with other options
1. 2. 2 Measurement framework adopted
1. 2. 3 Restriction to cognition
1. 3 BACKGROUND KNOWLEDGE AND PROJECT PLANNING
1. 3. 1 Piagetian genetic epistemology and the world view study
1. 3. 2 Relational and contextual reasoning (RCR)
Logic
Relations with Piagetian operations
Other issues
1. 3. 3 RCR and religious development
1. 4 CHRONOLOGICAL THREAD OF THE PRESENT RESEARCH
1. 4. 1 Overview
1. 4. 2 References to the six papers
1. 5 REFERENCES TO CHAPTER 1
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2. RELIGIÖSE UND NATURWISSENSCHAFTLICHE WELTBILDER:
ENTWICKLUNG EINER KOMPLEMENTÄREN BETRACHTUNGSWEISE
IN DER ADOLESZENZ
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2. 1 DIE THEMATIK
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2. 2 WELTBILDENTWICKLUNG BEI KINDERN UND JUGENDLICHEN
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2. 3 DIE ENTWICKLUNG VON DENKEN IN KOMPLEMENTARITÄT
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2. 3. 1 Zum Begriff “Komplementarität”
2. 3. 2 Empirische Befunde
2. 4 KOMPLEMENTARITÄT VON RELIGIÖSEN UND NATURWISSEN-
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SCHAFTLICHEN WELTBILDERN IN DER ADOLESZENEZ
2. 5 EIGENSCHAFTEN DER NIVEAUS VON DENKEN IN
KOMPLEMENTARITÄT
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2. 6 EINIGE PÄDAGOGISCHE POSTULATE
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2. 7 POSTSCRIPT
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3. THE CHALCEDONIAN DEFINITION, AN EXAMPLE OF THE
DIFFICULTIES AND THE USEFULNESS OF THINKING IN
TERMS OF COMPLEMENTARITY?
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3. 1 INTRODUCTION
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3. 2 CHRISTOLOGTY AND THE ECUMENICAL COUNCIL OF 451
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3. 3 THINKING IN TERMS OF COMPLEMENTARITY
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3. 4 WHAT JUSTIFIES THE SUPPOSITION THAT AT LEAST SOME
FATHERS THOUGHT IN TERMS OF COMPLEMENTARITY?
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3. 5 FOUR HURDLES IN THE WAY TO THINKING IN TERMS OF
COMPLEMENTARITY
3. 5. 1 Introduction
3. 5. 2 Clinging to either-or thinking
3. 5. 3 Why should everyday logic not suffice?
3. 5. 4 Interplay of world views and ways of thinking
3. 5. 5 Required cognitive level
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3. 6 REASONS FOR THE ACHIEVEMENT OF A COMPLEMENTARITY
SOLUTION AT CHALCEDON
3. 7 THE USEFULNESS OF THINKING IN TERMS OF COMPLEMENTARITY
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-v3. 8 POSTSCRIPT
4. THE ROLE OF COMPLEMENTARITY REASONING IN
RELIGIOUS DEVELOPMENT
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4. 1 INTRODUCTION
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4. 2 NATURE AND FUNCTION OF COMPLENTARITY REASONING
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4. 2. 1 Nature of complementarity reasoning
4. 2. 2 Complementarity reasoning and the problem of suffering
4. 2. 3 Complementarity reasoning and the Chalcedonian Definition
4. 3 COMPLENTARITY REASONING AND ONTOGENESIS
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4. 4 HOW IS COMPLEMENTARITY REASONING RELATED TO
OTHER TYPES OF REASONING ?
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4. 5 ROLE OF COMPLEMNTARITY REASONING IN ADVANCEMENT TO
HIGHER LEVELS O F RELIGIOUS CONSCIOUSNESS
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4. 6 FOUR HURDLES ON THE WAY TO COMPLEMENTARITY REASONING
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4. 7 CONCLUSION
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4. 8 POSTSCRIPT
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5. RELATIONS- UND KONTEXTBEZOGENES DENKEN SOWIE
SEIN BEZUG ZU ANDEREN FORMEN DES DENKENS
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5. 1 EINFÜHRUNG
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5. 2 FRÜHERE ERGEBNISSE, VORÜBERLEGUNGEN UND HYPOTHESEN
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5. 2. 1 Frühere empirische Untersuchungen von RKD
5. 2. 2 Grundannnahmen hinsichtlich der Natur von RKD
5. 2. 3 Die zweite Teilstudie
5. 2. 4 Hypothesen
5. 3 METHODE
5. 3. 1 Prinzip
5. 3. 2 Stichprobe
5. 3. 3 Interviews
5. 3. 4 Benutzte Probleme bzw. Aufgaben und Auswertung
5. 4 ERGEBNISSE
5. 4. 1 Piagetsche Operationen und RKD
5. 4. 2 Grade komplexen Denkens sowie Niveaus von
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- vi logischer Kompetenz und von RKD
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5. 5 DISKUSSION
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5. 6 POSTSCRIPT
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6. EINE FREIERE MENSCH-GOTT-BEZIEHUNG UND KOMPLEXERES
DENKEN – ZWEI UNGLEICHE SEITEN DERSELBEN ENTWICKLUNG
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6. 1 EINLEITUNG
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6. 2 THEORIE DES RELIGIÖSEN URTEILS
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6. 3 RELATIONS- UND KONTEXTBEZOGENES DENKEN
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6. 4 RELIGIÖSES URTEIL UND RKD
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6. 5 DIE DYNAMIK DER MENSCH-GOTT-BEZIEHUNG
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6. 6 POSTSCRIPT
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7. THE PERSON-GOD RELATIONSHIP: A DYNAMIC MODEL
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7. 1 SUMMERY AND INTRODUCTION
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7. 2 THEORIES OF A DEVELOPING PERSON-GOD RELATIONSHIP
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7. 3 PRESUPPOSITIONS OF AND INPUTS INTO THE DYNAMIC MODEL
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7. 3. 1 Root conceptualization of human psychology
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7. 3. 2 Basic psychological framework
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7. 4 AN EXAMPLE CASE FOR USING THE MODEL
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7. 5 MAIN FEATURES AND DYNAMICS OF THE MODEL
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7. 5. 1 Contents of the elements and subelements
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7. 5. 2 Dynamics
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7. 6 THE TENTATIVE MODEL
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7. 7 THE NEXT STEPS
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7. 8 POSTSCRIPT
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SUMMARY
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SAMENVATTING
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-11. INTRODUCTION
1. 1 INTRODUCING AND DEFINING THE PRESENT RESEARCH THEME
1. 1. 1 Situating the present research in the field
Problem definition
Religious development as conceived here involves (a) genetically determined human
traits (e.g., penchant for supernatural agents), (b) “acquired” personality characteristics (emotionality, cognitive-explanatory style, self-concept, locus of control,
attachment style, unconscious drives, etc. – e.g., Francis, 2002), and (c) (psychological) dimensions / variables such as personal world view and perceived sense of
life, social competence, perspective taking, volition / motivation, as well as (d) interactions with the human and physical surroundings, specifically with significant
others, society, culture, and nature. A first issue is how one gets from this statement
to a research project and its design, and to justify (partly ex post) the choices made.
As is well known, the total research process (e.g., Creswell, 2003; De Vaus, 2001)
has several phases.1 In the first phase, that of data collection (based on certain assumptions), a knowledge of the field, but also intuition, flair, serendipity, and even
plain luck may play important roles, as well as the metaphysics adopted (see section
1. 2 below). The source of the research project does not matter per se, to what the particular trigger leads is decisive. Initial results of the data collection are scrutinised in
phase two, that of a “first assessment”: “Is the data set pertinent, reliable, and sufficient?” “If not, what needs to be modified?” Once there is a satisfactory data set,
phase three is reached: the analysis of the data, and an elaboration of their explanation, of a theory in appropriate cases. There follows possibly phase four: the interpretation of the findings, their meaning. That phase may take a long time. For instance, concerning quantum theory (which as a guide for research and as an explanatory framework works very well), there is still no agreement on its interpretation
after many decades of disputes between the protagonists of Bohr's and Heisenberg's
“Copenhagen” interpretation, Everett's “Many-Worlds” interpretation, and Bohm's
”Hidden Variables” proposition.
How are these classical phases of notitia, assensus, studium and interpres reflected in
the present proefschrift? The research having started in 1984, and chapter 1 having
been written in 2003-2004, it can at best provide some (ex post) background and explanations concerning phases one to three. The original conceptualisation and argu-
1 The extended debates about the helpfulness or otherwise of a formal distinction between
the “context of discovery” and the “context of justification” are considered to be outside the
scope of the present work.
-2mentation is to be found in the six research papers themselves, and partly in the respective postscripts. In contrast, chapter 1 is germane to advancing the interpretation
of the results, and adding to dealing with phases one to three of the earlier work.
How does this state of affairs impact on the organisation of chapter 1?
Religion being a multifarious, multidimensional phenomenon (presently often
compared and contrasted with spirituality), there arises the need to recall specifically
the present understanding of religion and spirituality (as well as of faith). Furthermore, not all psychologists of religion will agree that it makes sense to discuss religious development in universal terms. According to some psychologists (e.g., Ray &
McFadden, 2001; Wulff, 1993), changes of religiosity are predominately idiosyncratic;
from such a perspective they cannot be generalised to become a meaningful and
practically useful universal theory (more below).
Hence, the concept of religious development needs to be explained and its use
justified. Various psychological schools proposing different descriptions and explanations of (religious) development, these differences need to be evoked.
Five of the six publications constituting the body of the present thesis focus on a
single one of the developmental dimensions of religion/religiosity (religious emotions, religious acts and experiences, religious knowledge, role models, etc.), namely
on cognition, and even on a restricted area of that particular dimension. Hence, this
choice needs to be justified.
Before doing that, fairness and openness require to clarify the metaphysical
grounding of, and to provide a framework for the research under discussion. The
entire work is undertaken from the perspective of a non-apologetic, non-vindictive
developmental psychology of religion: religion and religious development is neither
to be extolled nor to be debunked, but to be researched, analysed and understood in
psychological terms.
State of the art
Historically, psychology of religion has undergone periods of growth (e.g. circa 18901930) and of decline (e.g., circa 1930-1970); presently the field experiences an acelerating upswing, partly stimulated by neighbouring fields. – cf. Belzen (1998),
Emmons & Paloutzian (2003), Wulff (1998). This tendency manifests itself not only in
journals such as Archiv für Religionspsychologie (two volumes published in 2003), The
International Journal for the Psychology of Religion or the journal Mental Health, Religion,
and Culture, but also in increasing numbers of related books, conferences (e.g., in 2003
for the first time a Mid Winter Research Conference on Religion and Spirituality has
been (co-)organised by APA Division 36 in addition to the corresponding annual
conferences). As to neighbouring fields, evolutionary biology looks for tracks of
biology in early religions (e.g. Burkert, 1996) or explains present-day religion by its
-3evolutionary origins (Boyer, 2001), the neurosciences (e.g., Joseph, 2002; Reich, in
press) search the brain for a foundation of mystical, spiritual and religious experiences, the issue of religion and ethics is being rescrutinised (Meier-Seethaler, 2001),
psychohistory pari passu aims at refining psychology of religion via studying historical events and biographies of historical figures (Belzen, 2001a), and mainstream
psychologists begin to take note of psychology of religion (e.g., Baumeister, 2002).
Concerning specifically religious development, newer editions of noted textbooks
devote more space to it (e.g., Paloutzian, 1996; Spilka, Hood, Hunsberger & Gorsuch,
2003;), religious development research results are published in the wider psychological literature (e.g., Oser & Scarlett, 1991; Reich, 1992a), and in a specialised series
(Oser & Reich, 1996a; Reich, Oser & Scarlett, 1999; Rollett, Herle & Braunschmid,
2004). The tendency is to supplement by dynamic models (e.g., Reich, 2003b) theories
of religious development such as those by Fowler (1981, 1987, 1988/1991, 1996) and
Oser/Gmünder (1984/1991; Oser & Reich, 1996b; Reich & Oser, 2002; Reich,
forthcoming) and others (e.g., Reich, 1993).
1. 1. 2. Definitions used here
The terms to be defined include (i) religion, (ii) religiosity, (iii) religious, (iv) spirituality, (v) faith, (vi) psychology of religion, (vii) development, and (viii) cognition.
Religion
An all-inclusive defining overview of religion, covering its origins, its core and
peripheral nature, its roles, historical developments a well as the breadth and depth
of its exploration and disputation (e.g., Oelmüller, Dölle-Oelmüller & Ebach/Przybilski, 1979/1982, pp. 50-92) would result in a disproportionately long section. Therefore, only aspects that are important for the sequel are taken up here and discussed.
A partial aim is to provide formally independent indications of which changes are involved in religious development through analysing definitions of religion. A positive
result of a triangulation between these indications and the psychological dimensions
and variables known from general developmental theory (and indicated in the
opening sentence of section 1. 1. 1, p. 1) should strengthen the potential validity and
fruitfulness of the present research.
To this effect, brief considerations are presented concerning (a) the general need
for a definition, (b) the etymology of the term “religion”, (c) some historical changes
in the understanding of religion(s), (d) definitions in terms of (α) theological /
philosophical abstractions, (β) functions of religion, (γ) contents of religion, (δ) consequences of being religious, (ε) an adapted dictionary entry. Given the nature of the
present work, reference is also made to contributions by social scientists, in addition
to those by theologians and philosophers.
-4Traditionally, in religiously homogenous countries like Catholic Ireland, or Lutheran Sweden, there is not much need to define religion with great precision; it is
automatically clear to practically everybody what religion means and implies in daily
life. The situation is different in countries such as The Netherlands, Germany or Switzerland, where Roman Catholics since centuries live together (more or less peacefully) with Protestants and Jews. The wish or even the need to define religion more
precisely, be it only for legal purposes, grew further when other religions and even
more so when adherents of New Religious Movements (e.g., Baker, 1989; Rollet &
Kaminger, 1996) appeared increasingly in non-negligible numbers where they had
not been prominent before. To cover these various expressions of religion, the very
conceptualisation of religion had itself to be enlarged and generalised.
Historically, the clarification of the nature of religion(s) experienced a boost in the
19th century with the institution of new academic disciplines, specifically Religionswissenschaften. Religions were studied with ever increasing breadth and precision,
and analysed ever more subtly. In today's global world, most persons have met
others with quite different religions, and become acquainted first hand with similarities and differences between various religions. What is the result (e.g., W. C.
Smith, 1959)?
First, given the widened interests and interactions, knowledge about religion(s)
has become more realistic. Second, the difference between the externals of religion
(symbols, practices, doctrines, institutions) and their meaning for the persons involved is more and more recognised. For instance, in today's Western world, it is accepted that a person may not attend formal religious services yet be religious (“Believing
without belonging”; Davie, 1996). Thus, the importance of studying religious persons
as distinct from religious systems is understood more generally (a dialectic of “für
uns” and “an sich”). Third, in line with this understanding, the study of religions has
become more personalised. Not only are first-person views of religious “witnesses”
taken into account – that is not exclusively third-person observations – but a more
personal involvement of researchers and scholars is admitted to some degree, an
issue to be discussed shortly in regard to the psychology of religion. Expressions of
such an attitude are, for instance, that anything written about religion should be
written for a worldwide audience (W. C. Smith, 1959, p. 40). One implication is that
anything stated about a given religion should be understandable to adherents of
other religions, and be acceptable to members of the religious community under
discussion, that is they should recognise themselves in such a mirror. Another consequence of continued progress in understanding religion is that the definition of
religion needs to be updated from time to time.
The background thus having been established, we can move closer to a definition
of religion. As is well known, many such definitions exist, none of which is consen-
-5sually accepted by all (e.g., Spilka et al., 2003, pp. 5-8; cf. Popp-Baier, 1998, pp. 8-36).
As an illustration: David J. Conklin (2002) has presented 126 definitions.
Etymologically, religion can possibly be traced (Rahner & Vorgrimmler, (1976/
1983, p. 360) to the Latin verbs “relegere” (to turn to repeatedly, to scrutinise), “religare” (to reconnect), and “religere” (to elect again). These roots emphasise the human
faculty to relate to others (including to God), and to history and future; in any event,
religion accordingly involves human activity. In the early days of Christianity, religio
in the sense of vera religio (as opposed to superstition) was used more as Christian
apologetic and guide to “religious correctness” than as a universal designation in the
present-day sense. For many centuries, at least inside Christianity fides was the term
used to designate much of what goes now by religion (Popp-Baier, 1998, pp. 8-11)2, in
particular the trust relating the believer to God and the concomitant inner certainty
and loyalty.
We now come to definitions of religion in terms of theological / philosophical
abstractions. Two well-known examples are: (a) “The realm against which the divine
images are projected is not itself a projection. It is the experienced ultimacy of being
and meaning. It is the realm of ultimate concern” (P. Tillich, 1951, p. 212; several
other statements by Tillich exist about this “ultimate concern”); (b) "Religion is something whose possession is the final good, and yet is beyond all reach; something
which is the ultimate ideal, and the hopeless quest" (A. N. Whitehead, 1925, p. 222). –
Both authors, in their different formulations, aim at bringing out, at a highly abstract
level, the essence of religion as they see it, and its meaning and significance for human beings; this by way of delimiting, comparing, contrasting, and ranking. Unfortunately, what these definitions gain in universality, they loose in power of discrimination between religion as understood traditionally (e.g., “Religion is experiential
encounter with the holy and the responsive action of the human being influenced by
the holy”3; G. Mensching, 1964, p. 36) and other ideals constituting ultimate concerns
of an aesthetic, a social, or even a political nature.
A different approach to defining religion is via its functions. They are interpreted
variously, for instance, as (a) coping with contingency (sensu Aristotle) (Lübke, 1986,
pp. 160-178); (b) furthering integration and cohesion among its devotees (Durkheim,
1912/1984, pp. 560-571; Yinger, 1970, p. 15); (c) providing knowledge of the past, the
present and the future as guidance for behaviour (Hick, 1990, pp. 64-67); (d) facilitating serious communication based on the antecedent sense-structures of life (Niebuhr, 1952, pp. 43-90,); (e) providing sense in a complex world which transcends sci2 For an extended, critical discussion see, for instance, Feil (1986) and Tenbruck (1993).
3 To this core definition the social aspects have to be added, specifically the characteristics of
the daily life of the community of believers.
-6entific understanding (Luhmann, 1977/1982, pp. 26-27); (f) dealing with tensions and
adversity of life (e.g., Koenig, 1994; cf. Hackney & Sanders, 2003); (g) projecting human anxiety, hopes, aspirations, etc., (e.g., Freud, 1927); (h) being in the service of
survival in an evolutionary environment co-determined by genes and memes (Dawkins, 1976); or (i) opium of the people (Marx, 1844). Apart from the vast differences
between these interpretations, functional definitions suffer from the difficulty
already evoked: the more general they are, the less they discriminate with respect to
functional equivalents (e.g., Luhmann, 1977/1982, pp. 9-10). However, their sum
total may be helpful as a guide when starting the exploration of a “new religion”.
Religion can also be defined substantively, by its “contents”. This involves the unmistakable characterisation of, for instance, worship, doctrines, behavioural guidelines,
etc. Furthermore, depending on the respective characteristics, religions can be classed, for example, as being based on (a) a view of nature and life as being cyclical, (b) a
hierarchical understanding of God, world, and Society, (c) an eschatological world
view, or (d) a combination of these (Meier-Seethaler, 2001). In this case the advantage
is the concreteness, the power of discrimination – and conversely the lack of universality. The sum total of such definitions may be a useful heuristic when studying
specific details of a “known” religion – as long as the definition does not blind one to
aspects unknown so far.
Yet another way is to define religion by its effects. For instance, assembling syncretistically various aspects, one has: Religion is a binding relationship between the religious believer and the object of religious devotion (the Holy, the ancestors, gods, God, the Tao,
Nirvana, etc.). Religion also binds together all those who share the same or similar religious
attitudes, thereby creating a community of believers.
Again, a syncretic definition may be helpful for the study of social aspects of religion (e.g., Argyle, 2000), or even any political influences, but how is one to answer
the remark that being a football/soccer fan has a comparable effect? First, the above
definition is not excluding other possibilities of social binding. Second, religionists
and theologians will say that the community of religious believers is bound together
in a special way because the transcendent is involved (e.g., Pannenberg, 1986, pp. 1124). They may also point to the transforming power of religious faith (concerning
behaviour, world-view, way of life, etc.). However, social scientists, while not
denying these possibilities, and researching them, feel that ulterior explanations are
beyond their domain of expertise.
As is clear from the foregoing, such a multifaceted, multidimensional complex
phenomenon as religion cannot be defined briefly nor in simple terms. A combination of the kinds of (partial) definitions just evoked, promises the best success. In
rather general terms, religion, together with various techniques (communication,
agriculture, manufacture, etc.), social/ethical norms, and art, since many millennia
-7meets basic human needs (Rordorf, 2004). As already hinted at, the precise optimum
definition will depend on the religion(s) under discussion, the persons involved, and
the situations and the issues concerned. In the meantime, an adapted dictionary
definition (Religion, 2001), may help to fix broadly the ideas although it neglects
ongoing changes:
Religion is (a) an evolved system of thought, feeling, and actions shared by a group
as members’ response to an object of devotion; (b) a code of ethics governing personal and social conduct; (c) a frame of reference relating individuals to their group
and the universe. Usually, religion concerns itself with what transcends the known,
the natural, or the expected; it is an acknowledgement of the extraordinary, the
mysterious, and the preternatural.
In terms of Ulrike Popp-Baier's (1998, p. 30) conceptualisation of religion as a
form of life and a discourse, (a) and (b) above relate to a form of life, and (c) to the
possibility of discourse. The latter involves specifically the core questions of religion,
“Where do we come from?”, “Where are we going?“, “Who are we?”, “How do we
relate to each other, to the universe, and what is beyond?”At the individual level
even non-believers struggle with the same issues (cf. Oevermann & Franzmann,
2003, pp. 4-7). However, instead of looking for religious answers, they may choose
faith in themselves, their profession, sports, possessions, pleasure, politics, a particular human group, the arts (Koenig, 1994, p. xxv), or whatever. 4
The definition of religion will be taken up again in relation to the psychology of
religion. As already hinted at, for a given research project, the most pertinent aspects
of the definition just evoked can be selected, preferably making it clear though that
this is only a selection. However, the above (adapted) dictionary definition already
provides the looked-for independent indications of aspects likely to be involved in
religious development, including cognition (basic cognition, social cognition, and
epistemic cognition), the core theme of this study. These indications are to be
compared and contrasted with what is known from psychology.
Religiosity
Religion involves an ensemble of symbols, practices, doctrines, guidelines for behaviour, institutions, etc., however not all its adherents will subscribe to all of them.
Depending on upbringing, social embeddedness, culture, kind of religion concerned,
and personal idiosyncrasies, a person, or a group of persons, will pick and choose
elements from one religion or from more, and combine all this, possibly together
with home-grown elements, into his or her, respectively their personal religiosity
4 I do not go into certain current tendencies observed especially in the USA such as those
researched by Vincent Miller (2004) or Wade Clark Roof (1999).
-8(religiousness).5 The term is understood here as covering the entire spectrum from a
positive yet distanced view of religion to a state of extreme religious ardour.
To illustrate part of the more cognitive aspects of religiosity (as distinct from its
deeper meaning for a given person, which needs a hermeneutic–qualitative study),
we turn to the results of an empirical study of the acceptance of the (Christian) Apostolic Creed (Zwingmann, Moosbrugger & Frank, 1996). This study is based on three
sets of data. First, in 1989, the Institut für Demoskopie in Allensbach interviewed 958
Roman Catholics and 942 Protestants about their views on the Apostolicum, and
asked them to determine whether they “did not believe it”, “believed it partially” or
“believed it fully”. Subsequently, about half of the participants (431 Roman Catholics
and 457 Protestants) were asked to class 19 cards, each displaying a part of the Apostolicum (see below) into the categories “do not believe”, “do not know”, “believe.”
Zwingmann et al. (1996) in 1993 replicated (broadly speaking) this research with participants from the Frankfurt-on-Main area, belonging to 12 Roman Catholic and 7
Protestant parishes. The pastors distributed questionnaires after the church service,
thereby constituting a sample of religiously active persons. Data comparable to those
of the Allensbach study were obtained from 269 Roman Catholics (mean age M =
46.6 years, SD = 16.8 years, 64% women) and 166 Protestants (M = 48.1 years, SD =
16.1 years, 75% women). The 19 “items” were as follows:
I believe in [1] God the [2] Father [3] almighty, [4] maker of heaven and earth; and
in [5] Jesus Christ his only [6] Son, our Lord; who was [7] conceived by the Holy
Ghost, [8] born of the Virgin Mary; suffered under Pontius Pilate, [9] was crucified,
dead, and buried; [10] he descended into hell; the third day he rose again from the
dead; [11] he ascended into heaven[, and [12] sitteth on the right hand of God the
Father almighty; from thence [13] he shall come to judge the quick and the dead. I
believe in the [14] Holy Ghost; the [15] holy catholic church; the [16] communion of
saints; the [17] forgiveness of sins; the [18] resurrection of the body; and the [19] life
everlasting. Amen.
Results from four groups are reported: (a) representative Roman Catholics (Allensbach), (b) representative Protestants (Allensbach) (c) religiously active Roman Catholics (Zwingmann et al.), and (d) religiously active Protestants (Zwingmann et al.). A
glance at the results (ibid., p. 45) reveals immediately the large variations across the
items, and from group to group. The highest percentage of affirmation concerned the
5 According to Hans-Ferdinand Angel (2002, pp. 119-127) this "do-it-yourself" competence
indicates that religiosity/religiousness is a basic characteristic of being human. It involves an
understanding and interpretation of the world and the self by the whole person (emotions,
cognition, values, general orientation ) together with a self-commitment to that
interpretation.
-9existence of God [1] and of Jesus Christ [5] as well as the crucification and death of
Jesus Christ [9], namely from about 60% of representative Protestants to about 95% of
active Roman Catholics. The conception by the Holy Ghost [7] met with the lowest
percentage affirmation: from about 20% of representative Protestants to about 40% of
active Roman Catholics. Also noticed: the ranking of the four groups was practically
“parallel” across the 19 items, that is, no crossings occurred.
Similar studies show that sizeable percentages of “Christians” believe in reincarnation (per se foreign to Christian teaching), practice Buddhist meditation, and so
on (cf. Barker, Halman, & Vloet, 1992). The upshot is that the current developmental
psychology of religion rightly focuses on the religiosity of individuals (and its development) as distinct from religion as such.
Religious
Religious is defined as pertaining to religion and / or religiosity (religiousness) as
defined above.
Spirituality
Traditionally, spirituality involves a form of pious contemplation in the sense of St.
Bonaventure's journey to God, Teresa of Avila's Interior Castle or Ignatian exercises.
The present-day understanding has become fuzzy (reaching from esoterical notions
to various orientations toward the “supernatural” – cf. Wulff, 1997, pp. 5-7), and
includes a-theistic definitions (e.g., Meier-Seethaler, 2001, pp. 206-235). Here a
summary of Albert Schweitzer’s (1999, pp. 211-219) considerations is adopted (cf.
Meier-Seethaler, p. 212-213):
Human beings (a) perceive, appreciate and pursue a search for meaning, truth,
goodness, and beauty, (b) experience wholeness, love, and connectedness but (c) are
also aware that nature and life can be arbitrary, treacherous, cruel and ugly.
Spirituality involves walking on a tight rope between these extremes, attempting not
to fall off neither to one side nor to the other. This involves a vita mixta, that is a
combination of contemplation and freeing oneself from the domination by the ego
on the one hand, and an active life in the service of Life and its respectful admiration
on the other.
All the founders of the world’s great religions were quite spiritual. Thence the core
of these religions is spiritual, even if in the course of history that was not always apparent. Rudolf Seiß (2002) analyses the above definition from a psychological perspective and provides educational recommendations. The recommendations include
advice about learning to give up damaging egotistical claims out of love for someone
else. Usually, in a Christian context, in the first years of life a development takes
place that points to the idea that God loves humans. The main step ahead is precisely
- 10 evolving the ability to give up one's claim to something in order to have the freedom
to say yes or no in the context of a relationship built on trust. A healthy relationship
with God is based on such a freedom. In contrast, being thrown upon oneself in the
absence of a relationship with God is not freedom, because there is no underlying
security. According to Seiß (2002), if parents do not raise their children in a freedombound relationship with God, they will reap disappointing results, and so will a
society who tells adolescents and young adults that they are entitled to do whatever
they want to do. And educators in the classroom find themselves short of
experiencing trust, faithfulness, and self-restriction on the pupils'/students' part. Spirituality is not just an individual matter but in the present circumstances of concern
for society’s survival or least its well-being (Hay, Reich, & Utsch, forthcoming).
Faith
There are clearly various ways to come to grips with the concept of (religious) faith.
One way is to let oneself be taken in, for instance, by the “documentary” film The
production of Islam: Empire of Faith, covering more than a thousand years of history
and culture, and a very large part of the world, or by (in a way its counterpoint) the
Hollywood production Quo vadis.
As an analysis of such films (and living in a faith community) will easily show,
faith can be understood as belief and trust in God, loyalty to God and to the community of which one is a member, and belief in the doctrines of one’s religion. One
way to connect faith with religiosity is to say that faith is religiosity having genuine
depth and existential meaning. James Fowler (1991, p. 21) writes, "faith understood
generically as a human universal includes but is not limited or identical with religion“, which ties in with Paul Tillich’s “state of being ultimately concerned.“
Psychology of religion
A short definition is as follows (Reich, 2003a – but see also, e.g., Belzen, 2001b):
[When considered from the points of view of both science and theology,] there exist
three kinds of psychology of religion (Wulff, 1997, p. 635). “Secular” empirical psychology (e.g., Spilka et al., 2003) – the most widely practised – excludes the question of
the transcendent and researches religious experiences and behaviour in terms of
meaningful psychological concepts such as cognition, emotions, motivation, attribution, social interaction, and development. The two other kinds are more missionoriented. “Theistic religious” psychology (e.g., Koteskey, 1980/2002; cf. Reich, 2000b)
includes the transcendent and aims to understand God's creation and make people
more God-like by improving their mental functioning, their moral judgement, their
empathy and so forth. “Atheistic” psychology of religion (e.g. Kurtz, 1986; Vetter, 1958)
aims primarily to demonstrate the illusion of a perceived transcendent and the
regressive and oppressive effects of being religious.
- 11 As already stated, the present considerations are based on a “secular” non-apologetic, non-vindictive developmental psychology of religion. From such a perspective,
individuals' inner experiences, their perception of the Infinite, the Ultimate, their
religious striving, and the impact of being religious on their selves, their lives and
their relationships are objects of study (Spilka et al., 2003, pp. 2-5). The emphasis is
on the “reality” of people's beliefs and faith, not on the “objective” reality or
otherwise of the content of these beliefs and faith – that is a question for theologians
and philosophers, not psychologists (Flournoy, 1902).
Development
Has religious development any reality to it as claimed, for instance, by the stage
theories of Fowler (1981, 1987, 1991, 1996) and Oser/Gmünder (1984/1991; Oser &
Reich, 1996b; Reich, forthcoming) or is it a fiction? The view taken here is that the
indicated stage theories are abstractions of abstractions of the empirical findings, and
are useful from such a perspective for religious education, pastoral counselling etc.
Others argue that if a universal theory of religious development is constructed at a
very high level of abstraction, the result tends to be useless for practical purposes
(e.g., Wulff, 1993). There are also those who indeed conceive of generalisable changes
but differ about their nature and causes (Utsch, 1998), for example protagonists of
depth psychology (Freud, Jung and their successors – dealing with the unconscious
and its relation with the conscious), cognitive psychology (interested in the rational,
data processing mind , e.g., Boyer, 2001 – the mind as computer); psychology of
emotions (joy, anxiety, etc. – humans in the grip of affects), personality psychology
(concentrating on the characteristics of individuals and their variability), social
psychology (viewing humans as social beings living in groups rather than as fully
autonomous individuals), clinical psychology (dealing with mental disturbances),
and developmental psychology (studying the changes of mind and behaviour from
cradle to grave).
The present view is that the assertion of the impossibility of a useful general theory of religious developmental characteristics goes too far (cf. Reich, forthcoming).
There is quite some evidence that during the life course concepts become more complex and discerning, the various forms of cognition (social, logico-mathematical, moral, religious, epistemic, etc.) become each more and more differentiated, integrated,
structured, abstract and general (Werner, 1948/1973, 1957; Seiler, 1994, p. 79), and so
on. Religious development tends to proceed from idiosyncratic, often magical religious ideas of the small child to the more orthodox views (mainly resulting from socialisation) of middle childhood, to a more critical attitude of the adolescent, and if all
continues unimpeded to a broadened, more personal, more encompassing religiosity
in adulthood (e.g., Fowler, 1996, pp. 22-74).
- 12 However, there are indeed limitations of “universal” stage schemes. In essence,
such schemes are not meant to be descriptions of each and every individual developmental path. They characterise the main shared features of the person-God relationship of a “similar” group of people, and at an even higher level of abstraction the
shared features of different groups (cf. Seiler & Hoppe-Graff, 1989, pp. 89-91). Thus,
from a theoretical perspective, a sequence of developmental stages demonstrates the
developmental logic posited to “govern” the corresponding development but from
the perspective of an individual the sequence merely represents milestones, some of
which many religious persons reach sooner or later.
Willis F. Overton (1998, pp. 111-114) distinguishes between (a) “transformational
change” (change in form, pattern, or organisation, e.g., embryological changes, or the
successive transformations from action to symbolic thought as a way of gaining
insight) and (b) “variational change” (degree or extent of a variation from an
assumed standard such as analytic thinking styles or synthetic thinking styles in regard to standard thought). In Overton's relational, both-and approach, transformation and variation represent differing perspectives on the same object of inquiry –
developmental change within a framework of inclusiveness. The existence of one
type of change is not incompatible with the other type of change, even in the same
person. The movement from babbling to language may be profitably understood as
sequential and directional and hence, irreversible (transformational change);
however, when the infant has become a student, raising of the grade point average
can be reversed some time later (variable change) – there is no contradiction (ibid.,
pp. 113-114). Accordingly, development is understood here in this inclusive manner.
As to religious development, various theories focus on different areas of the total
religious area. Thus, they are not mutually replaceable nor necessarily comparable.
Cognition
An inclusive way is to define cognition as the activity of the mind, more specifically
the act or process of knowing. This includes perceiving, appraising, understanding,
reasoning, judging, remembering, imagining, planning, etc.
1. 2 BASIC CHOICES
1. 2. 1 Metaphysical orientation
Introduction
The present work implies a certain ontology, that is it makes assumptions about the
nature of reality. It also involves epistemological assumptions, having to do with the
process of gaining knowledge in the cases concerned. For these reasons, I begin with
assumptions adopted here from the philosophy of knowledge (largely adapted from
- 13 Reich, 2002b, pp. 35-41).
Why is this discussion of the philosophical foundations useful? Throughout this
study, some kind of reality is assumed to exist “out there.” That is not undisputed,
and needs clarification and justification. In the words of Hilary Putnam (1999, p. 4):
“And no issue polarises the humanities – and, increasingly the arts as well – as much
as realism, described as 'logocentrism' by one side and as the 'defence of the idea of
objective knowledge' by the other.” Putnam's solution – and largely mine – is a
“middle way between reactionary metaphysics and irresponsible relativism” (ibid.,
p. 5).
In view of the importance of the assumptive base for one's research (Werner,
1948/1973, 1957; Reese & Overton, 1970; Overton & Reese, 1972; Case, 1998, pp. 747753; Putnam 1999; Fahrenberg & Cheetham, 2000), I make my position explicit (more
extensively in Reich, 1995b, 2000b). Rather than recalling the history of the philosophy of knowledge (e.g., Overton, 1998, pp. 127-163), I first situate my major choice
concerning basic metaphysical orientations and philosophical presuppositions, and
later formulate and then justify it by contrasting it with other conceivable choices.
To the question, "What can we know about reality" a broad answer is given by the
various shades of realism (e.g., Putnam, 1988). Classical realism rests on the following three pillars: (1) there is a reality independent of human ideas and theories;
(2) scientific theories and the theoretical entities contained in them purport to refer to
those [real] entities, processes, or structures existing independently of the theories;
(3) hence scientific theories can be judged to be true or false in some sense larger than
“they allow one to describe, predict, and organise the experimental data.” Thus, the
scientific theories assumed by classical realism involve ontic truth (R. S. Kitchener,
1988, p. 17), not just the epistemic truth of theories “merely“ aimed at describing, predicting and organising empirical data.
Foundationalism follows from the purported ontic truth of scientific theories. Laudan (1990, p. 134) enumerates the resulting (foundational) epistemological programme as “(1) a search for incorrigible givens from which the rest of knowledge could be
derived; (2) a commitment to giving advice about how to improve knowledge; and
(3) the identification of criteria for recognising when one had a bona fide claim.“
According to most contemporary philosophers of knowledge, foundationalism can
no longer be justified (e.g., Laudan, 1990). Indeed, by now it has become clear that (a)
all observations are “theory-laden” (influenced by pre-knowledge); (b) scientific
theories are underdetermined by facts (several theories may explain “equally well” a
given data set); (c) “verification” / “falsification” of a theory is more complex than
thought previously (the experimentum crucis is an exceptional occurrence); and (d) the
(unwittingly chosen) underlying assumptive framework provides an influential
hermeneutic context for one's research (cf. Lakoff & Johnson, 1999, pp. 74-81).
- 14 Choice made
On account of such arguments, I opt for a conjectural / hypothetical, sceptical and
qualified, critical realism (cf. Putnam, 1999, especially part 1). According to this view,
we are engaging with realities that may be referred to and pointed at, but which are
beyond the range of any completely literal description; these realities include
thoughts, virtual quantum “particles”, and so on. To refer to them, we most appropriately employ metaphorical language and describe a given reality in terms of models, which models may eventually be combined into theories.
To give an example of metaphoric language: the German poet Eduard Mörike
characterises spring as “Frühling lässt sein blaues Band wieder flattern durch die
Lüfte, süße wohlbekannte Düfte streifen ahnungsvoll durchs Land” [“Spring is flying
its blue ribbon in the air while sweet familiar scents roam about full of foreboding”]
and for the poet Rainer Maria Rilke, in autumn “Die Blätter fallen, fallen wie von
weit weg, als welkten in den Himmeln ferne Gärten; sie fallen mit verneinender
Gebärde” [“the leaves tumble downward as if coming from far away, as if distant
gardens in the skies were withering – they fall with a negating gesture”].
Clearly, no mature adult would expect to find blue ribbons on the streets or in the
fields in spring, or to hear about gardens in the sky from astronauts travelling in
autumn, yet both poets help their readers to get a sense of what spring and autumn
feel like in our latitudes.
And here is an example of metaphoric language in physics taken from a news brief
of Scientific American on the 1999 Nobel prizes:
The humming, beeping, well-lit modern world could not have been built without
the knowledge that electric current is a parade of electrons and that those particles
are not ricocheting billiard balls but fuzzy clouds of probability that obey odd rules
of etiquette as they manoeuvre in a dance of mutual repulsion (Nobel Prizes, 1999,
p. 16).
In this passage the terms “parade”, “ricocheting billiard balls”, “fuzzy clouds”,
“rules of etiquette”, and “dance of mutual repulsion” are all used not literally but
metaphorically. Because electrons cannot be apprehended directly by the five senses,
metaphors based on actual sensual experiences are used to convey a sense of what
electrons are like to those for whom the equations of quantum electrodynamics
(Feynman, 1988) are not sufficiently telling. Using metaphoric language, in effect
extends knowledge from known (personal) experience (billiard balls, dance, etc.) to a
lesser known case that is often not directly accessible to the senses (behaviour of
electrons) – cf. Goodenough (2000).
Franz Brentano and his successors broke with the idea of “uncertainty” about
coming to grips with the outside world. They posited instead that all contents of
- 15 mental acts are to be taken as immanently objective, whether or not they have an
external referent (cf. Baron-Cohen, 1995; Vande Kemp, 1996, pp. 166-167; Yates,
1985). In other words, for the very large majority of persons, his or her ideas and
representations usually spring from a sense of utter reality, regardless of what exists
externally – theirs is a first-person ontology. Thus, as mentioned above, no person
will doubt that colours are attributes of the external world unless he or she has
learned certain scientific facts about our visual apparatus (cf. Ramachandran &
Blakeslee, 1998, pp. 72-80, passim). Why do all Indo-European languages include
some saying such as “knowing is seeing” (= seeing something becomes eventually
knowing it) if no confirming experiences underlie this saying? Furthermore, turning
from the outer world to the inner world: why should the vocabularies of nearly all
languages, even those spoken on remote islands and in “inaccessible” mountain valleys, have terms for the basic colours (e.g., Hardin & Maffi, 1997), unless those colours have the quality of “immanent objectivity”? However, this is no warrent for a
naive realism.
Faced with the loss of foundationalism and the resulting weakening of the correspondence theory of truth, what can one say about the truthfulness of a given scientific theory? The answer is “little”. But from Laudan's (1990, pp. 19, 59, 85, 103) discussion one gathers that under the assumptions adopted here (all observations are
“theory-laden”; scientific theories are underdetermined by facts; “verification”/
“falsification” of a theory is more complex than thought previously), it remains possible to compare rival approaches.
The approach, model, or theory considered more effective, would – each time
compared to its rival – (a) explain broader ranges of different kinds of phenomena,
(b) have been tested in more areas, (c) already have lead to more unexpected discoveries or applications, (d) yield more precise results, (e) be more dependable, (f)
possibly be the only candidate which offers a satisfactory explanation for certain phenomena. When making the comparison between the rivals, it is understood that no
criterion (a) to (f) is individually sufficient for a ranking but that all criteria count
jointly for a (defeasable) preference. In other words, the ”victorious” approach, model or theory wins a relative victory, not an absolute one, and, in case the comparison
is repeated after further work affecting a non-victorious competitor, the latter may
well win. The basis and results of such comparisons can be agreed interindividually,
and thereby gain scientific credence.
From the perspective of the critical realist approach we are discussing, the task of
science is to come to some (tentative) conclusions concerning “order” or “patterns”
with respect to the object of study, to explain them by elucidating the variables involved and demonstrating relationships between them, and finally to understand the
underlying mechanisms in depth, whenever possible in terms of a coherent theory.
- 16 Any such order or pattern and its understanding is neither simply discovered as
objectively given, nor constructed purely socially, without any “objective” constraints. Not infrequently, theories evolve by iterative bootstrapping analyses of ever
more appropriate data gathered in the light of ever better hypotheses, possibly aided
in this by improved reasoning using more appropriate tools of thought, and better
empirical methods and research instrumentation.
Summing up, I espouse a critical realist ontology and a nonfoundational epistemology involving a transverse rationality. The latter permits one to build bridges also
between disciplines considered incompatible, incommensurable, and the like by
some protagonists.
Contrasting the choice made with other options
Postmodernism. According to Donald Carson (2002), Nancey Murphy (1997), Pauline
Marie Rosenau (1992), and others, (deconstructive) postmodernism has usefully
alerted us to the cultural and social influences on constructing the foundations and
methods of epistemology in modernity, and hence on the resulting knowledge.
However, Carson (2002), David Ray Griffin and Huston Smith (1989), Murphy (1997),
Rosenau (1992), and John Taylor (2002) among others also observe that pushing this
argument too far is likely to lead to a weakening of the idea of truth (as
correspondence) as a goal of rational enquiry, of the striving for epistemical rigour,
for total coherence of our knowledge, and so on. Given the senses, capacity of reflection, and traditions (standing on the shoulders of giants) of human beings, we can
know truth at least partially, even if it is often difficult to express in a culture-transcending way, and even if, in our global village, fickle public moods are apt to
change rapidly when exposed to a torrent of trendiness. Given the progress made in
modernity, the aim should be to transcend modernity, for instance by admitting
nonsensory perception (e.g., Hall, 2003), not to reject it lock, stock, and barrel. As far
as this work is concerned, certain warnings of postmodernism are heeded but it is
not espoused as metaphysical orientation.
Relativism. It is a truism that even knowledgeable intelligent persons of good will
may differ in their judgement of complex states of affairs. And that each judgement
has to be respected and considered unbiasedly according to its merits.
But this is not equivalent to accepting the relativistic principle that one person's
view is just as valid as another person's view (except to some extent in matters of
taste). Or, to put it more abstractly, it is not equivalent to denying that a particular
standpoint is privileged over others. The earlier considerations concerning postmodernism apply mutatis mutandis to relativism.
Constructivism. According to Jean Piaget's (1970/1983) theory of logico-mathematical thinking, from a psychological perspective we are all constructivists. In other
- 17 words, from the perceptual awakening in the uterus onward, human beings order
and class their perceptions, reflect on them, construct and revise their view of the
world, of their human surroundings, and of themselves. Thomas Aquinas (S. th. I, q.
75, a. 5) already formulated it this way, ”Omne quod recipitur in aliquo, recipitur in
eo per modem recipientis” [Whatever is received into something is received according to the condition of the recipient – Aquinas, 1259-1264/2003].
However, radical constructivism as an epistemic enterprise in the areas of cognition
and knowledge goes further (e.g., von Glasersfeld, 1995). The declared epistemic basis of radical constructivism is one's personal (everyday) experience (epistemic
solipsism); the criterion for proceeding with the (personal) construction is coherence.
Thus, no claim is made about any correspondence of the knowledge thus gained with
a “reality” that exists independently from humans. At best there could be some functional analogy.
Whereas constructivism shares some of the positive aspects of postmodernism and
relativism, the reason that it has not been adopted here is as follows. When one
considers, for instance, the performances of (manned) space flights and the achievements of science in general, does one not suspect (notwithstanding radical constructivists' affirmation to the contrary) that we can know more about “reality” than
the radical constructivists aim at?
Instrumentalism. Instrumentalism holds that scientific theories and models of the
universe are valid only in the sense that they are useful in predicting events and
explaining data consistently (saving the appearances), while at the same time making
no claim that anything they describe actually exists.
Instrumentalism thus shares some aspects with radical constructivism. What is the
difference? It seems that radical constructivism is more individualistic than instrumentalism. Constructivism comes to shared views via lengthy “negotiations”with
others – if at all –, for instrumentalism that seems to be a more “natural”, built-in
procedure. Instrumentalism is accepted here as a minimal epistemic approach.
1. 2. 2 Measurement framework adopted
Consonant with the chosen critical realism, a framework was worked out that incorporates selection and justification of the methods used in regard to the research objectives, given that not all details of the objectives were entirely clear from the outset.
Measurements in the psychology of religion share many features with measurements in mainstream psychology. Both quantitative and qualitative methods of the
usual types are used here (e.g., Huber, Reich, & Schenker, 2003; Hyde, 1990; Reich,
2000c/2001). A possible difference concerns the “involvement” of the transcendent.
In such cases a mixed group of religious believers (with their experience, knowledge
- 18 and contact with other believers, yet possibly a tendency to see God's hand everywhere) and nonbelievers (more sceptical) may yield the most searchingly obtained
and most reliable results (Reich, 2000b).
The following methodological stipulations were observed: First, convergence of
evidence from as many sources as possible was striven for. Second, empirical
generalisations over the widest possible range of phenomena were aimed at (Lakoff
& Johnson, 1999, pp. 79-80). Third, the triadic network of justification was adopted:
(i) research aims and theories should normally harmonise, (ii) theories justify
methods and are in turn justified by them, (iii) methods exhibit the realisability of the
research and are justified by the aims (Laudan, 1984, pp. 62-66).
A first upshot was to work in an exploratory, inductive, “bottom-up“ fashion, that
is to assume that some participants “know”more about the issues to be researched
than the researcher(s), to use primarily half-structured interviews as initial research
method, to listen carefully and follow up any leads, to explore and elucidate the
genuine views of the respondents as pertinent for the present research without
influencing the answers to the interview questions. In certain cases this lead to at
least two sets of questions, one for believers, and one for nonbelievers. A second
implication concerns the nature of these interview questions. Given the aim of
elucidating mental structures and their development (of which the participants are
largely unaware), it is clear that questions cannot address them directly (as would be
possible, for instance, in the contrasting case of researching the participants' biography). Rather, the interview guidelines had to be designed in such a way that the
mental structure underlying the answers reveals itself indirectly (Huber, Reich &
Schenker, 2003, pp. 181-186; Reich, 2002b, pp. 191-198).
1. 2. 3 Restriction to cognition
Clearly, religiosity involves not just cognition, but also emotions, volition, unconscious drives, etc. (see section 1.1.1, pp. 2-3). However, more dimensions of social behaviour correlate with cognitive development than with any other aspect of personality. The development of cognition is an important ingredient also of religious /
spiritual / faith development (e.g., Fowler, 1981, 1987, 1988/1991, 1996). Furthermore, it influences one's world view, and thence one's religiosity (Reich, Oser, &
Valentin, 1994; Fetz, Reich & Valentin, 2001; Oser, Fetz, Reich & Valentin, 2003).
To go into some details: Apart from an expressive component, many religions (and
religiosity) comprise an explanatory component (e.g., Elkind, 1971; Goldman, 1964),
which attempts to satisfy the wish to understand the incomprehensible mysteries of
(religious) life. As this involves language, its cognitive content is introduced at the
same time. Even the interpretation of mystical experiences involves cognition. –
- 19 While religiosity concerns specifically individual beliefs and behaviour, it also implies
an anthropology and a sociology. Among other things, both of these disciplines have
to do with a certain knowledge about the workings of ”other”minds, which includes
the awareness that the content of a person's consciousness cannot be fully appreciated ”from the outside.” In fact, humans are much better at ”mind reading” than,
say, crocodiles; already four-year-olds are often aware whether someone speaks the
truth, lies, makes a joke, is in error, or tries to cheat, a cognitive issue. – Furthermore
religion usually involves behavioural rules, and urges members to heed them. Doing
so does not only call for motivation and volition, but also for an analysis of where
one stands in regard to these rules, and what needs doing to follow them; all of
which involves cognition (cf. Brown, 1998).
Given the connection between one's world view and one's religiosity (Oser, Fetz,
Reich, & Valentin, 2003), is it not likely that petitionary prayer is more frequent if it is
believed that God interferes in the world, and vice versa? In a questionnaire study (N
= 2700; ages 10-18), Anton Bucher (1996, p. 165) observed that the belief in God's
intervention correlated with an well above-average acceptance of Christian religious
teachings, and idem for the score of self-assessment as being religious, all outcomes
resulting from cognitive activities.
A conclusion is that existing theories of religious development by Fowler, (1981,
1987, 1988/1991, 1996), Oser & Gmünder (1984/1991; Oser & Reich, 1996, Reich,
forthcoming) and others ascribing an important, albeit not an exclusive role to
cognition are theoretically sound per se (and are empirically supported) as long as it
is understood that they do not describe in detail individual development in the
course of the life span but indicate developmental milestones many persons will
reach along their religious journey (as far as it goes).
While advocating in regard to religious development to take duly into account the
important roles of religious rituals and experiences, emotions (e.g., Beile, 1999 – emotions are often linked to cognition though), meditation, the unconscious, social
imbeddedness (e.g., Argyle, 2000) and other dimensions of religiosity (cf. Reich,
2000a, pp. 91-98; 2003 b; Reich & Oser, 2002, pp. 94-96; here chapter 7), the case for
the role of cognition seems robust enough to warrant a separate study.
1. 3 BACKGROUND KNOWLEDGE AND PROJECT PLANNING
1. 3. 1 Piagetian genetic epistemology and the world view study
An implicit correlation between the Piagetian (1970/1983) stages of acquiring logicomathematical competence (sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and
formal operational stage) and religious understanding had been demonstrated before
the present work started (Elkind, 1971; Goldman, 1964), and was taken as read.
- 20 However, before concentrating on logico-mathematical thought, Piaget (1926/1929)
had been interested in other aspects of genetic epistemology, and in particular in the
child's conception of the world, and even in religious issues such as the consequences
of believing in a transcendent God versus believing in an immanent God, or the role
of cognition versus the role of spiritual intimations in one's religiosity (Reich, 2004).
Mainly the former provided a cue for a corresponding, extended study, which became a stepping stone for the present work.
Indeed, the 10-year longitudinal world view study (Fetz et al., 2001) triggered the
present work in the following way. Whereas most (pre-)adolescents had either a
religious or a scientific world view, some managed somehow to co-ordinate the two
(Reich, 1987, 1992a, 1996). Their statements were along the lines, “I believe in the
Bible and the story of Adam and Eve but that we descend from apes is also true,” or
“If God has arranged for the Big Bang to contain all the features that later on lead to
stars, the solar system and to life on our planet, then there is no contradiction
between religion and science.” Stimulated by Niels Bohr's concept of complementarity, it was postulated that these “co-ordinators“ used a particular form of thought,
at that stage labelled “Thinking in terms of complementarity of 'theories'” (and later
Relational and Contextual Reasoning, RCR6 – Reich, 1995a, 1997, 1999, 2002a, b). This
form of thought serves in particular to ”co-ordinate” two theories, each of which
claims to explain best a given phenomenon or event. Examples are the particle theory
and the wave theory of light (until the arrival of quantum electrodynamics), or the
(endogenous) nativist theory of human characteristics and behaviour and the (exogenous) acquisition/socialisation theory (until the arrival of a detailed interaction
theory). Hence, a central objective of the present research project was to demonstrate
and to elucidate the nature and the detailed characteristics of RCR, its relationship
with other forms of thought, and its impact on an individual’s religiosity.
1. 3. 2 Relational and contextual reasoning
Logic
Already in the world view interviews (Fetz et al., 2001) a remarkable variation of
competence in RCR showed up: within the same age group and in response to the
same “dilemma“ some persons scored clearly better than others (Reich, 1987, 1996).
Lack of which knowledge or skill could be a reason for a lesser performance? One
likely issue was a lack of skill to discern differences in the underlying logic (Reich,
6 In the initial label Thinking in terms of complementarity of 'theories', the emphasis 'theory'
indicates an everyday use (= hypothesis). – Even if that original label is still used in an
original publication under discussion., for simplicity, the shorter designation RCR of this
thought form will largely be used throughout this Section.
- 21 1992b, 1995b), specifically between formal binary logic and a trivalent logic as originally postulated for quantum theory7 (Bedau & Oppenheim, 1961), and here for
RCR. The third truth value is noncompatible (in addition to compatible and incompatible): In one condition/context one “theory“ has more explanatory potential, in
an other condition/context the competing “theory” (hence the contextual in RCR).
This type of logic could also be a candidate for the “logic” of the Chalcedonian Definition (the two natures of Jesus Christ). Indeed, going into the history of its formulation (in 451 AD) unearthed arguments which support this hypothesis (Reich, 1990;
here chap-ter 3). From that followed the suggestion, “RCR is an ingredient of religious development“; this in the sense that doctrines like the Chalcedonian Definition
or the doctrine of the single triune God (the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit)
could be “understood“ rather than blindly believed. This hypothesis was put to an
empirical test: the data supported it (Reich, 1994). That result was a further hint for a
correlation between the development of RCR and of religious development.
Relations with Piagetian operations
The next question to be tackled was the relations betweeen RCR and Piagetian operations. At the time a debate was in full swing as to whether other thought forms (such
as dialectical and other forms of thought – Reich, 1997, 1999) developed only after
formal operations (hence the designation postformal operations) or in parallel (e.g.,
Broughton, 1984). Therefore the task was to interview the same children and
adolescents (as well as adults) about Piagetian tasks and RCR problems. The results
(Reich, 1991; 2002b, p. 63; present chapter 5) could be interpreted as demonstrating
that mastering a given Piagetian (sub-)stage is a necessary condition for reaching a
given RCR stage, but not a sufficient condition. Persons scoring at a particular Piagetian stage argued at various RCR levels.
Other issues
With this issue out of the way, the question of what hat else could make the difference between Piagetian operations and RCR was taken up again. In a noetic
analysis, Philibert Secretan (1987) situated thinking in terms of complementarity
“between” dialectical thinking and thinking in terms of analogy. The suspicion grew
that RCR contained some elements of each (in addition to elements of Piagetian ope7 When one directs a (laser-)light beam or a beam of electrons onto an image-producing
target plate through a single slit in a shielding screen positioned between the source and the
target plate, the observed pattern indicates a particle-like behaviour of the beam. However, if
the intermediate screen features two appropriately spaced slits, a wave-like behaviour of the
very same beam is deduced from the observed pattern. This context-dependent outcome is
consonant with the RCR logic. In our Internet era everybody can simulate this experiment at
http://www.colorado.edu/physics/2000/applets/twoslitsa.html
- 22 rations) and also elements of cognitive complex thought (Baker-Brown et al., 1992).
As the latter, and the competence to deal (at least intuitively) with logics other than
formal binary logic, were considered important aspects of RCR, corresponding
interview problems were devised and tested (Reich, 2002b, pp. 63-74; present chapter
5). The research results were comparable to that of Piagetian operations and RCR:
necessary but insufficient. The overall result, then, is that high (sub-)stages of
Piagetian operations, high grades of cognitive complex thought, high levels of
dealing with more logics than formal binary logic (and presumably similarly for
dialectic and analogical thinking) are required to reach high levels of RCR .
Having established the existence of RCR and its development, the question arose
how that development came about; what triggered and powered it? In general terms,
answers are known to be: ”a failure to perform satisfactorily at the current stage of
development”, ”the desire to be equal to, or even 'better' than one's pairs”, ”curiosity”, etc. Looking for more specific explanations, the respondents of the world view
study were reinterviewed after the second series of world view interviews and asked
why they had changed specific answers from the first to the second interview.
Broadly, the answer came down to either new kinds of knowledge, for instance in
biology or physics, or more critical and powerful thinking (Reich, Oser, & Valentin,
1994). Following up this initial research lead to the elucidation of epistemic cognition
as object-related reflection and after further development as reflection on the mental
means of gaining reliable knowledge (cf. Fetz et al, 2001; Reich, 2002b, pp. 29-32).
1. 3. 4 RCR and religious development
The last question studied concerns the role of RCR in Religious Judgement (RJ) (Oser
& Gmünder, 1984/1991) (here chapter 6). Already Fowler (1987, p. 72) stated that “In
the transition to Conjunctive faith one begins to make peace with the tension arising
from the fact that truth must be approached from a number of different directions
and angles of vision. As part of hono[u]ring truth, faith must maintain the tensions
between these multiple perspectives and refuse to collapse them into one direction or
another.” This can be interpreted as referring to RCR (RCR not being well known at
the time, Fowler refers to dialectical thinking – a relative of RCR). In the present
chapter 6 the view is expressed that Fowler's Conjuntive faith involves indeed RCR.
In a further study (Reich, 2002b, p. 131) the rank correlation between Oser's
RJ stages and RCR levels was established as Kendal's tau = .70; p < .01; N = 30, a
fairly high, significant value. Clearly, RCR, a "postformal" kind of cognition, is an
ingredient of religious development.
In conclusion (anticipating the results to be reported in chapters 2 to 7): Among
the striking features of the present study are the following:
- 23 – while the study explored uncharted territory, it did not get stuck in blind alleys
(except for the change of the label from “Thinking in terms of complementarity of
‘theories’” to “Relational and contextual reasoning, RCR”);
– the original framework had enough room to accommodate unexpected findings
such as the relations of RCR with other thought forms;
– the 5-level RCR scheme determined early on held up well; no reworking of the
levels or the scoring manual was needed;
– early hypotheses about the usefulness of RCR for understanding Christian doctrines (chapters 2, 3, 4) or for religious education and development (chapter 4)
could later be confirmed empirically (Reich, 1994; 1996; 2002b, ch. 7).
Altogether this work can be considered as a “proof of existence“ of the phenomena researched and the theoretical explanations put forward rather than a complete, detailed mapping and elucidation of all conceivable relationships between the
various parameters and variables. Nevertheless, the present results should prove
helpful for planning and possibly guiding such future research.
1. 4 CHRONOLOGICAL THREAD OF THE PRESENT RESEARCH
1. 4. 1 Overview
As will be apparent from the references, I have written considerably more papers
than the six (listed in section 1. 4. 2) reproduced here in chapters 2 to 7, and even a
book (Reich, 2002b) which summarises most of my work in the area under discussion. Apart from formal reasons, the papers reproduced here were selected
because they constitute key milestones of progress with the thesis research project.
Paper no. 1 (Reich, 1987) reports on the findings about the co-ordination of religious and scientific worldviews and the hypothesised correlations with RCR levels. It
is my most quoted paper, especially by religious educators.
Paper no. 2 (Reich, 1990) presents evidence that RCR was already used by some
Fathers of the Council of Chalkedon. It lays the ground for a subsequent empirical
study (Reich, 1994).
Paper no. 3 (Reich, 1991) reviews possible roles for RCR in religious development,
reports some results of the empirical study of RCR, and suggests further research.
Paper no. 4 (Reich, 1999) summarises for the first time the totality of the research
under discussion up to the date of writing.
Paper no. 5 (Reich & Oser, 2002) describes the connection between the stages of
- 24 Oser’s Religious Judgement and RCR. It supports the corresponding hypotheses
formulated early on in this research project.
Paper no. 6 (Reich, 2003b) enlarges the horizon and embeds cognition into a host
of other dimensions codetermining religious development.
1. 4. 2 References to the six papers
For convenience and as “introduction“ to the sequel these references are listed in the
order of papers 1 to 6 (chapters 2 to 7), also to indicate the kind journals and books in
which they appeared:
(1) Religiöse und naturwissenschaftliche Weltbilder: Entwicklung einer komplementären Betrachtungsweise in der Adoleszenz. Unterrichtswissenschaft, 15 (3), 1987,
332-343. English version: Between religion and science: Complementarity in the
religious thinking of young people. British Journal of Religious Education, 11 (2),
Spring 1989, 62-69.
(2) The Chalcedonian Definition, an example of the difficulties and the usefulness of
thinking in terms of complementarity? Journal of Psychology and Theology, 18 (2),
1990, 148-157.
(3) The role of complementarity reasoning in religious development. In: F. K. Oser &
W. G. Scarlett (Guest Eds), Religious development in childhood and adolescence
(pp. 77-89). New Directions for Child Development, CD 52 (W. Damon, Series Editor).
San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1991.
(4) Relations- und kontextbezogenes Denken sowie sein Bezug zu anderen Formen
des Denkens. Psychologie in Erziehung und Unterricht, 46 (2), 1999, 136-149.
(5) Eine freiere Mensch-"Gott"-Beziehung und komplexeres Denken: Zwei ungleiche
Seiten der selben Entwicklung. In: E. Becker, H.-J. Hahn, H. A. Kick & H. Schlosser
(Eds), Die Programmierung des kindlichen und jugendliches Gehirns. Menschsein
zwischen neurobiologischer Steuerung und Ebendbild des Schöpfers (pp. 65-76). Gießen:
Verlag des Professorenforums (mit Fritz Oser).
(6) The person-God-relationship: A dynamic model. The International Journal for the
Psychology of Religion, 13 (4), 2003, 229-247.
All single-author papers present my own work unless stated otherwise. Paper 5 is
really two papers “under one cover”, describing the work of F. Oser and K. H. Reich,
respectively, as well as their interaction.
The published texts are reproduced here verbatim, except for indications such as
- 25 the address for obtaining reprints, etc., which have been deleted, and the correction
of a very small number of overlooked misprints. Updated bibliographical data of
publications which were at the time “in press”are given [in square brackets] in the
respective reference lists. – Secondary thoughts and comments in retrospect are presented in the “Postscripts.”
All copyright holders gave permission (where needed) to reproduce here copyrighted material. They are (in the order Introduction, papers 1 to 6): Cambridge
Univrsity Press, Cambridge, England; Juventa-Verlag, Weinheim, Germany; Rosemead School of Psychology, Biola University, La Mirada, CA, USA; John Wiley &
Sons, Hoboken, NJ, USA; Enst-Reinhardt-Verlag, Munich, Germany; Verlag des
Professorenforums, Gießen, Germany; Lawrence Erlbaum, Mahwah, NJ, USA.
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- 35 -
2. RELIGIÖSE UND NATURWISSENSCHAFTLICHE WELTBILDER:
ENTWICKLUNG EINER KOMPLEMENTÄREN BETRACHTUNGSWEISE
IN DER ADOLESZENZ
[Religious and scientific worldviews: Developing in adolescence a way of viewing
both as complementary]
Zusammenfassung: Untersuchungen der kognitiven Entwicklung von Adoleszenten
in bezug auf das religiöse und das naturwissenschaftliche Weltbild zeigen, daß religiöse Vorstellungen in diesem Alter verhältnismäßig leicht über Bord geworfen
werden, weil sie für kindisch bzw. unvereinbar mit wissenschaftlichen Befunden
gehalten werden. Die Entwicklung bis zu dieser potentiellen Krise wird zusammenfassend dargestellt. Nach der hier vertretenen Hypothese erleichtert ein Denken in
Komplementarität das Überwinden der kritischen Phase. Es wird über empirische
Befunde für ein derartiges Denken berichtet und der spezifische Fall der Weltbilder
diskutiert, einschließlich einiger pädagogischer Postulate.
Abstract. Many adolescents jettison their religious framework as childish and incompatible with scientific views. The development leading up to this potential crisis
is recalled. Thinking in terms of complementarity is hypothesized to alleviate crossing the critical phase. Empirical evidence for such thinking is presented and the particular case of the two world views is discussed, including some postulates regarding education in the classroom.
2. 1 DIE THEMATIK
Im Umfeld traditioneller christlicher Kultur werden religiöse und ”wissenschaftliche” Weltbilder von Anfang an unkoordiniert an die Kinder herangetragen bzw.
von ihnen entwickelt. Sie gehören bis etwa zum 8. Lebensjahr ganz selbstverständlich zu ihrer einen Welt, spalten sich dann auf, bleiben jedoch von etwa 9 bis 12 Jahren noch synkretistisch beieinander stehen, bis etwa ab dem 13. Lebensjahr diese
Trennung und wahrscheinlich vorhandene Widersprüche zu Problemen kognitiver
Dissonanz führen können.
Untersuchungen der kognitiven Entwicklung von Adoleszenten in bezug auf das
religiöse und das naturwissenschaftliche Weltbild zeigen, daß religiöse Vorstellungen in diesem Alter verhältnismäßig leicht über Bord geworfen werden, weil sie für
kindisch bzw. unvereinbar mit wissenschaftlichen Befunden gehalten werden. Die
Entwicklung bis zu dieser potentiellen Krise wird zusammenfassend dargestellt.
Nach der hier vertretenen Hypothese erleichtert ein Denken in Komplementarität
das Überwinden der kritischen Phase. Es wird über empirische Befunde für ein
- 36 derartiges Denken berichtet und der spezifische Fall der Weltbilder diskutiert, einschließlich einiger pädagogischer Postulate.
Eine komplementäre Betrachtungsweise der beiden Weltbilder kann das Dissonanzproblem lösen (Oser & Reich 1986). Diese Hypothese entstand bei der Analyse
von (z.T. unveröffentlichten) recht verschiedenartigen Probandenaussagen, die in
einer Untersuchung von Fetz und Oser (1985/1986)1 erhoben wurden:
Renate (16 Jahre; 3 Monate) [In Beantwortung der Frage, ob ein Studium der Naturwissenschaft und die daraus folgende Einsicht, daß die Welt nicht von Gott geschaffen sein kann, es ihr schwierig machen würde, den Glauben an Gott aufrecht zu erhalten)]: ”Die Schwierigkeiten sehe ich schon. Aber irgendwie, das könnte mich
nicht vom Glauben wegbringen.”
Sara (15; 6): ”Das [Universum] ist von mir aus gesehen nicht von Gott gemacht, sondern das ist einfach aus natürlichen Gründen entstanden. ... Ihn [Gott] gibt es
einfach in der Illusion ... das sind Geschichten, die sie erzählen.”
Françoise (18; 4): ”Die [Wissenschaftler, die sagen, daß am Anfang die Elementarbausteine gewesen sind] haben schon auch recht, aber sie können ja gar nicht sagen,
warum die Atome da sind. Wenn man in der Bibel liest, dann weiß man es: Gott hat
einfach die Welt gewollt, er hat sie gemacht, aber eben, man muß das einfach symbolisch verstehen, das mit Adam und Eva und so. ... Daß Gott die Welt geformt hat,
und von der (Evolutions-)Theorie her, daß nachher die Menschen durch Veränderungen entstanden sind, ich würde das einfach zusammenbringen.”
Sehen wir uns diese Aussagen etwas näher an. Renate erahnt das Dissonanzproblem, aber – wie aus dem weiteren, hier nicht zitierten Verlauf des Interviews hervorgeht – schiebt sie es noch vor sich her. Sara hat das Problem dadurch gelöst, daß
sie ihre ehemaligen religiösen Vorstellungen über Bord geworfen hat. Françoise hat
die Möglichkeit einer ”Sowohl als auch”-Position, also einer komplementären Sicht
von religiösen und naturwissenschaftlichen Auffassungen erkannt und für sich akzeptiert. Daß Renate und Sara nicht untypische Fälle darstellen, geht auch aus den
Aussagen eines Probanden der Anschlußuntersuchung hervor:
Georg (20; 4): ”Manche [gläubigen] Leute sagen, 'das war meine Erziehung, ich
glaube das, ich stelle überhaupt keine Fragen dazu, das ist einfach ganz klar'. Auf
der anderen Seite, die Kritischen, die sagen 'ich glaube das einfach nicht'. ... Am
Anfang [des eigenen Nachdenkens], so in der Pubertät, wenn man so richtig
realisiert, was da eigentlich läuft, ist man von beiden Seiten beeinflußt. Man muß
1 Projekt 1.598-082 des Schweizerischen Nationalfonds zur Förderung der wissenschaftlichen
Forschung. Reto Fetz und Fritz Oser seien für das Zurverfügungstellen unveröffentlichter
Protokolle und für hilfreiche Diskussionen herzlich bedankt. A. Bucher half bei der
kritischen Durchsicht des Manuskripts.
- 37 das verarbeiten. Und das kann man einfach nicht, wenn man bloß sagt, also ich gehe
jetzt zu dieser Seite oder zu jener Seite. Sondern ich nehme mal beide Seiten in mich
auf, und im Verlaufe der Zeit kann ich mich dann auf diese oder jene Seite schlagen
... aufgrund von Beobachtungen, Erfahrungen, Gesprächen, Theorien ... es mischt
sich alles einfach durcheinander. ... Man braucht das religiöse Weltbild zum
Hinterfragen des wissenschaftlichen. Es liegt in der Natur des Menschen, daß er
sich alles erklären will, aber er kommt an den Punkt, wo er nicht weiterkommt.
Nimmt er dann eine höhere Kraft aus Verlegenheit oder aus Überzeugung an?“
Bevor die Entwicklung einer komplementären Betrachtungsweise der in Frage stehenden Weltbilder in der Adoleszenz (2.4) erörtert wird, sei zum besseren Verständnis zunächst auf die Entwicklung von Weltbildvorstellungen im Kindesalter
(2.2) und auf die Entwicklung des Denkens in Komplementarität als solches (2.3) eingegangen. Nach einer Diskussion der Entwicklungsniveaus (2.5) werden zum Schluß
einige pädagogische Postulate vorgestellt (2.6).
2. 2 WELTBILDENTWICKLUNG BEI KINDERN UND JUGENDLICHEN
Hierzu liegen zahlreiche Untersuchungen vor, von denen mehrere besonders das
religiöse Weltbild berücksichtigen (z.B. Piaget, 1926, 1978/80, S. 216, 280, 298-303;
Thun, 21964, S. 23-39, 125-146; Goldman, 1964/1968, S. 51ff.; Klink, 1971, 1972, 1973;
Reents, 1984; Fetz & Oser, 1985/1986; Fetz, 1985). Keine wurde jedoch bewußt aus
dem Blickwinkel der Komplementarität beider Weltbilder durchgeführt. Zusammenfassend kann man sagen, daß sich Kinder bis zu etwa 8 Jahren Gott konkret, punktuell lokalisiert, mächtig und meistens anthropomorph vorstellen. Während das
(leere) Universum in der Vorstellung der Kinder durchweg schon immer existierte
(manchmal auch die Sterne und die Sonne), hat Gott im Regelfall alles andere gemacht, einschließlich der Artefakte wie Hochhäuser und Autos. Die Erde wird oft als
flach vorgestellt, und es wird eine feste Himmelsdecke angenommen, über der Gott
sich aufhält. Bezeichnend für dieses Alter ist, daß physische und symbolische Elemente (wie Himmel, Engel usw.) die eine Welt bilden, in der Gott täglich viele Aufgaben erfüllt.
Im Alter von etwa 9-12 Jahren werden die archaischen Weltbilder nach und nach
mit naturwissenschaftlichen hybridisiert. Die Erde wird kugelförmig, die Begrenzungen verschwinden, Gott ist nicht mehr im räumlich begrenzten Himmel sondern
schwebt überall im Weltraum herum (Fetz, 1985, S. 136). Die Natur ist in ihrem Bereich z.T. verselbständigt, ebenso der Mensch in seinem Wirkungsbereich. Gott hilft
allenfalls bei schwierigen Vorkommnissen wie bei Geburten oder geistigen Schöp-
- 38 fungsakten, ermöglicht das Wachsen der Pflanzen und sorgt für menschliche Rücksichtnahme sowie für Waffenstillstand nach Krieg.
In der Adoleszenz (ab etwa 13 Jahren) entwickelt sich mit dem Erwerb der formalen Operationen ein starkes kritisch-rationales Bedürfnis. Bereits Goldman (1964/
1968, S. 242) beobachtete, daß viele Adoleszenten ihre ”theologischen” Vorstellungen
über Bord werfen, weil sie als ”kindisch” und mit den Naturwissenschaften unvereinbar beurteilt werden. Karla (19; 11) erinnert sich: “Also später hat das einen sehr
starken Einfluß gehabt, daß dann der Darwinismus in mich eingefahren ist. Da konnte ich dann mit dem Geschichtlein von den 7 Tagen gar nichts mehr anfangen.“ Daß
dieses Ergebnis nicht das einzig mögliche ist, wurde bereits in 2.1 angedeutet und
wird in 2.4 eingehend behandelt.
2. 3 DIE ENTWICKLUNG VON DENKEN IN KOMPLEMENTARITÄT
2. 3. 1 Zum Begriff “Komplementarität”
Nach Meyer-Abich und Jammer (zitiert von Fischer, 1987, S. 47) ist der Begriff “Komplementarität” wahrscheinlich zuerst von W. James zur Beschreibung gespaltener
Bewußtseinszustände benutzt worden, wie sie bei Hysterikern auftreten, die gewisse
Sinneseindrücke in dem einen oder anderen Bewußtsein verarbeiten. Vermutlich von
James inspiriert, benutzte Bohr den Begriff zur Kennzeichnung der Beziehung
zwischen der Wellen- und der Teilchenbeschreibung des Lichts. Statt an einem
physikalischen Beispiel scheint es jedoch zweckmäßiger, diesen Begriff (der eine
allgemeine logische Kategorie kennzeichnet) anhand von geistes- bzw. humanwissenschaftlichen Beispielen zu erläutern. Die komplementären Aussagen gehören
dabei auch verschiedenen Wissensbereichen an.
Nach MacKay (1974, 5. 242) beziehen sich komplementäre Beschreibungen bzw.
Erklärungen auf dasselbe Referenzobjekt. Aufgrund dieses gemeinsamen Bezugs
sind sie nicht unabhängig voneinander, stellen aber jede für sich eine “vollständige“
Charakterisierung dieses Objekts dar, die aus einem jeweils anderen, sich gegenseitig
ausschließenden Kontext heraus vorgenommen wurde (wobei die Charakterisierungen mit unterschiedlichen Erkenntnismitteln gewonnen werden können). Beide bedürfen einer Bewährungsprobe, der bereichsspezifische, unterschiedliche Kriterien
und Methoden zugrunde liegen können.
Unter dem gemeinsamen Referenzobjekt kann prinzipiell ein Ding, ein Zustand,
eine Situation, ein (abstrakter) Vorgang, ein Begriff, eine Erkenntnis usw. verstanden
werden.
Die Ausschließlichkeit der Kontexte kann im allgemeinen Fall folgende Gründe
haben: zeitliche (wie bei den Experimenten zur Wellen- bzw. Teilchennatur des
Lichts), räumliche (wie bei dem Grund-, Auf- und Seitenriß eines Hauses), logisch-
- 39 kategorielle (wie bei der Beschreibung einer Computerrechnung einmal auf der
Hardware- und zum anderen auf der Programmebene) oder eben kontextuelle im
strengeren Sinn (wie die physiologische, psychologische und soziologische
Erörterung von Alkoholismus).
Wenn bei komplementären Beschreibungen die gemeinsame Referenz bereits
vor liegt, handelt es sich im Regelfall darum, konkurrierende Erklärungsversuche
nicht als alternativ, sondern als komplementär aufzufassen und dementsprechend zu
koordinieren. Noch ergiebiger kann jedoch der umgekehrte Denkvorgang sein:
indem von der (begründeten) Annahme ausgegangen wird, daß zwei oder mehr
Darstellungen komplementär sind, sucht man nach der noch unbekannten gemeinsamen Referenz, beispielsweise mittels einer Abduktion (Eco & Seboek 1983/1985).
Als Beispiel für eine “Drei-Wege-Koordinierung” zwischen der gemeinsamen (mehr
oder weniger klaren) Referenz und den beiden “Theorien” (der Moralphilosophen
bzw. der Moralpsychologen) sowie den “Theorien”untereinander mittels einer komplementären Betrachtung seien zunächst die Bemühungen hinsichtlich eines
Entwicklungsschemas für moralische Urteile genannt, insbesondere die Festlegung
der höchsten Stufe. Wer sich für diese Koordinierung näher interessiert, findet vielseitige Betrachtungen dazu in dem Sammelband von Edelstein und Nunner- Winkler
(1986, über Komplementarität bes. S. 188-199), der allein 6 Beiträge ausdrücklich
“Zum Ver hält nis von Philosophie und Psychologie in der Moralforschung”
enthält.
In aller Kürze kann man zum Verhältnis von Moralphilosophie (”Sollen”) und
Psychologie (“Sein”) folgendes sagen (Edelstein und Nunner-Winkler 1986, S. 8): Moralphilosophen neigen dazu, Moral deduktiv, aus einer ethiktheoretischen Perspektive, bzw. von einer höchsten moralischen Entwicklungsstufe her zu definieren. Psychologen tendieren hingegen eher zu der Annahme, daß Moral (und ihre etwaige
Entwicklung) induktiv aus dem Alltagsverständnis des Subjekts zu begreifen ist.
Eine komplementäre Betrachtungsweise führt dazu, daß das hier anwendbare
Brückenprinzip in den Vordergrund der Betrachtung gerückt wird: ”Empirisch Unmögliches soll nicht gefordert werde” (Zecha, 1984, S. 17). Im Verfolg dieses Prinzips
analysieren die Philosophen die empirisch aufgefundenen Auffassungen bzw. Verhaltensweisen und reflektieren sie aus ihrer ethiktheoretischen Perspektive, während
die Psychologen besonders bei der Definition der höchsten Stufe der moralischen
Entwicklung diese Reflextion der Moralphilosophen beachten (s. z.B. Kohlberg, 1981)
und damit die Sein-Sollen-Problematik entschärfen. Ein weiteres Beispiel: Im
Hinblick auf die Erforschung von problemlösendem Denken plädiert Bromme (1986)
ausdrücklich für die Komplementarität von psychologischen Theorien und Theorien
über ”Sachverhältnisse”, die man (nach Pattee, Bromme, 1986, 5. 266) “miteinander
denken muß, um einen Sachverhalt zu verstehen”.
- 40 Eine
entsprechende
Auffassung
hinsichtlich
religiöser
und
naturwissenschaftlicher Weltbilder ist umstrittener. Während es in der
Moralphilosophie und in der Moralpsychologie weithin akzeptierte Kernaussagen
gibt, und damit die Möglichkeit gegeben ist, ein konsensfähiges Referenzobjekt
festzulegen, auf die beide Betrachtungsweisen bezogen werden können, gilt dies hier
kaum. Sofern “religiös” im Sinne institutioneller Religion als der Theologie
nahestehend verstanden wird, drängt sich offensichtlich die Frage nach
konsensfähigen theologischen Kernaussagen auf. Wird “religiös” im Sinne
persönlicher Religiosität begriffen, so ist – in einer auch religiös pluralistischen
Gesellschaft – eine weithin anerkannte gemeinsame Referenz für die beiden
Weltbilder wahrscheinlich noch schwerer zu finden. Diese schwierige Frage,
inwieweit die Komplementarität der beiden Weltbilder von der Theologie und den
Naturwissenschaften anerkannt ist, kann hier nicht diskutiert werden. Zumindest ist
deren komplementäre Auffassung nicht wissenschaftliches Allgemeingut. Der Zugang zu einer solchen Auffassung ist möglicherweise leichter, wenn das religiöse
Weltbild auf einem solchen Religionsverständnis beruht, wie dasjenige von H. Lübbe
(1986, z.B. S. 17). Danach ist die Religion eine Lebenspraxis, durch die wir uns in ein
zumindest erträgliches Verhältnis zur unverfügbaren Kontingenz unseres Lebens
und seiner unverfügbaren Bedingungen setzen, also beispielsweise zum eigenen Dasein, zum Jetztsein und zum Diese(r)sein. – Darüber hinausgehende Vorstellungen
sind nicht ausgeschlossen, aber ein diesbezüglicher Konsens ist mit unseren heutigen
Erkenntnissen wohl noch schwieriger zu erreichen. Mögliche Hindernisse sind u. a.
unterschiedliche Epistemologien, ein unterschiedliches Verständnis des Leib-SeeleVerhältnisses usw.
Was könnte der Kern eines komplementär rekonstruierten Gesamtweltbildes sein?
Eine mögliche gemeinsame Referenz wäre unsere Stellung als Mensch in der Natur,
d.h. die Einsicht, unter welchen Bedingungen die Menschheit auch zukünftig auf der
Erde und im Kosmos “zu Hause” sein kann. Dafür gibt es zumindest einige
Vorüberlegungen. Gerade in jüngster Zeit unterstellen unter gewissen (z. T. unterschiedlichen) Bedingungen nicht nur naturwissenschaftlich gebildete Theologen wie
Ford (1986) oder Peacocke (1986), Philosophen wie beispielsweise Toulmin (1982/
1985, bes. S. 273-274) oder Lübbe (1986, bes. S. 143-146), sondern auch Naturwissenschaftler, z.B. v. Ditfurth (1981/1984), Davies (1983/1986) oder Gierer (1985), die
"Vereinbarkeit" von Naturwissenschaften und Religion trotz Bewußtheit der Schwierigkeiten.
2. 3. 2 Empirische Befunde
In unserer Untersuchung (Oser & Reich, 1986) wurden den 28 Probanden 9 Probleme
- 41 mit jeweils 2 “Theorien” (A und B) vorgelegt (wissenschaftlich-technischer, soziologischer, philosophischer Art – Probleme Nr. 1 bis 6 – oder religiöser Natur), die eine
Kontingenz erklären. Der Proband wurde aufgefordert, eine begründete Entschei dung dafür zu fällen, ob A oder B richtig sei.
Aufgrund der vorläufigen Befunde wird folgende Hypothese postuliert: Bei der
allgemeinen Entwicklung von Denken in Komplementarität werden nacheinander
im Idealfall 5 Niveaus erreicht. Auf dem Niveau I wird typischerweise A oder B als
richtig erklärt (etwa zwei Drittel der Entscheidungen der Probanden von 6 bis 10
Jahren), auf dem Niveau II wird die Möglichkeit erwogen, daß sowohl A als auch B
richtig ist (etwa ein Drittel der Entscheidungen zwischen 11 und 14 Jahren), auf dem
Niveau III, dem Beginn des “wahren“ Denkens in Komplementarität, werden A und
B als für die Erklärung des Explanandum notwendig erachtet (etwa ein Drittel der
Entscheidungen von 11 bis 14 Jahre), auf dem Niveau IV werden A und B sofort
komplementär aufgefaßt und es wird ihre Beziehung erklärt (etwa 80% der Entscheidungen von 21-25 Jahren), und auf dem Niveau V wird eine eigene Supertheorie entwickelt, die A und B in sich einschließt.
Anders als der Begriff “Stufe“ beansprucht jener des ”Niveaus” keinen universellen Gültigkeitsbereich. Es ist jedoch nicht auszuschließen, daß die Mechanismen, die
dieser Entwicklung zugrunde liegen, auch anderswo bestimmend sind, z. B. bei der
Entwicklung des moralischen Urteils. Bis weitere empirische Befunde vorliegen, soll
jedoch der postulierte Gültigkeitsanspruch auf das Denken in Komplementarität beschränkt werden.
2. 4 KOMPLEMENTARITÄT VON RELIGIÖSEN UND NATURWISSENSCHAFTLICHEN
WELTBILDERN IN DER ADOLESZENZ
Es wurde bereits angemerkt, daß die Berechtigung einer komplementären Sicht in
diesem besonderen Fall wissenschaftlich umstritten ist. Hier geht es freilich primär
nicht darum, wieweit ein solches komplementäres Weltbild wissenschaftlich anerkannt ist, sondern darum, wie sich Subjekte Wirklichkeiten bzw. Möglichkeiten vorstellen und ins Verhältnis setzen, genauer gesagt, wieder um ihre Koordinationsleistung. Aufgrund von Beobachtungen bei den Weltbilduntersuchungen (s. 2. 1)
wird postuliert, daß Probanden die beiden Bilder als komplementär auffassen. Für
eine erste Prüfung dieser Annahme ist Problem Nr. 9 bei Oser und Reich (1986)
geeignet. Ein Naturwissenschaftler erklärt die Entstehung der Welt mittels des Urknalls (A), ein Pfarrer aus der Weisheit Gottes, der sie und das Leben geschaffen hat
und die Menschen liebt (B): was stimmt, A oder B?
Die Befunde lauten wie folgt. Mit einer Ausnahme war die Entscheidung der sieben Probanden im Alter von 6 bis 10 (11) Jahren: “Der Pfarrer hat recht”. Die Begrün-
- 42 dungen gingen von “Gott hat ihm gesagt, daß es so ist”, bis zu “es steht in der Bibel
geschrieben”. Die Ausnahme war Martin (8; 5), der ein naturwissenschaftliches Buch
gelesen hatte und dem Wissenschaftler mehr recht gab, von Gott allerdings noch
annahm, er habe dabei geholfen, indem er es regnen ließ.
Die beiden anderen elfjährigen Probanden, ein Dreizehn- und zwei Vierzehnjährige entschieden sich dafür, daß beide “Protagonisten“ irgendwie recht haben können (Niveau II). Die Begründungen gingen von ,“A könnte auch sein, aber ich glaube
B, weil ich nichts anderes weiß“, oder “Ich glaube zwar mehr an die Bibel, aber daß
der Mensch vom Affen abstammt, scheint mir auch richtig“ über “der Urknall kann
keine Bäume wachsen lassen, aber Gott kann es“, zu “Urknall ja, aber Gott hat auch
etwas damit zu tun; ich kann mir nicht vorstellen, daß die Welt einfach so da war“.
Dabei kamen bereits durch kognitive Dissonanzen hervorgerufene Spannungen zum
Ausdruck, z. B. “es gibt so viele Meinungen, die einen sagen dies, die anderen das“
(vgl. Simon, 1983, S. 161).
Ein dreizehnjähriger, der fünfzehnjährige und drei sechzehnjährige Probanden
entschieden sich weitgehend für “eher A” (der Naturwissenschaftler hat recht). Die
Argumentation war durchweg: “A kann man beweisen bzw. rekonstruieren, B
nicht“.
Peter (16; 2) sah das anders: “Der Urknall ist schon recht, aber er genügt als Erklärung nicht, dazu braucht es noch etwas anderes, einen höheren Geist, der den Urknall verursacht hat” (Niveau III+). Noch weiter ging Reto (17; 3): ”A und B gehören
zu anderen Dimensionen Gott existiert in einer Dimension, die wir nicht begreifen
können, aber er kann vielleicht Einfluß auf den menschlichen Geist nehmen. Es sind
zwei verschiedene Ebenen, die einander nicht beeinflussen Den Grund weiß ich
nicht, ich bin nicht Gott” (Niveau IV-). Bei einer anderen Gelegenheit sagte René (17;
8), daß für ihn naturwissenschaftliche und religiöse Aussagen komplementär sind,
beide nötig und hilfreich: die naturwissenschaftlichen, um sich mit den Dingen in
dieser Welt zurechtzufinden, die religiösen für das menschliche Leben: “Auf zwei
Beinen kann man sicherer stehen” (Niveau IV).
Wie schon ansatzweise Françoise, so fassen Peter, Reto und René biblische und
naturwissenschaftliche Darstellungen der Herkunft von Welt und Mensch klar als
komplementär auf. Reto und René sind sich auch bewußt, daß beide Bereiche voneinander getrennt sind, aber dennoch miteinander in Beziehung stehen, zumindest
hinsichtlich ihrer persönlichen Lebensführung. Man darf vermuten, daß jedenfalls
bei Reto und René religiöse und naturwissenschaftliche (Teil-)Weltbilder zu einem
umfassenden Urteils-Handlungs-Weltbild gehören, das jeder für sich im Laufe der
Zeit als innere Repräsentation konstruiert hat. Nach Yates (1985, S. 252) simuliert
alles bewußte Denken die Welt, und alle Bewußtheite n – bei weitem nicht nur
Sinneswahrnehmungen – werden in diese Simulation einbezogen.
- 43 Werden die "kritischen" Adoleszenten (13-16 Jahre) später wie Peter, Reto und
René komplementär denken? Das ist möglich, aber es ist nicht sicher, zumindest
nicht im Zeitraum von einigen Monaten. Bei gewissen Probanden fiel auf, daß sie
anscheinend dieses Problem (Nr. 9) – im Gegensatz zu den sechs mit nichtreligiösen
Inhalten – bewußt oder unbewußt im bejahenden oder im ablehnenden Sinn als
einen Anlaß für ein persönliches Engagement empfanden, als ob nicht ein kognitives
Problem, sondern die Gretchenfrage gestellt sei. Beispielsweise gab es sichtlich Widerstände, sich der Fragestellung vorurteilsfrei und aufgeschlossen anzunehmen.
Dies zeigte sich z.B. an Bemerkungen wie: “Ich lasse mich durch andere nicht beeinflussen, ich akzeptiere nur was logisch ist“. Was immer die Gründe sein mögen, die
Ergebnisse dieser Probanden (Gruppe 2) bei den drei religiösen Problemen waren
niedriger einzustufen als bei den ersten sechs (s. Tabelle 1).
Tabelle 1. Niveaus des Denkens in Komplementarität für zwei nach den Ergebnissen
unterschiedenen Gruppen von Probanden. (Kurzbeschreibung der Niveaus I bis V in
2.3.2, S. 41; + bzw. - bedeutet ein Denken, das etwa 1/3 eines Niveauabstands über
bzw. unter dem vollen Niveau liegt.) Aufgrund der empirischen Befunde wird
vermutet, daß die Probanden der Gruppe 2 die religiösen Probleme nicht mit der
gleichen Einstellung behandeln, wie die Probleme Nr. 1-6 (s. Text). Die 9 Probleme
sind die von Oser & Reich (1986) angegebenen.
Gruppe
1
2
Proband
Probleme Nr. 1-6
Min.
Zentralw. Max.
"Religiöse" Probleme
Nr. 7
Nr. 8
Nr. 9
Peter (16; 2)
Reto (17; 3)
Georg (20;4)
III
III III -
IV IV III +
IV
IV +
IV
III III IV -
IVIII
IV
III +
IV
IV –
Anton (13)
Carole (16; 6)
III II
III +
III
IV III +
I+
I
II +
II -
II II
Ursula (16; 9)
III
III +
IV -
II -
I+
I+
2. 5 EIGENSCHAFTEN DER NIVEAUS VON DENKEN IN KOMPLEMENTARITÄT
Hinsichtlich dieser Niveaus werden die folgenden sechs typischen Eigenschaften (s.
z.B. Fischer & Silvern 1985, S. 626 ff.) postuliert: Erstens: Die Sequenz der Niveaus ist
nicht zufällig. Sie folgt einer inneren Logik: Was vorhanden ist, wird erweitert, verfeinert und immer weiter integriert. Insofern ist eine andere Entwicklungssequenz
kaum vorstellbar. Jedes später ereichte Niveau ist kognitiv komplexer. Denken auf
einem fortgeschrittenen Niveau ist aber auch sachgerechter. Einer der älteren Pro-
- 44 banden, der den ganzen Entwicklungsweg überblickte, formulierte dies so: ”Ich verstehe diese Leute nicht, die sich in eine Entweder-oder-Entscheidung einschließen.
Für sie sind viele Probleme unlösbar”. Das soll jedoch nicht heißen, daß eine empirische Bestätigung der Sequenz mittels Längsschnittstudien und verfeinerter Analysen überflüssig wäre. Zweitens: Es zeigt sich eine erstaunliche (und unerwartete) Synchronizität. Obgleich die Probleme den verschiedensten Wissensbereichen angehören und die “Theorien” von der unterschiedlichsten Art sind (Erklärung einer
menschlichen Fähigkeit, menschliche Motivation, Voraussage eines Naturereignisses,
Funktionsbeschreibung, Sinnerklärung usw.), obgleich ihr gegenseitiges Verhältnis
von “Ergänzung” über “Vereinbarkeit” bis zu “Widerspruch” reicht, sind die jeweiligen Antworten eines Probanden zu den 9 Problemen strukturell weitgehend gleich.
In der Altersklasse 20-25 Jahre betrugen die intraindividuellen (halben) Quartilabstände für die 6 nichtreligiösen Probleme (nur) 1/6 eines Niveauunterschieds. Die 24
Einstufungen (6-25 Jahre) für jeweils ein Problem korrelieren hoch (rit von 0,81-0,95)
mit denjenigen für die jeweils acht anderen. Drittens: Eine Varianzanalyse für die
Altersgruppen 6-10, 11-14, 15-20 und 21-25 Jahre zeigte einen signifikanten Alterstrend: F 3,20 = 27,01 p < 0,001. Viertens: Das Denken auf den einzelnen Niveaus ist
qualitativ verschieden (was sowohl aus den Entscheidungen – s. 2.3.2, S. 41 – wie
aus deren Begründungen hervorgeht). Fünftens: Die Diskontinuität von einem
Niveau zum nächsten ist ausgeprägt, besonders beim Übergang von Niveau I zu
Niveau II (von einer einzigen 'Theorie' zu zwei 'Theorien'), aber auch von III zu IV
(von “beide 'Theorien' richtig“ zu “keine 'Theorie' [allein] richtig“) sowie von IV zu V
(Sprengung des vorgegebenen Denkrahmens und Betrachtung des Problems ab ovo).
Sechstens: Probanden auf einem bestimmten Niveau sollten alle denkbaren Probleme
auf diesem Niveau lösen können, aber trotz sachgemäßer pädagogischer Bemühungen nicht kurzfristig lernen können, Probleme auf einem fortgeschritteneren
Niveau zu lösen, ihre (langsame) Entwicklung sollte jedoch durch längerfristige
Interventionen gefördert werden können. Diese Behauptung bedarf empirischer
Überprüfung.
Um noch einmal zusammenzufassen: Es wird postuliert, daß Denken in Komplementarität sich von Blindheit über erste dumpfe Ahnungen zu tastender Annahme
und schließlich zu einem Routineprozeß entwickelt. Dabei eröffnen sich schrittweise
neue Möglichkeiten. Auf der Ebene der Logik wird man sich bewußt, daß von zwei
(oder mehr) sich “widersprechenden“ konkurrierenden Erklärungen nicht notwendigerweise nur eine stimmig sein kann. Dank der dem Komplementaritätsbegriff
innewohnenden Motivation wird man sich unablässig weiterbemühen, “den Widerspruch aufzulösen” selbst wenn die Lösung nicht gleich in Sicht ist. Auf dem Niveau
- 45 V sieht man spontan zuerst Gemeinsamkeiten, statt wie auf niedrigen Niveaus vor
allem Beziehungslosigkeit oder Gegensätze.
2. 6 EINIGE PÄDAGOGISCHE POSTULATE
Da Daten von Interventionsstudien noch fehlen, können vor allem bloß Vermutungen geäußert werden. Wenn nach dem synkretistischen Kombinieren schließlich der
“Widerspruch“ von bestimmten religiösen und naturwissenschaftlichen Darstellungen in der Adoleszenz bewußt wird, kommt es mit einer gewissen Wahrscheinlichkeit zu einer Krise (s. z. B. Nipkow, 1987 a). Es spricht einiges dafür, daß sie mit mehr
Gewinn überwunden wird, wenn beide (offenen) Sichten als komplementär (jeweils
andersartig, aber notwendig und gleichberechtigt) erkannt werden. Außer den oben
von MacKay angesprochenen, erkenntnis- bzw. wissenschaftstheoretischen Voraussetzungen gehört dazu wohl auch, daß der Zugang zu dieser Erkenntnis nicht bereits früher verbaut wurde.
Wie unsere Befunde zeigen, ist ein Offenhalten durchaus möglich, aber wohl aus
den verschiedensten Gründen nicht leicht zu erreichen, schon deshalb, weil Komplementarität bis jetzt weder systematisch in den Schulen stimuliert wird noch Teil der
allgemeinen Erziehung ist, eine Neuerung, die – nach L. Rosenfeld, zitiert von Fischer (1987, S. 8) – von Bohr zuversichtlich erwartet wurde (allerdings mit dem Anspruch, die Religion als Orientierungshilfe durch Komplementarität zu ersetzen).
Auch entspricht es wohl einer besonders in Aufklärungszeiten tiefverwurzelten Einstellung, sich eher an raumzeitlich lokalisierbare, materielle Dinge zu halten, statt
sich auf die Suche nach einem Letztgültigen zu machen. Wenn der Mensch nach
einer solchen Erkenntnisebene strebt, die an das Unfaßbare grenzt, und sich an
dieser Grenze ansiedelt, kann er nach Allport (1950, S. 142, 1960, S. 161) sich legitim
zutiefst verwirklichen.
Was kann im Klassenzimmer dazu beigetragen werden? Zunächst gilt es, einer
möglichen negativen Auswirkung des Fachlehrersystems zu begegnen. Diese Gefahr
besteht besonders dann, wenn einerseits der Religionslehrer bzw. Katechet selten erläuternde Beispiele aus der heutigen, wissenschaftlich-technischen Alltagswelt bringt
(als Gegenexempel s. z. B. Theißen, 1984), hingegen Theorien vorträgt, die z. B. beanspruchen, daß die geschichtsfreie Geistseele des Menschen in der Lage sei, Gott oder
das Göttliche zu kennen, weil sie selbst göttlicher Herkunft sei. Andererseits besteht
Gefahr, wenn im naturwissenschaftlichen Unterricht eine etwaige religionskritische
Einstellung des Fachlehrers zum Ausdruck kommt, z.B. wenn nicht nur religiöse Erkenntnisansprüche, sondern auch Annäherungen daran grundsätzlich als sinnlos,
bzw. als nur ästhetische oder privatisierende Projektionen und Illusionen eingestuft
werden (Oelmüller, 1986, S. 103). Das Mindeste wäre wohl, daß beide Lehrer die Ei-
- 46 genart und den Nutzen des anderen Faches unangetastet lassen. Positive Hinweise
auf mögliche komplementäre Beziehungen sind natürlich noch besser, selbst die
einfache Feststellung, daß man ein Ding öfters von mindestens zwei Seiten betrachten kann (Hinweise z.B. bei Nipkow, 1987b, S. 63).
Was wissen wir bis heute über die Möglichkeit, die Entwicklung von Denken in
Komplementarität gezielt zu stimulieren? Empirisch direkt nichts. Auf anderen Gebieten, denjenigen des moralischen und des religiösen Urteils beispielsweise, kann
die Bewußtseins- bzw. Urteilsentwicklung erfahrungsgemäß u. a. dadurch gefördert
werden, daß man den Schülern geeignete Dilemmata zur Lösung vorlegt (s. z.B.
Caldwell & Berkowitz, 1987). Unter Berücksichtigung dieser Erfahrung übertrug
Bucher (1987) jeweils zwei Adoleszenten die Aufgabe, als “Eltern” ihrem “Kind” zu
helfen, sich in den Widersprüchen Schöpfung vs. Weltentstehung oder Erschaffung
des Menschen vs. Evolution zurechtzufinden. Bucher übernahm selbst die Rolle des
Kindes. Er konnte dadurch die Diskussion gezielt gestalten und dabei jeweils so weit
über dem Niveau der “Eltern” argumentieren, wie das für optimale Wirkung erforderlich ist. Dieser punktuelle Versuch ging natürlich nicht von der Erwartung aus,
sofort Erfolge hinsichtlich der Entwicklung von komplementärem Denken zu zeitigen. Zumindest darf festgestellt werden, daß die Schüler mit Interesse diskutierten
und ihnen die Problematik konkurrierender Erklärungen sowie die Möglichkeiten
einer komplementären Betrachtung besser bewußt geworden sind. Es ist somit zu
wünschen, daß ein derartiges Vorgehen weiterentwickelt wird.
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2. 7 POSTSCRIPT
Diverging religious and scientific worldviews (historically, e.g., orthodox Christian
views and those of Galileo or Darwin and their followers) can give rise to cognitive
dissonance. This is still one of the reasons why European young people are tempted
to jettison religion.
The novel results reported here were therefore made use of by religious educators,
specifically the hypothised helpfulness of relational and contextual reasoning .
In the subsequent research these first results were practically all confirmed,
sometimes in refined versions. Furthermore, RCR was applied in other areas (e.g.,
Reich, Developing the horizons of the mind. Relational and contextual reasoning and the
resolution of cognitive conflict. Cambridge, England, etc.: Cambridge University Press,
2002).
At the level of detail, two comments are in order: (a) As regards spatial contexts, I
no longer use MacKays’ example (p. 38) but rather a figure-ground shift (cf. Fig. 2 on
p. 85 below). (b) Footnote 7 (on p. 21), advises how to visualise the one-slit / two-slit
expriment, a prime example of a context-dependent outcome.
- 49 -
3.
THE CHALCEDONIAN DEFINITION, AN EXAMPLE OF THE
DIFFICULTIES AND THE USEFULNESS OF THINKING
IN TERMS OF COMPLEMENTARITY?
Abstract. An appropriate analysis of the proceedings at the fourth ecumenical
council (451 AD) brings to light uncommon forms of thought that are still of
practical significance today. Circumstantial evidence from the record of the final
editing of the Chalcedonian Definition supports the conclusion that at least some of
the Fathers thought in terms of complementarity. Given one type of problem
structure, that type of thinking allows in particular the coordination of competing or
even conflicting explanations (parallel complementarity). Given another problem
structure, it allows the thinking of explanations that might previously have been
considered independent or even irrelevant before (circular complementarity). If, despite its unanimous acceptance, the Definition did not lead to lasting unity und
peace within Christendom, one of the reasons could be the difficulties associated
with thinking in terms of complementarity: Lack of motivation to adopt this unconventional form of thought (which goes beyond Piagetian formal operations
when fully developed), unfamiliarity with the nontraditional logic, unsuitable
world views, and/or an as yet insufficient level of cognitive development. Evidence
for this hypothesis is presented. The usefulness of thinking terms of complementarity is also argued from the history of Christology since 451 and from modern
examples.
3. 1 INTRODUCTION
Do we need more effective means to defuse conflicts about religious dogmas? Not if
we believe Herman Kahn and Anthony Wiener (1967). In their speculation on the
remainder of the century, these well-known authors projected an increasingly sensate world: empirical, this-worldly, secular, humanistic, pragmatic, utilitarian, contractual, epicurean or hedonistic, and the like – in short a world without religion. Is
that today's reality, even in the West? Or are we not rather witnessing intense religiosity, sometimes involving religiously clothed conflicts that go as far as to the loss
of lives? Without losing sight of any underlying power struggle, I argue in this article that appropriate nonconventional forms of thought – thinking in terms of complementarity – can lessen dogmatic conflict, as they seemed to lastingly at the Council of Chalcedon (451) for Christology. In addition, thinking in terms of complementarity seems necessary both for personal religious development and for ensuring the
future of religion, as will be indicated below.
The interpretation of the Council of Chalcedon presented here is, of course, not the
only possible interpretation of what happened there. The Chalcedonian Definition is
- 50 frequently considered to be a largely superficial compromise (e.g., Ohlig, 1986)
achieved under political pressure, and of limited value. From such a perspective, the
guiding principle and the criterion for the final wording were not so much the desire
to express the mystery of Christ in the best possible way but to create a hazy formula
that would get the vote of the 350 participants.
After recalling the problem and the events at the Council, and clarifying the
meaning of thinking in terms of complementarity, my argument proceeds in the
following steps:
1. The preexisting texts were not a sufficient basis for a consensus.
2. The final wording was achieved in a short time by a special commission, this being
evidence for the likelihood that only a few Fathers took an active part in it.
3. The breakthrough came about through the addition of two (partially) new
sentences. These sentences emphasize Christ's mystery rather than sweep it under
the carpet.
4. Thanks to these two sentences, the Chalcedonian Definition can be considered as a
candidate for meeting the intrinsic and the formal criteria of thinking in terms of
complementarity which were determined in a totally different context.
5. Thinking in terms of complementarity is a pragmatic reasoning schema, that is, a
generalized set of rules defined in relation to a particular class of goals.
6. From Steps 4 and 5, supported by Steps 2 and 3 (and assuming a sufficient
constancy of human cognition), the Peircean abduction (retroduction) is that at
least some Fathers thought in terms of complementarity.
7. Despite the fact that the Fathers were not schooled as much in higher learning as
their successors, say in the 13th century, let alone modern theologians with their
scientific knowledge and methods, and although political pressure and presumably opportunism played their part at Chalcedon, the result of the Fathers'
thinking in terms of complementarity brought about the lasting success of the
Definition: The future was kept open for further insights into the mystery of Jesus
Christ.
8. If the Definition did not lead to lasting peace and unity within Christendom, the
reason is that – apart from the kind of shortcoming listed under Step 7 – there are
considerable hurdles on the way to thinking in terms of complementarity.
Let me emphasize that these considerations are not meant to be either a new
gnosis or an eisegesis. The objective is rather to understand the past better in order to
benefit from the insights gained for solving today's problems, as briefly outlined at
the end of this article.
- 51 3. 2 CHRISTOLOGTY AND THE ECUMENICAL COUNCIL OF 451
Historically, Christology deals with two major themes: first with the nature of the
relation between the Son of God and his Father, and second with the detailed
relationship between the Son of God and his concrete humanity in the person of
Jesus of Nazareth. Without entirely forgetting the second theme, the first two
ecumenical councils (in 325 and 381 AD, respectively) concentrated on the first
theme: According to the Nicene Creed, "Jesus Christ (is) the only-begotten Son of
God, begotten of the Father before all worlds ... begotten not made, being of one
substance with the Father" (homooúsios).
Conversely, the second theme occupied the center of the stage at the fourth ecumenical council at Chalcedon (451). The new dogmatic formula, known as the Chalcedonian Definition, was further affirmed by the sixth ecumenical council, the third
held in Constantinople (680-681).
What was not clear about Jesus Christ in 451? Somewhat simplified, and in nontheological language, the issues before the Council were divergent views concerning
the divine and the human predicates of Jesus of Nazareth, the Christ (e.g., de Halleux, 1976; Grillmeier, 1951/1975; Ohlig, 1986; Selters, 1953). For the Monophysites,
inspired by Archimandrite Eutyches, the manhood of Jesus had been dissolved in his
divine nature ”as a drop of honey in the sea” (Ohlig, 1986, p. 243). Against this, the
traditional view (based notably on John 1:14 and on Philippians 2:5-7) held tat Jesus
Christ was both divine and human Also opposed to the traditional view – but at the
other end of the spectrum – were the Nestorians, who taught that Jesus, a human
being, was linked to Christ only morally (Ohlig, 1986), but not in substance, and
hence did not partake of the latter's divine predicates.
Although at first sight no early consensus was to be expected under these conditions, the assembled Fathers nevertheless unanimously adopted the Chalcedonian
Definition, and signed it on October 25, 451, only two weeks after the first discussion
of this theme by the Council. The Fathers declared notably that
our Lord Jesus Christ is one and the same Son ... truly God and truly man ... one
and the same Christ ... made known in two natures [which exist] without confusion,
without change, without division, without separation; the difference of the natures
having been in no way taken away by reason of the union, but rather the properties
of each being preserved, and (both) concurring into one person (prósopon) and one
hypóstasis. (Sellers, 1953, pp. 210-211)
How had this remarkable result come about so rapidly? When it became clear that
the 350 participants could not agree on any of the existing texts, a commission was
charged with the elaboration of an "integrated version." In this commission the most
- 52 important theological schools and centers of spiritual power (with the exception of
Alexandria) – in alphabetical order, Antioch, Constantinople, Jerusalem, and Rome –
were represented by 23 Fathers, as well as the Emperor through his commissioners
(Ortiz, 1962, p. 398).
From the perspective of dogma formulation, the work of the commission was
decisive. Their unchanged proposal gained the approval already referred to, and
which was so important for the future of Christendom. It must also be said, however,
that all along Emperor Marcian – who had convened the Council – exercised a strong
pressure (see below) whenever necessary to avoid a break-up, urging all participants
to take into consideration the various points of view despite intellectual (and
sometimes political) opposition, and to come to an acceptable result. Why thinking in
terms of complementarity has to be considered a reason for the achievement under
discussion will be demonstrated after explicating that type of thinking.
3. 3 THINKING IN TERMS OF COMPLEMENTARITY
The type of thinking under discussion characterizes a cognitive operation specifically
geared to the explanation of ”complex systems” (e.g., Jesus Christ) that are
conceptually unified by their functional coherence, but that are not adequately explained by any unified laws or analytical procedures – at least not by the ambient
culture when the ”functionally coherent unit” was first noticed. One fundamental
feature of the ”unit” is that to the limited human cognition it appears to exhibit distinct ”modes of being” (at least two). It will be recalled that the need for a match
between inquiring system and problem structure is apparent from a modern theory
of knowledge (e.g., Wood, 1983).
Christian Kaiser (1976) described 11 ontological characteristics of the problem
structure under discussion.1 Reich (1989c) showed how the cognitive operations are
matched thereto.2 Very briefly, they involve pairs of observational statements about
1 The ”functionally coherent unit“ under discussion appears to manfest itself in (at least) two
”modes of being” (e.g, as divinity and humanity in Christ). The ontological relations between these modes described by Kaiser (1976, pp. 43-47) are: (a) unity of being, (b) common
properties, (c) individual completeness, (d) coexhaustiveness, (e) equal necessity, (f)
reciprocity, (g) interchange of attributes and coinherence, (h) mutual exdusiveness, (i)
conjugate properties, (j) asymmetry and emergence, and (k) ”pointing“.
2 Supporting intuition, thinking in terms of complementarity serves: (a) to clarify and to
define – at least tentatively – the ”functionally coherent unit“, that is, the reference which is
to be described or explained; (b) to line up all categorically different descriptions or explanations already known (even if they are considered incompatible, and so forth by the ambient culture), and possibly to add new ones; (c) to consider these descriptions or explanations primarily as analogical, and to establish dialectically in detail the extent to which they
- 53 the “unit“ to be explained (referring to different conditions/situations) and concomitant pairs of (categorically different) interpretations that are noncompatible.
Noncompatible is neither compatible nor incompatible (Bedau & Oppenheim, 1961,
p. 206). This does not involve any logical impossibility when the shifted meaning of
the concepts concerned is used, but means that, essentially, each interpretation applies conspicuously within the particular circumstances under which the observation
had been made. Strictly speaking, on account of the common properties and the
coinherences, both modes of being are actually present in different situations as well
as in the same situation but specific features of one or the other mode may be rather
difficult to observe, depending on the circumstances.
As the argumentation outlined in the introduction at Step 4 is partly based on the
formal definition of thinking in terms of complementarity, an excursion into its logic
can unfortunately not be avoided. If we introduce the properties Ch' and Ch'' of the
”unit” x (and which are not dispositions), if C' and C'' stand for different circumstances or situations, “Obs(x, C, t)” stands for “the observed behavior of x under the
circumstances C at time t”, and ”the new paradigm” theory b is considered (as
distinct from the traditional theory a), then the following predicate-logic sentence
applies (Bedau & Oppenheimer, 1961, p. 213): ”There is an entity x that – from the
perspective of theory b – under the circumstances C' exhibits characteristics Ch' but
not Ch'' at the respective time t, and under the different circumstances C'' exhibits
Ch'' but not Ch' at the respective time t.”
If we further introduce ”D1(x, t)” to stand for ”x has a D1-like disposition”, and
”D2(x, t)” to stand for ”x has a D2-like disposition”, the following sentence applies:
”There is an entity x that – from the perspective of theory b – under the circumstances C' exhibits disposition D1, but not D2, at the respective time t, and under the different circumstances C'' exhibits D2, but not D1, at the respective time t” (Bedau &
Oppenheim, 1961, p. 214).
Basically, the argument then goes as follows. The two sentences just stated in
words have been constructed from the analysis of thinking in terms of complementarity in a modern case: dealing with quantum physics (theory b). Bedau and Oppenheim took Ch'(x, t), to mean “x has a position with high accuracy at t” and Ch''(x, t) to
apply in the present case (irrespective of the prevailing logic and/or standard linguistic
meaning, etc.); (d) to discover and describe any (unexpected) links between the different
descriptions or explanations, in particular to bring out (unsuspected) common attributes
(coinherences); (e) to work out an overarching synopsis or theory that explains the verious
features of the reference, and to explicate it; (f) to understand and explain any shifts in
meaning of the concepts needed to explain the reference, and the new synopsis or theory.
Here is an example of a shifted meaning (on account of the coinherence of the Godhead) the
”man” Jesus is without sin (Heb. 4:15).
- 54 mean "x has a momentum with high accuracy at t" (p. 206). Furthermore, D1(x, t) was
taken as corpuscular, and D2(x, t) as wavelike (p. 207). If it can be shown that the
Chalcedonian Definition “fits” into these sentences, we have circumstantial evidence
that some Fathers thought that way already.
To be ready for that discussion, we still need to differentiate between ”parallel”
and ”circular” complementarity (Reich, 1989b). In the case of parallel complementarity, A and B (the noncompatible concepts, hypotheses, models, etc.) are of the
same logical type, have previously been employed in the same discipline and are
used in the same paradigm community (Barbour, 1976, pp. 77, 84). An example
would be Tillich's individuation of human being and God (the I-Thou encounter) and
the human being's participation in the divine (the unio mystica) (Barbour, 1976, p.
86). An explanation in terms of one model limits the simultaneous explanations in
terms of the parallel model.
In the case of circular complementarity, A and B are from different realms of discourse, from different disciplines. The meaning of circular complementarity can only
be clarified in a (lengthy) circular process of reflection (whence the name): Why does
one need this process here altogether? Why can one not understand each
(complementary) aspect A or B (or C) independently of the other(s)? Which corections of the initial a priori presuppositions follow from the insights gained in this circular process?
As an example, let us recall MacKay's (1974) discussion of the biblical story of
Joseph and his brothers. After their father's death, the brothers feared that Joseph
would take revenge for having sold him as a slave, a very understandable apprehension, humanly speaking. What did Joseph actually say? ”Do not be afraid, for am
I in God's place? And as for you, you meant evil against me, but God meant it for
good in order to bring about this present result, to preserve many people alive” (Gen.
50:19-20). Here the ”functional unit” is Joseph's life tapestry and its significance, and
the noncompatible ”theories” are a natural account thereof and a religious
explanation involving God's plan. As long as religion is admitted into the discussion
altogether, such an approach seems a paradigm example of circular complementarity: the two explanations illuminate rather than primarily limit one another.
Empirically, one observes that subjects seem to deal with both types of complementarity at similar levels of competence. Similarly, the problem contents – as
distinct from the problem structure – seem to have little bearing on the competence
to think in terms of complementarity (Oser & Reich, 1987), hence the inference of a
pragmatic reasoning schema (Cheng & Holyoak, 1985). Such a schema consists
neither of content-free syntactic rules nor in an ad hoc case-by-case approach but in a
generalized set of rules aimed at reaching specific goals.
- 55 -
3. 4 WHAT JUSTIFIES THE SUPPOSITION THAT AT LEAST SOME
FATHERS THOUGHT IN TERMS OF COMPLEMENTARITY?
Following the program set out in the introduction, we now reconstruct what actually
happened at the Council. According to Grillmeier (1951/1975), the structure of the
final version has been analyzed by de Halleux (1976) more thoroughly than ever
before. After critiquing the analyses of six contemporary authors (Richard, Ortiz de
Urbina, Sellers, Diepen, Camelot, and Sagi-Bunic), de Halleux presented his own
analysis. With a few exceptions (see below) the final version is based on three
existing texts, which had already been accepted individually by a majority of Fathers
in the preceding sessions of the Council.3 While de Halleux concluded from the unity
of style of almost the entire Definition that it was written by a single theologian –
possibly Basilius of Seleucia in Isauria – he also identified additions by the special
commission, in particular the four adverbial expressions ("without confusion,
without change, without division, without separation") as well as the subsequent
sentence ("the difference of the natures having been in no wise taken away by reason
of the union, but rather the properties of each being preserved, and (both) concurring
into one person (próposon) and one hypóstasis") (de Halleux, 1976, p. 157).
These additions are a triple circumstantial evidence that their authors/editors
thought in terms of complementarity:
1. The (apparent) "paradox" (Bedau & Oppenheim, 1961, p. 208) is not swept under the carpet but rather explicitly formulated – and nevertheless fully accepted. Let
us look more closely at this process. Three of the four adverbial expressions had been
used previously, though in a different order. The fourth one was added at Chalcedon
for reasons of symmetry, and the order was changed so that the thinking proceeded
from the separateness of the two natures to the unity of the person (i.e., contrary to
the direction in the first part of the Definition – de Halleux, 1976, p. 157), to be
precise, from "without confusion, without change" to "without division, without
separation". This direction is maintained in the next sentence: the emphasis is first
put on the difference of the natures ("having been in no wise taken away by reason of
the union, but rather the properties of each being preserved"), and then the unity of
the person is stressed, both externally (prósopon) and deeply inside (hypóstasis) (de
Halleux, p. 168). Does this sequence not make it harder to accept the unity of Jesus
Christ than the reversed order?
3 They are (a) the letter of Cyril of Alexandria to the Antiochenes with the Formulary of
Reunion of 433 (Laetentur letter), ( b) Cyril's second letter to Nestorius of 428, and (c) the
Tome of Leo I of 449 to Flavian, at the time Patriarch of Constantinople.
- 56 2. Just like liberation theologians today (e.g., Boff & Boff, 1988, p. 13), at least some
members of the special commission were presumably thinking on several levels of
comprehension and debate. At the scholarly level were the theologians whose thinking followed models like the Messiah model – emphasized in the theology of Antioch
– and the Logos model – closer to the views of the Alexandrian school. Both the Messiah model and the Logos model already combined divinity and humanity (though
in differing ways). Hence their "conjoining" is a case of parallel complementarity, and
the task is to see in what ways the simultaneous use of these models is limited (Barbour, 1976). At the level of the people, the modes of being were rather divinity and
humanity, and therefore a case of circular complementarity. Here the danger is not
so much to overdo simultaneous use but rather to neglect one side or the other. (On
the middle level there were the bishops: For them the Definition had to be both theologically correct and usable, for instance for catechism prior to baptizing.) The added
sentences, and in particular the four adverbial expressions (without confusion,
without change, without division, without separation) take into account both preoccupations, that is, neither to arrive at a fusion nor to neglect one side.
3. The Definition can be fitted into the two logical sentences stated above when b =
Chalcedonian Christology. To fit the second sentence is easy enough: D1(x, t) is taken
as human-like disposition, and D2(x, t) as God-like disposition, described for
example in Matthew 26:37-38 or even better in Matthew 27:50, and in John 8:58,
respectively. But what about the first sentence? What is complementary in the four
adverbial expressions? Tentatively, the following is posited (Reich, 1989c): Ch' stands
for a conjugate human characteristics or manifestation, and Ch'' for a conjugate
divine characteristics or manifestation. For instance, Matthew 4:1-11 is taken to
describe a behavior observed under circumstances C' and to be interpreted by Ch',
and Mark 2:10 or John 8:11 is taken to describe a behavior observed under
circumstances C'' and to be interpreted by Ch''.
We can now draw the separate threads together: (a) The documents cited in Footnote 3 were not sufficient to lead to a consensus at the Council, in fact it almost broke
up (de Halleux, 1976); (b) consensus was brought about by the version prepared by a
commission of 23 Fathers seemingly in a matter of hours (de Halleux, 1976); (c) the
decisive additions were the four adverbial expressions and the subsequent sentence,
which explicates their meaning; (d) the changes referred to in point (c) had the effect
that the Chalcedonian Definition exhibits the intrinsic and formal characteristics of
other
outcomes
of
thinking
in
terms
of
complementarity,
a
- 57 pragmatic reasoning schema; (e) forms of human thought can stay constant over centuries.4
Prom (a) to (e) one arrives at the abduction5 (Sherlock Holmes' reasoning) that at
least some Fathers thought in terms of complementarity.
3. 5 FOUR HURDLES IN THE WAY TO THINKING
IN TERMS OF COMPLEMENTARITY
3. 5. 1 Introduction
Did the unanimous acceptance of the Chalcedonian Definition at the Council lead to
lasting unity and peace in the Church? Unfortunately, the answer cannot be an unqualified "yes." Monophysitism is still taught today in the Copt and Abyssinian, the
Syrian Jacobite, and the traditional Armenian churches. Nestorians, led by the Catholicos of Seleucia-Ctesiphon (today residing in San Francisco), still practice their faith
notably in Syria, Iraq, Iran, India, and the United States. Even in the churches which
had fully adopted the dogmatic formula of Chalcedon, a new dispute arose as to
whether Jesus Christ had two capacities of acting or one (Monoenergism), and two
wills or one (Monotheletism), though the latter view was finally condemned by the
ecumenical council of 680-681. While this state of affairs may partly be explained by
political reasons – given the close links between Church and State in those times –
one or more of the following four hurdles which have to do with thinking in terms of
complementarity may also have hindered the way to unity and peace: (1) lack of
sufficient motivation to overcome the various resistances against this nontraditional
way of thinking, (2) unfamiliarity with the logic involved, (3) philosophical hurdles,
and (4) as yet insufficient cognitive development. These difficulties are next discussed in turn using present-day concepts.
4 Whoever doubts this may reflect that we have no difficulty understanding the argumenta-
tion of persons depicted in the Bible or in classical Greek literature, and conversely that
forms of thought developed by Greek philosophers are still in use today. In fact, such a constancy is the very foundation underlying such works as Machievell's Discorsi (1531), Anthony Jay's (1967) book on management, Evan Simpson's (1983) Rousseauan perspective on
Kohlberg, or the comparison of magical transformations in Ovid's Metarnorphoses and
Grimm's Fairy Tales by Michael Kelly and Frank Keil (1985).
5 Peirce's (1960) classical example turns around a sack of white beans. Deduction: All beans
from this sack are white. These beans are from that sack. Therefore, these beans are white.
Induction: These beans are from that sac. These beans are white. Therefore, all beans from
that sack are white. Abduction: All beans from that sack are white. These beens are white.
Therefore these beans are from that sack. In the present case, the “sack” is constituted by the
pragmatic reasoning schema, and the ”beans“ by the outcome of thinking in terms of
complementarity.
- 58 3. 5. 2 Hurdle 1: Clinging to either-or thinking
Human beings find it more natural to insist on either-or solutions than to think in
terms of A as well as B. Reasons include (a) the survival value during the long development of their species (to fight or to flee?); (b) the fact that even today yes-no /
better-worse decisions cover the vast majority of cases in everyday life; (c) the habit
simply to transfer "the main characteristics of action, its onesidedness, to thought"
(Rank, 1958, p. 22); (d) a Western tradition of spontaneously linking "paradox," the
existence of an "excluded third," and so forth to untruth; (e) the greater ease in maintaining an identity in a polarized environment. Reason (e) is even stronger in case of
vested emotional interests at the subconscious level (Rank, 1958). John Hull (1985)
has elaborated this theme from a Christian perspective. In addition to the reasons
already given, Hurdles 2, 3, and 4 below may add extra resistance.
3. 5. 3 Hurdle 2: Why should everyday logic not suffice?
None of the five classical possibilities to combine two ”theories” A and B or their
contents results in complementarity (neither accepting only A – as did essentially the
Nestorians – nor both A and B independence, nor simply having the contents overlap, nor considering the content of one theory the subset of the other, nor fusing
indistinguishably both contents as did grosso modo the Monophysites). The notion of
distinct yet subtly linked contents, the logic of noncompatible interpretations, of coinherence, and so forth is something with which one does not usually grow up; it
must be acquired. Furthermore, thinking in terms of complementarity can deal with
the “excluded third,” with nonrepetitive, irreversible situations, in a way classical logic can not (Reich, 1989c).
3. 5. 4 Hurdle 3: Interplay of world views and ways of thinking
As already suggested, the problem structure has certain ontological features which
may not be consonant with a given (philosophical) world view, the most encompassing paradigm held by a person (of which he or she may not be really aware,
since the meaning-making mechanisms which are involved often function fully automatically). For instance, uncritical realism is still widely held, together with mechanical causality, as a root metaphor. Such views are a hurdle on the way to thinking in
terms of complementarity. That a “paradoxical“ description or a characterization by
“yes and no” could not be simply an expression of ignorance or a lack of courage to
make a decision, but the most appropriate description of a particular situation, is as
incomprehensible to a way of thinking thus predetermined as are the existence and
the importance of noncausal links between aspects belonging to different categories.
Persons with such an outlook are apt to contest the approach advocated here with
- 59 “arguments” like “obscurantism,” ”betrayal of scientific ideals,” ”mental laziness,”
and so forth (Reich, 1989c).
From a different perspective, advanced thinking in terms of complementarity is
rendered almost impossible when conceptually confounded with dialectical thinking
(e.g., Basseches, 1984), which is a mix of ontology (assumed to be universal) and
epistemology. In that case such fundamental features of thinking in terms of complementarity as the analogical aspects, the subtle relationships between the noncompatible interpretations, the question of coinherence, the significance of semantic
shifts, and so forth may simply not be noticed.
3. 5. 5 Hurdle 4: Required cognitive level
Thinking in terms of complementarity develops in stages. Four or five levels may be
reached successively (Oser & Reich, 1987). Very briefly, thinking in terms of complementarity develops as follows [cf. p. 41 above]: At Level I, there usually is a singletrack choice of either description/explanation A or B. At Level II, both are considered to be possibly right, perhaps with rather different weighting factors. At Level III,
both A and B are judged to be at least partially needed. At Level IV, A and B are consciously connected, and their relationship is analyzed. At Level V (few cases so far), a
generalized synopsis is reconstructed with the possible use of supplementary descriptions/explanations and including (reconstructed parts of) A and B. Level III
may be reached in adolescence, Level IV in (early) adulthood (Oser & Reich, 1987, p.
182).
This kind of thinking is as little inborn as Piagetian formal or even concrete operations (Piaget, 1970); rather it needs to be developed by each individual. Clearly, we
are not discussing a natural maturation like physical development. Development
simply will not take place where there is a lack of opportunity or appropriate exercise. Furthermore, at a given level, an individual is largely unaware of many of his or
her cognitive operations; he or she is rather ”in them.” Only after having reached the
next level does he or she “have” the previous level, that is, make a meta-analysis and
plan/act consciously on that basis.
Refined thinking in terms of complementarity requires an advanced level of cognitive development to deal with the analogical and the dialectical operations involved, to learn a new logic, to become aware of any semantic shifts, to possibly
recognize that one's root metaphor needs to be changed, and so forth. The detailed
relationships between Piagetian operations, dialectical thinking, and thinking in
terms of complementarity have been discussed elsewhere (Reich, 1989b). But even
without this additional information it seems clear that lacking sufficient cognitive
development can also be a hindrance to the development of advanced thinking in
terms of complementarity.
- 60 -
3. 6 REASONS FOR THE ACHIEVEMENT OF A
COMPLEMENTARY SOLUTION AT CHALCEDON
Given all these difficulties, how can one understand that the Council of Chalcedon
did not lead to a total failure, a possibility which was in fact imminent during the
fifth session on October 22nd (de Halleux, 1976)? Emperor Marcian strengthened any
lacking motivation of the Fathers to opt for the special commission by using pressure. As an alternate procedure the Emperor offered that each bishop should present
in writing his own declaration of faith (ekthesis) to his metropolitan. Either offer failing, the Council would be moved to the West (where not only would the numerical
ratio of Eastern to Western bishops have been different, but where warring Huns and
above all Vandals on the move did not make travelling attractive).
At least hints of the logic of complementarity exist in Scripture, in particular in the
description of Jesus' Godhead and manhood by John and Paul. The philosophical
outlook of the Fathers was probably less naive than the one depicted heretofore.
Finally, there was no lack of opportunity for those intersted to develop their thinking
in terms of complementarity: from considering the subtle differences in the
Christological views of John and Paul (e.g., Schnackenburg, 1960), to the arguments
condemning the Christologies of the various heretics of the first centuries (e.g.,
Williams, 1987), and on to the controversies before the Council of Chalcedon which
had been going on for at least the previous two decades.
3. 7 THE USEFULNESS OF THINKING IN TERMS OF COMPLEMENTARITY
Before going briefly into this aspect, it may be advisable to emphasize the speculative
state-of-the-art character of what follows. A more cautious attitude would probably
have been that of Holmes Rolston III (1987): “Of a fourth school, cognitive
psychology, we will have less to say” (p. 159) (after dealing with Freudian psychoanalysis, behavioral psychology, and humanistic psychology). All the same, here are
my considerations, going from the more established to the more speculative.
Given the obstacles and difficulties described, why should one consider at all the
adoption of this nontraditional form of thinking? Because of its great usefulness! In
Grillmeier's (1951/1975) words: ”More than any other synod of the early church ...
[the Council of Chalcedon] spurred on theological reflection” (p. 541). For Schrey
(1961), this reflection includes Luther's teachings about the two realms. On the one
hand, this fruitfulness may probably be explained by the newly won freedom to
reformulate Christological statements altogether, a freedom that had been expressly
barred in 431 (Grillmeier, 1951/1975). But may one not reasonably assume furthermore that the real stimulus for a more advanced reflection was provided by the
- 61 raised consciousness about the unique attributes of Jesus Christ, the details of which
had more or less remained in the dark up to then? Ohlig (1986) judged the
Chalcedonian Definition – in spite of the already mentioned and further reservations
(about its heuristic value) – to be
one of the most important creations of the entire religious history ... the culminating,
even the most outstanding result of centuries of reflection ... Although typically Hellenistic concepts and topics were canonized, Christology had in fact ceased to be
hellenistic. In other words, the geniality consists precisely in the paradoxical formulation of the new ”Formulary of Union.” This formulation bars Christian dogma
from blending into myth without cutting it off, however, from the mythical roots of
religious thinking (as a ”critical” approach would have demanded): a
demysticyzing by an approach that implies myth. (pp. 289-290)
If not all problems of Christology were solved in 451, thinking in terms of complementarity has at least contributed to safeguard the best starting conditions possible a that time for future efforts.
Lack of space allows only the briefest hint at present-day applications related to
our theme. Further work on Christology comes obviously to mind, but also easing of
dogmatic or ecclesiological disputes (Nipkow, 1988), or dealing with particular
issues in religious education (Reich, 1989a).
The development of personal religiosity, including the related cognitive development, has been dealt with extensively by James Fowler (1987) and by Fritz Oser
(1985) and their research groups (and without falling victim to psychologism, Vande
Kemp, 1986). As has been shown elsewhere (Reich, 1989b), a person probably needs
thinking in terms of complementarity to reach advanced levels of religious development.
Finally, thinking in terms of complementarity has important applications in theology, for instance to ”conjoin” personal and unpersonal models of Deity (Barbour,
1970). Furthermore, this type of thinking could be instrumental to clarify and fructify
(Reich, 1989b) the important relation between science and theology (e.g., Polkinghorne, 1989; Rolston, 1987). The question remaining is whether potential benefits
outweigh the difficulties, which might need to be overcome.
- 62 -
REFERENCES
Barbour, I. G. (1976). Myths, models, and paradigms: A comparative study in science &
religion. New York: Harper & Row.
Basseches, M. (1984). Dialectical thinking and adult development. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
Bedau, H., & Oppenheim, P. (1961). Complementarity in quantum mechanics: A
logical analysis. Synthese, 13, 201-232.
Boff, L., & Boff, C. (1988). Introducing liberation theology (2nd ed., P. Bums, Trans.).
Maryknoll, NY: Orbis.
Cheng, P. W., & Holyoak, K. J. (1985). Pragmatic reasoning schemas. Cognitive
Psychology, 17, 391-416.
de Halleux, A. (1976). La definition Christologique à Chalcedoine. Revue Théologique
de Louvain, 7, 3-23, 155-170.
Fowler, J. W. (1987). Faith development and pastoral care. Philadelphia: Fortress.
Grillmeier, A. (1975). Christ in Christian tradition: Vol. 1. From the apostolic age to
Chalcedon (451) (J. Bowden, Trans.). London: Mobrays. (Original work published
1951)
Hull, J. M. (1985). What prevents Christian adults from learning? London: SCM.
Jay, A. (1967). Management and Machiavelli: An enquiry into the politics of corporate life.
New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
Kahn, H., & Wiener, A. J. (1967). The year 2000: A framework for speculation on the next
thirty-three years. New York: Macmillan.
Kaiser, C. B. (1976). Christology and complementarity. Religious Studies, 12, 33-48.
Kelly, M. H., & Keil, F. C. (1985). The more things change ... : Metamorphoses and
conceptual structure. Cognitive Science, 9, 403-416.
MacKay, D. M. (1974). “Complementarity” in scientific and theological thinking.
Zygon: Journal of Religion & Science, 9, 225-244.
Nipkow, K. E. (1988). Religiöse Denkformen in Glaubenskrisen und kirchlichen
Konflikten: Zur Bedeutung postformaler dialektisch-paradoxaler und komplementärer Denkstrukturen. Religionspädagogische Beiträge, 21, 95-114.
Ohlig, K.-H. (1986). Fundamentalchristologie. Im Spannungsfeld von Christentum und
Kultur. Munich: Kösel.
Ortiz de Urbina, I. (1962). Das Symbol von Chalkedon. Sein Text, sein Werden, seine
dogmatische Bedeutung. In A. Grillmeier & H. Bacht (Eds.), Das Konzil von Chalkedon: Geschichte und Gegenwart: Vol. I, Der Glaube von Chalkedon (pp. 389-418). Würzburg: Echter.
Oser, F. (1985). Religious dilemmas: The development of religious judgment. In C. G.
Harding (Ed.), Moral dilemmas: Philosophical and psychological issues in the
- 63 development of moral reasoning (pp. 175-190). Chicago: Precedent.
Oser, F. K., & Reich, K. H. (1987). The challenge of competing explanations: The development of thinking in terms of complementarity of 'theories'. Human Development, 30, 178-186.
Peirce, C. S. (1960). Collected papers (Vol. I-VI) (C. Hartshorne & P. Weiss, Eds.).
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Piaget, J. (1983). Piaget's theory. In P. H. Mussen (Ed.), Carmichael's Manual of Child
Psychology: Vol. 1, Part III, Cognitive development (pp. 703-732). New York: Wiley.
Polkinghorne, J. (1989). Science and providence: God's interaction with the world. London: SPCK.
Rank, O. (1958). Beyond psychology. New York: Dover.
Reich, K. H. (1989a). Between religion and science: Complementarity in the religious
thinking of young people. British Journal of Religious Education, 11, 62-69.
Reich, K. H. (1989b). The relation between science and theology: The case for complementarity revisited. Manuscript submitted for publication. [Zygon: Journal of Religion & Science, 25 (4), 1990, 369-390].
Rolston, III, H. (1987). Science and religion: A critical survey. New York: Random
House.
Schnackenburg, R. (1960). Neutestamentliche Christologie. In J. Hofer & K. Rahner
(Eds), Lexikon für Theologie und Kirche (Vol. 5, pp. 932-940). Freiburg i.Br.: Herder.
Schrey, H.-H. (1961). Weltbild und Glaube im 20. Jahrhundert. Göttingen: Vandenhoek
& Ruprecht.
Sellers, R. V. (1953). The Council of Chalcedon: A historical and doctrinal survey. London:
SPCK.
Simpson, E. (1983). Emile's moral development: A Rousseauan perspective on Kohlberg. Human Development, 26, 198-212.
Vande Kemp, H. (1986). Dangers of psychologism: The place of God in psychology.
Journal of Psychology and Theology, 14, 97-109.
Williams, R. (1987). Jesus Christus II: Alte Kirche. In G. Müller (Ed.), Theologische
Realenzyklopädie (Vol. XVI, pp. 726-745). Berlin: Walter de Gruyter.
Wood, P. K. (1983). Inquiring systems and problem structure: Implication for cognitive development. Human Development, 26, 249-265.
- 64 -
3. 8 POSTSCRIPT
Chapter 3 was and is important in several respects: (a) Delving into the archaeology
of thinking in terms of psychology (cf. Reich, 2002, pp. 133-144) (and coming up with
a potential find) led to re-examining various features of this form of thought and to
further clarification. (b) Additionally, evidence of “ancient” roots strengthened the
justification for further research on this kind of reasoning, in particular the logic involved. (c) Specifically, an empirical study of Christian doctrines was made and
yielded data (Reich, 1994) supporting ideas and hypotheses presented in the present
chapter. (f) The content of footnote 2 (p. 52) was developed into the RCR heuristic,
which permits to come to grips with new issues. It answers questions such as, “Is
RCR applicable to this case?“ “If so, what is the outcome?“ “What does that lead to in
terms of terminology?“ (Reich, 2002, pp. 103-115). Eventually, the insights gained
were also transferred into approaches to religious education (cf. Reich, 1996; 2002, p.
132).
As to later conceptual changes in the context of the present chapter, the emphasis
moved away from complementarity (parallel or circular) conceived as an epistemological concept with some underlying ontological features, and toward relational and
contextual reasoning (RCR) per se, concentrating on how the mind takes up the challenge of various “kindred“ problems in similar ways despite rather different contents, and even different structures (such as those of parallel or circular complementarity), and also on the nature of RCR compared and contrasted with other forms of
thought (Piagetian, dialectical, analogical, etc.). Given this change of focus from the
“object” of complementarity to the applicable reasoning itself, that is RCR, the
difference between parallel and circular complementarity weighs less heavily in the
current research than in this chapter.
REFERENCES to section 3. 8
Reich, K. Helmut (1994). Can one rationally understand Christian doctrines? An
empirical study. British Journal of Religious Education, 16 (2, Spring), 114-126.
Reich, K. Helmut (1996). Relational and contextual reasoning in religious education:
A theory-based empirical study. In: L. J. Francis, W. K. Kay & W. S. Campbell
(Eds), Research in religious education (pp. 129-144). Leominster (UK): Gracewing.
Reich, K. Helmut (2002). Developing the horizons of the mind. Relational and contextual
reasoning and the resolution of cognitive conflict. Cambridge, England, etc.: Cambridge University Press. (Contains also main results of Reich, 1994 – pp. 120-126 –,
and parts of Reich, 1996 – pp. 159-163).
- 65 -
4. THE ROLE OF COMPENTARITY REASONING
IN RELIGIOUS DEVELOPMENT1
Complementarity reasoning helps dissolve perceived contradictions
that otherwise might adversely affect religious development
4. 1 INTRODUCTION
Religion has been criticized for involving a logic of absurdity full of unresolvable
contradictions, such as the following: (1) According to the Bible, God created the
complete universe and all it contains in six days. From a scientific perspective the
universe, though finite in age, may never have had a beginning as such. Human
beings have in all likelihood emerged from other forms of animal life as the result of
a long evolution, which also has brought about human self-consciousness. (2) Bad
things happen to good and innocent people, such as when a child dies of cancer and
when hundreds perish in an earthquake or a flood. Yet God is said to be allpowerful,
just, and loving. (3) The Chalcedonian Definition (A.D. 451) states that Jesus Christ is
“truly God and truly man” and ”is known in two natures [which exist] without confusion, without change, without division, without separation.” Here are two illustrations of what religious contradiction means in people's lives: Corinne (twelve years
old) said in an interview, ”At school I have learned that the world came into its own
with a big bang, and in religion they tell you that God created it. I just don't know
what to make of it.” When Helen learned from her doctor that she had multiple sclerosis and what that would entail until she died, totally diminished as human person,
she broke down and cried, ”Why should this happen to me? I've tried to be a good
person. I have a husband and young children who need me. I don't deserve this.
Why should God make me suffer like this?” (Kushner, 1983, p. 15).
Faced with these perceived contradictions, individuals have four options. They
can (1) accept contradictions as typical of religious life (for example, ”the mystery of
Christ is beyond human grasp”), (2) jettison whatever seems ”illogical,” thereby
limiting religion as we know it (for example, “the story about Adam and Eve simply
shows that people did not know any better at the time it was written; so it is an unimportant detail we can best forget”), (3) ”explain away” any perceived contradiction
(for example, ”God sends us these tragedies to test our faith and make us grow”), or
1 The editor of the Journal of Psychology and Theology kindly permitted the use of copyrighted
material. Part of the work reported was done in collaboration with Anton A. Bucher, Reto L.
Fetz, Fritz K. Oser, and Peter Valentin.
- 66 (4) explicate rationally why particular perceived contradictions are only apparent
(for example, ”just as we are humans because our life involves a body and a mind,
the life of Christ Jesus involves his godhead and his humanity; therefore, he can
deeply and fully communicate with both God Father and human beings”). This
chapter deals with the fourth option and the use of complementarity reasoning both
to resolve perceived contradictions and paradoxes and to show their usefulness for
conveying deeper meaning. The discussion that follows defines this type of reasoning and outlines how it functions, develops, and relates to other types of reasoning.
4. 2 NATURE AND FUNCTION OF COMPLEMENTARITY REASONING
4. 2. 1 Nature of complementarity reasoning
The expression “thinking in terms of complementarity” (Oser & Reich, 1987) here
means coordinating “noncompatible” (neither compatible nor incompatible) theories
or belief systems in such a way that they illuminate and limit each other when describing or explaining the same reference object or state of affairs. That is, complementarity reasoning can make sense of perceived contradictions or paradoxes, so
that the use of this type of reasoning produces better-founded results than other
types of reasoning. For instance, when asked how she sees the creation versus evolution problem, Renate (twenty years old) said, “The possibility of evolution was
contained in God's 'kick-off' at the origin ... but God probably did not interfere with
evolution itself ... and perhaps so far not all of the initial potential has yet come to
fruition.“
Clearly, the use of complementarity reasoning is not called for in the simple situations of everyday life that require a yes-no or a better-worse decision. Rather, this
type of reasoning is suitable for certain complex situations and certain kinds of problems involving apparent contradictions or paradoxes. Kaiser (1976, pp. 43-47) describes eleven characteristics of the kinds of problems that lend themselves to complementarity reasoning. For example, something or someone appears in at least two
different modes (such as the divinity and humanity of Jesus Christ), and the whole is
characterized by a unity of being (despite the distinctness of the modes). In each
mode the explanation is “complete,“ but of necessity not exhaustive; all modes together make up the phenomenon in question, neither mode is reducible to the other,
nor derivable from the other. The modes are linked internally; one mode appears
“weakly“ in the other (as when Jesus is free from sin, Heb. 4:15). Under a given set of
circumstances one mode may be recognized clearly but not the other. Additional
problem distinctions are discussed elsewhere (for example, Russell, 1989; Reich,
l990b).
Given the kinds of problems described above, complementarity reasoning serves
- 67 as a heuristic, a useful device for getting to a genuine understanding. It does this by
(Reich, 1990c) (1) clarifying and defining the phenomenon to be described or explained; (2) listing all descriptions and explanations A, B, C, ... from different categories, even if they are considered incompatible, incommensurable, and so on by the
ambient culture, and possibly adding new ones and dealing with any conflicts arising; (3) establishing under which circumstances A (B, C, ... ) describes or explains
particular aspects of the phenomenon, and, in case a genuine understanding does not
come forth, reconsidering A (B, C, ...) as an approximation or even only as an
analogy; (4) discovering and describing any (unexpected) links between the different
descriptions or explanations, in particular, bringing out (unsuspected) common attributes and coinherences, (5) assessing to what extent the relative (proportional) explanatory contribution of each mode depends on the current strength of the other
mode(s) (as distinct from a contribution described by a fixed relationship), (6) working out an overarching synopsis or theory that explains the various features of the
reference object or state of affairs with regard to different circumstances and situations, and (7) explaining any shifts in meaning of the concepts needed to explain the
phenomenon, its modes, and the new synopsis or theory. With this range of analytic
and heuristic power complementarity reasoning often leads to conjoint lines of explanations that were previously thought to be either conflicting (calling for the elimination of one) or irrelevant with respect to each other.
To apply complementarity reasoning to problems like the first two introduced
above, it is important to be aware of a possible inverse result: In certain cases such
reasoning leads to a separation of lines of description and explanation that were
previously confounded. An example from physics is the causal explanation of a
certain event and its spatiotemporal description. In a game of billiards, a player will
most naturally (and rightly) causally link the force and direction he or she has imparted to the cue with the ensuing movement(s) of the ball(s). In contrast, a physicist
who "plays a game of billiards" with (sub)atomic particles cannot argue that way.
Applying complementarity reasoning, he or she can reason either in terms of causality (which in the applicable quantum physics only allows probabilistic predictions
for inherent reasons, that is, not reasons of his or her ignorance) or in terms of a
description of a given interaction-with-the-physical-world, but the two cannot be
linked in detail as in the case of the billiards player. A corresponding example in
theology is the mutual exclusiveness (but complementarity) of discussing a theologically relevant event in a causal mode of explanation that involves God's action in the
world versus in a personal and historical mode of description (Russell, 1989). Some
of the perceived contradictions we are examining arise because the causal and personal modes are collapsed, as when discussing a game of billiards with hard balls
instead of keeping them separate as required by complementarity reasoning. At this
- 68 point, it is useful to go deeper into the examples of complementarity reasoning and
show how it works.
4. 2. 2 Complementarity reasoning and the problem of suffering
How can there be a powerful, just, and loving God if innocent children are suffering
from and dying of cancer? Although there is no single, conclusive, entirely satisfactory answer, there are, Vieth (1988, p. 25) suggests, at least four possible answers to
this question. We can (1) reject or redefine God's power (introducing Satan, natural
forces, original sin, God's self-limitations, and so on), (2) reject or redefine the goodness of God (for instance, by arguing that God tests us, makes us grow through pain),
(3) redefine evil (for instance, by perceiving it as contributing to a larger harmony), or
(4) give up (by reasoning that God simply does not exist, or that what happened is a
mystery beyond human comprehension). Of course, people do not live on logical
possibilities. Hence, in practice, even if eventually one of the answers is found
acceptable, it may take much working through – in effect, a transformation of psychic
state – to get there, as in the case of Helen quoted earlier.
How can complementarity reasoning help? As already indicated, such reasoning
suggests that we keep a causal explanation involving God's action in the world separate from a personal and historical description of what happened. In other words,
the basic theological assumption is that God's action cannot be merged point-by-point
with diachronic event description into a unified picture (Russell, 1989). Both modes
are irreducible to each other, although both are necessary for a complete understanding. In the causal mode evil may be explained in terms of, say, divine self-limitation
or defective secondary causality, but a detailed, factual interpretation is not
admitted. Whereas in the personal mode the actual historical events are described
without a causal explanation. Perhaps we can take a cue from Jesus dying on the
cross: “My God, my God, why hast thou forsaken me“ (Matt. 27:46). Although suffering almost unbearably, Jesus stays in the descriptive mode of his near-despair
without merging it with a causal mode. In particular, he does not accuse God of being the cause of his agonizing. Or take Rabbi Kushner's ([19811 1983, pp. 84-85) belief
about Auschwitz: “Where was God? I have to believe with Dorothee Sölle that He
was with the victims, and not with the murderers, but having given man freedom to
choose, including the freedom to choose to hurt his neighbor, there was nothing God
could do to prevent it.“
Before somebody objects that confounding of both modes does occur in the Bible,
let me elaborate. Indeed, in Gen. 50:20, Joseph links God's interaction-with-the-world
and his life tapestry when speaking to his brothers: “But as for you, ye thought evil
against me; but God meant it unto good, to bring to pass, as it is this day, to save
- 69 much people alive.” Or take Job speaking to God, “Thou art become cruel to me:
with thy strong hand thou opposest thyself against me. Thou liftest me up to the
wind; thou causest me to ride upon it, and dissolvest my substance” (Job 30:21-22).
So what is the difference? The point is that both Joseph and Job do the linking in
general, overall terms and not in a step-by-step manner. (In quantum physics this
corresponds to discussing particle lifetimes in terms of average values, although in
any particular decay a precise prediction is impossible in principle.)
Furthermore, complementarity reasoning emphasizes the situation specificity, the
dependence on circumstances of the visibility of the various modes of God's being
and of the sufferer's being, as distinct from assuming fixed characteristics that hold
throughout. Depending on the situation, (1) God is understood as being powerful
(for example, in the testimonies of Joseph and Job quoted above) or as suffering with
the being(s) concerned (“Likewise the Spirit also helpeth our infirmities: for we know
not what we should pray for as we ought: but the Spirit itself maketh intercession for
us with groanings which cannot be uttered“ [Rom. 8:26]); (2) the sense of human life
is attributed preponderantly to involvement on Earth, the temporal dimension (for
example, Jesus's teaching that “Ye are the salt of the earth: but if the salt has lost his
savour, wherewith shall it be salted? It is henceforth good for nothing, but to be cast
out, and to be trodden under foot of men“ [Matt. 5:13]), or to involvement in heaven,
the eternal dimension (for example, “For I reckon that the sufferings of this present
time are not worthy of comparison with the glory that shall be revealed in us“ [Rom.
8:18]); (3) the facts are stressed as they were experienced in the past, or the accent is
put on any ensuing developments, or differing interpretations, that the future may
bring (for example, “For now, we see through a glass darkly; but then, face to face:
now I know in part; but then shall I know even as also I am known“ [1 Cor. 13:12]).
4. 2. 3 Complementarity reasoning and the Chalcedonian Definition
How are we to understand the statement that “Jesus Christ ... is known in two natures [which exist] ... without division, without separation”? One plausible explanation is that the statement has no deep meaning since it was made as a result of political pressure before and during the Council of Chalcedon. However, there is evidence that at least some council fathers thought in terms of complementariy when
phrasing the definition so as to describe the mystery of Jesus Christ in the best terms
possible at the time (Reich, 1990b).
Using complementariy reasoning, the perceived paradox disappears when it is
seen that circumstances codetermine which nature (divine or human) is more clearly
visible. Thus, the divine rather than the human becomes clear in the passage "Verily,
verily, l say unto you, before Abraham was, l am" (John 8:58), whereas the human is
emphasized in the passage describing Jesus' death: "Jesus, when he had cried again,
- 70 yielded up the ghost" (Matt. 27:50). (For a discussion of the more subtle aspects of
complementarity reasoning used to decipher meaning from the Chalcedonian Definition, see Reich, 1990b.) But even with this abbreviated discussion it is clear that the
perceived paradox in the statement about the two natures of Jesus is not swept under
the carpet, as would have been the easy option if politics were the overriding force.
The process of complementariy reasoning allows us to see the paradox as both
apparent and productive for conveying a particular meaning and understanding of
Jesus: His two natures are neither compatible (in which case they could both be perceived clearly all of the time) nor incompatible (meaning that he is either divine or human, all of the time), but rather noncompatible, that is, a given nature appears clearly
under given circumstances (Reich, 1989b).
Similarly, in regard to the concept of the Trinity, we can understand that the statement “in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost“ (Matt. 28:
19) refers to a single God. The three modes appear most clearly under different circumstances: (1) “Our Father ... Give us this day our daily bread. And forgive us our
debt, as we forgive our debtors. And lead us not into temptation, but deliver us from
evil“ (Matt. 6:9-13; see also Luke 11:3-4); (2) “Neither knoweth any man the Father
save the Son, and he to whomsoever the Son will reveal him“ (Matt. 11:27); and (3)
“Because the love of God is shed abroad in our hearts by the Holy Ghost which is
given to us“ (Rom. 5:5). Again, the purpose of complementariy reasoning is not to
explain away apparent paradoxes but rather to show their usefulness for providing
deeper understanding in particular situations and under particular circumstances.
Here, the appearance of three distinct modes when referring to God avoids the
danger of using so many predicates that God appears strange and remote.
4. 3 COMPLEMENTARITY REASONING AND ONTOGENESIS
By now, it should be clear that complementariy reasoning is no simple thought process and that it emerges in fully developed form relatively late in life, if at all. However, children and adolescents do respond, in varying ways, to the same problems
resolved through complementariy reasoning. To describe the developmental level of
responses to problems calling for complementariy reasoning, Oser and Reich (1987,
p. 182) developed the five-level model outlined in Table 1. Using Piagetian notions
(Piaget & Garcia, 1983), the five levels can be characterized as follows: An individual
at Level 1 thinks “intra”(-categorially), at Level 2 “inter,” at Level 3 “trans-intra,” at
Level 4 “trans- inter,” and at Level 5 “trans-trans.”
We tested the usefulness of this model for describing age-related changes by asking groups of children, adolescents, and young adults to respond to the question,
“Who is right about the origin of the world and human beings, the Bible or the sci-
- 71 entists?“ (Reich, 1989a; compare Fetz & Oser, 1986; Fetz & Reich, 1989; Fetz, Reich, &
Valentin, 1989). As expected, younger children gave Level 1 responses by siding either with the Bible or with the scientists, presumably depending on how they had
been socialized. Older children more frequently gave Level 2 responses by claiming
both views are somehow valid. As one child said, “I believe more in the Bible, but it
is also right that humanity descended from apes.”
Table 1. Developmental level of responses to situations calling for complementarity
reasoning to deal with noncompatible explanations A and B.
Level
Description
1
Explanation A and explanation B are considered separately; spontaneous
judgment “true“ or “false“ (emphasis on alternatives, not on complementarity). Usually single-track choice of A or B, occasionally of both without
offering a detailed justification and depending on chance, knowledge, or
socialization.
2
The possibility that A and B may both be right is considered. A may be
right, B may be right, both may be right, possibly with very different
weighting factors.
3
The necessity of an explanation with the help of A as well as of B is
examined. Whereas neither A nor B is generally considered correct indi–
vidually, both are needed (partially).
4
Conscious connecting of A and B, explicit indication of their relation.
Neither A nor B is correct (alone). The relation between A and B is analyzed (for instance “B permits the use of A“ or “B cannot exist without
A“). The situation-specificity of the relative contribution of A and B to
the total explanation is at least intimated.
5
Construction of a generalized overarching theory (or at least synopsis),
including (reconstructed/supplemented parts of) A and B and possibly an
additional C. The complex mutual relationship of A and B (and C) as well
as the situation-specificity of their explanatory weight is understood and
incorporated into the overarching theory. Any resulting shift of meaning
in the terms used is explained.
Only during adolescence was there a conscious attempt to coordinate the various
points of view. One fifteen-year-old gave this Level 3 response: "The first matter can't
have appeared from nowhere. ... A higher power, which must certainly exist, has
presumably come in and somehow contrived that this matter came into being. ...
- 72 From thereon things evolved on their own ... perhaps according to the possibilities
planned by the higher power." And a young adult gave this Level 4 response: "For
me there exist several models which help us to find out about the world's origin. If
somebody speaks about a physics theory, in my view that does not per se contradict
a religious worldview. Both are models of a beginning. [Such a model] does not represent the beginning itself, but the beginning as mirrored in human thinking. Adam
and Eve in the Bible is a possible model of human origin, calling for interpretation. It
was not meant really to be a scientific statement, but rather underlines the role of
humanity."
In this study – involving only a small sample of children (less than one hundred
subjects) with an education higher than average, between six and ten years of age –
the majority were at Level 1, between eleven and fourteen years of age about onethird had reached Level 2 and another one-third Level 3, and between fifteen and
twenty years of age about one-third had reached Level 4. A greater number of those
older than twenty had reached Level 4. In a representative sample with persons from
all walks of life, we would expect lesser percentages of Level 3 and Level 4
responses.
It should be added that there were subjects of all ages who were socialized as, or
had become, agnostics or even atheists and who did not invest time or energy in
answering the question. They simply stated flatly that the scientists were right or
more logical.
4. 4 HOW IS COMPLEMENTARITY REASONING RELATED TO
OTHER TYPES OF REASONING?
Under this heading we consider logical, analogical, and dialectical reasoning, the first
conceptually and empirically and the latter two only conceptually. Reich and Oser
(1990) and Reich (1990a) hypothesize first the following developmental commonalities and differences between logical and complementarity reasoning: (1) An appropriate level of logical reasoning is a necessary but insufficient condition for reaching
Levels 2-4 of complementarity reasoning. (Early) concrete-operational reasoning is
necessary to reach Level 2 because both types of reasoning involve working reversibly with two dimensions. At least well-established, concrete operations (transition
to formal operations) are necessary to reach Level 3 because both deal globally with
(simple) systems. Finally, well-established, formal operations are necessary to reach
Level 4 because both involve isolation and correlation of variables. (2) As the first
hypothesis implies, not all individuals who reach a given stage of logical reasoning
will reach the corresponding level of complementarity reasoning. In particular, to
reach Level 4, an understanding that A and B are not independent of each other –
- 73 and possibly at least an inkling that their relative contribution to the exhaustive
explanation depends on the particular circumstances – is necessary.
To test these two hypotheses, my colleagues and I conducted semistructured
interviews involving three coordination tasks (nature versus nurture, to explain the
performance of a concert pianist; mind versus body, to explain human functioning;
and technical versus human malfunctioning, to explain a Three Mile Island- or Chernobyl-type nuclear accident) and three Piagetian tasks (snail, plant, and pendulum).
The results were rated, and a logical and a complementarity reasoning level was
attributed to each subject. The respective numbers of intra-individual score combinations of thirty-seven subjects seven to nineteen years of age, and one subject
twenty-two years of age, are shown in Table 2. To get a sense of the meaning of these
combinations, consider the subjects who mastered concrete Piagetian operations
(row 2 in Table 2): Their complementarity reasoning ranged from somewhat below
Level 3, as expected from the first hypothesis, down to Level 1, in accord with the
second hypothesis.
Table 2. Intra-individual stage scores of logical and complementarity reasoning
Level of Piagetian
Operations
Early concrete
Established concrete
Transition to formal
Early formal
Established formal
1
2
2
Level of Complementarity Reasoning
1(2) 2(1)
2
2(3) 3(2) 3 3(4) 4(3)
1
1
2
1
1
2
8
6
3
2
3
4
4
Note: N = 38. Level 1(2) is somewhat above Level 1, Level 2(1) is somewhat below Level 2,
and so on.
The corresponding values of Kendall's rank-correlation coefficient ranged from
α = .466 to α = .817 (p ≤ .01): Hypothesis 1 is supported. As to hypothesis 2, the interviews furnished some hints. For instance, Helene (nineteen years old) said in the
mind-body interview, “When you are happy ... the cells also fare better.” She went
on to explain the relative explanatory weight of theories A (the actions of the body
explain behavior) and B (the actions of the mind explain behavior) in relation to driving, sleeping, and discussing. And Ottilie (twenty-two years old) insisted that she
had to know the detailed situation in order to determine the respective contributions
of A and B.
The relation between complementarity reasoning and analogical reasoning might
best be conceived as follows: In order to apply analogical reasoning (for example, the
- 74 stem of a flower, A, is like a straw for drinking, B), one first has to discover and
analyze in some detail attributes and/or relations (functions) shared by A and B
(Gentner, 1989; compare Bucher, this volume). Similarly, to reach higher levels of
complementarity reasoning, one has to bring out commonalities and differences
between A and B.
The relation between complementarity reasoning and dialectical reasoning is more
difficult to define (Reich, 1990c), in part because dialectical reasoning has several
meanings. Most of these meanings rest on a logic that stipulates that the negation of
a negation brings one back to a new situation (concept, synthesis, and so on), as
opposed to bringing one back to the original starting point (as in Aristotelian logic,
which applies to entities that are intrinsically situation- and time-independent). The
relation, then, may rest on the fact that both complementarity and dialectical reasoning require (different) non-Aristotelian logics.
Looking at all three types of reasoning together, Secretan (1987) argues from a philosophical perspective that complementarity reasoning is situated between analogical and dialectic reasoning. The result of complementarity reasoning is neither as
fixed (static) as that of analogical reasoning nor as dynamic (based on change) as that
of dialectical reasoning. With complementarity reasoning, the object or state of affairs
to be described or explained and the theories A and B (and C ...) stay the same
(similar to analogical reasoning). However, the respective explanatory weights of A
and B (and C ...) change, depending on (external) circumstances (similar to dialectical
reasoning).
4. 5 ROLE OF COMPLEMENTARITY REASONING IN ADVANCEMENT TO
HIGHER LEVELS OF RELIGIOUS CONSCIOUSNESS
So far we have looked at the role of complementarity reasoning in specific cases.
Now, let us step back and look at the larger question of how complementarity reasoning fits into religious development as conceived by James Fowler, and Fritz Oser
and Paul Gmünder.
When describing “Conjunctive faith and the interindividual self” (the sixth of his
seven stages), Fowler (1987, p. 72) writes, “In the transition to Conjunctive faith one
begins to make peace with the tension arising from the fact that truth must be approached from a number of different directions and angles of vision. As part of honoring truth, faith must maintain the tensions between these multiple perspectives
and refuse to collapse them in one direction or another. ... God is both immanent and
transcendent; God is both omnipotent and a self-limiting God.“ Fowler clearly
speaks here of complementarity reasoning. Furthermore, by emphasizing the fact
that in higher stages there is a return to symbol, liturgy, and parable – all of which
- 75 are “read“ in multidimensional ways, Fowler (1987, p. 75) describes a phenomenon
that is a product of complementarity reasoning.
Reference to complementarity reasoning is less explicit in the theory of Oser and
Gmünder (1988). However, let us look at their Stage 4 (Oser, 1988, pp. 52-53): “Now
an indirect, mediated relationship with an Ultimate Being has come into existence.
The individual continues to assume responsibility, but he or she wonders about the
conditions for the mere possibility to carry responsibility. He or she sees his or her
commitment as a way to overcome lack of meaning and hope as well as absurdity.
Transcendence is now partly inside (immanence): The Ultimate Being bcomes the
condition for the possibility of human freedom, independence, etc., via the divine
plan.“ The least one can say about the usefulness of complementarity reasoning in
this context is that it can contribute to the coordination of ego considerations and
God's plan.
4. 6 FOUR POSSIBLE HURDLES ON THE WAY TO COMPLEMENTARITY REASONING
Having established the usefulness, and even the necessity, of complementarity
reasoning for religious development, an obvious question arises, “Why is this type of
reasoning not used more generally?“ One answer is “because of hurdles“ (Reich,
1990b).
The first hurdle is lack of motivation. For a number of reasons (for example,
survival value during a long evolution, preference of action over reflection, easier
identity preservation), a “yes-no”-type decision comes more naturally to people than
does a “both-and”-type reflection.
The second hurdle is the logic involved. Aristotle still determines what we in our
Western culture construe as “logical.” For many, Aristotelian logic seems as natural
as eating or sleeping; and so, its absence means something is wrong or at least suspicious. Even for sophisticated critics the "nonexclusion of the middle" (tertium datur),
the use of notions such as noncompatible (as opposed to compatible and incompatible), the inclusion of situation-specificity into the logic, and so on raises eyebrows.
The third hurdle may consist of adverse epistemological-philosophical beliefs such
as naive realism or logical positivism, to which the founding assumptions of complementarity reasoning are unacceptable. Even a dialectic world view may be a hurdle,
in that only the commonalities (not the specificity) of complementarity reasoning are
perceived.
The fourth hurdle has already been discussed at some length. It can be described
simply as insufficient cognitive development.
How these hurdles can be overcome in the most effective way remains to be
- 76 studied. To speculate, a combination of methods developed by Kitchener and Fischer
(1990), and by Lochhead and Whimbey (1987), might be particularly useful.
4. 7 CONCLUSION
We have examined the nature of complementarity reasoning and its functioning for
resolving the many perceived contradictions and paradoxes that characterize religious life. I have argued that complementariy reasoning is crucial to religious development. Work remains to be done on assessing the conditions under which
complementarity reasoning develops, and on relating such reasoning at the highest
level to other forms of thought as well as to the affective dimensions of religious development. However, I hope that the analysis of complementarity reasoning presented here makes clear that the logic in developed religious thinking is anything but
absurd and does not involve logical contradictions.
REFERENCES
Fetz, R. L., & Oser, F. K. (1986). Weltbildentwicklung, moralisches und religiöses Urteil [Development of world views, moral and religious judgment]. In: W. Edelstein
& G. Nunner-Winkler (Eds), Zur Bestimmung der Moral. Frankfurt/M., Germany:
Suhrkamp, 1986.
Fetz, R. L., & Reich, K. H. (1989). World views and religious development. Journal of
Empirical Theology, 2 (2), 46-61.
Fetz, R. L., Reich, K. H., & Valentin, P. (1989). 'Cosmogony' according to children and
adolescents: An empirical study of developmental steps. In: J. M. van der Lans and
J. A. van Belzen (Eds), Proceedings of the Fourth Symposium on the Psychology of Religion in Europe. Nijmegen, The Netherlands: Department of Cultural Psychology
and Psychology of Religion, University of Nijmegen.
Fowler, J. W. (1987). Faith development and pastoral care. Philadelphia: Fortress Press.
Gentner, D. (1989). The mechanisms of analogical learning. In: S. Vosniadou & A.
Ortony (Eds), Similarity and analogical reasoning. Cambridge, England: Cambridge
University Press.
Kaiser, C. B. (1976). Christology and complementarity. Religious Studies, 12, 33-48.
Kitchener, K. S., & Fischer, K. W. (1990). A skill approach to the development of
reflective thinking. In D. Kuhn (Ed.), Developmental perspectives on teaching and
learning thinking skills. Vol. 21: Contributions to human development. Basel, Switzerland: Karger.
Kushner, H. S. (1983). When Bad Things Happen to Good People. New York: Avon.
(Originally published in 1981.)
Lochhead, J., & Whimbey A. (1987). Teaching analytical reasoning through thinking
- 77 aloud pair problem solving. In: J. E. Stice (Ed.), Developing critical thinking and problem-solving abilities. New Directions for Teaching and Learning, no. 30. San Francisco:
Jossey-Bass.
Oser, F. K. (1988/1991). Genese und Logik der Entwicklung des religiösen Bewusstseins: Eine Entgegnung auf Kritiken [Toward a logic of religious judgment: A
reply to my critics]. In: K. E. Nipkow, E Schweitzer, & J. W. Fowler (Eds), Glaubensentwicklung und Erziehung. Gütersloh, Germany: Gerd Mohn, 1988. English translation in J. W. Fowler, K. E. Nipkow, and F. Schweitzer (Eds), Stages of faith and
religious development: An intercontinental debate. New York: Crossroads, 1991.
Oser, F. K., & Gmünder, P. (1988). Der Mensch – Stufen seiner religiösen Entwicklung.
Ein strukturgenetischer Ansatz [The human being – Stages of his or her religious
development: A structural-genetic approach]. (2nd ed.) Gütersloh, Germany: Gerd
Mohn. (English translation to be published by Religious Education Press, Birmingham, AL).
Oser, F. K., & Reich, K. H. (1987). The challenge of competing explanations: The development of thinking in terms of complementarity of ‘theories.’ Human Development, 1987, 30 (3), 178-186.
Piaget, J., & Garcia, R. (1983/1989). Psychogenèse et histoire des sciences. Paris: Flammarion. Psychogenesis and the history of science. New York: Columbia University
Press, 1989.
Reich, K. H. (1989a). Between religion and science: Complementarity in the religious
thinking of young people. British Journal of Religious Education, 11, 62-69.
Reich, K. H. (1989b). The Chalcedonian Definition: Which logic? Berichte zur Erziehungswissenschaft, Nr. 78. Fribourg, Switzerland: Pädagogisches Institut der Universität Fribourg.
Reich, K. H. (1990a). Commonalities and differences of Piagetian operations and
complementarity reasoning: A conceptual model and its support by empirical
data. Paper presented at the Twentieth Anniversary Symposium of the Jean Piaget
Society, Philadelphia, May 31-June 2.
Reich, K. H. (1990b). The Chalcedonian Definition, an example of the difficulties and
the usefulness of thinking in terms of complementarity? Journal of Psychology and
Theology, 18 (2), 148-157.
Reich, K. H. (1990c). The relation between science and theology: The case for complementarity revisited. Zygon: Journal of Religion & Science, 25 (4), 365-385.
Reich, K. H., & Oser, F. K. (1990). Konkret-operatorisches, formal-operatorisches und
komplementäres Denken, Begriffs- und Theorieentwicklung: Welche Beziehungen? [Concrete operations, formal operations, complementarity reasoning, concept
and theory development: Which relationships?] In: F. K. Oser & K. H. Reich (Eds),
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- 78 tationsfiguren auf der 9. Tagung Entwicklungspsychologie, September 18-21, 1989,
University of Munich, Germany. Fribourg, Switzerland: Pädagogisches Institut der
Universität Fribourg.
Russell, R. J. (1989). The Fruitfulness of complementarity for three theological problems. Unpublished manuscript, Center for Theology and the Natural Sciences,
University of California, Berkeley.
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zu einer noetischen Klärung des Komplementaritätsbegriffs [Complementarity between dialectics and analectics. Toward a noetic clarification of the concept of
complementarity]. In: R. Oerter (Ed.), Bericht über das Symposium Jenseits des formallogischen Denkens: Komplementäres und dialektisches Denken auf der 8. Tagung Entwicklungspsychologie, September 13-16, 1987, Bern, Switzerland. Munich, Germany:
Psychologisches Institut der Universität.
Vieth, R. E. (1988). Holy power, human pain. Bloomington, IN.: Meyer-Stone.
4. 8 POSTSCRIPT
At the time, there was still some groping in the dark, specifically as far as the relations between RCR and other forms of thought are concerned. There is no mention
yet of cognitive complex thinking. However, as a first breakthrough, the situation
became much clearer regarding RCR levels and Piagetian stages of logico-mathematical thinking (then arguably abbreviated to “logical thinking“). Clearly – contra
some proponents of postformal thinking, for whom the post is decisive for its characterisation – RCR develops in parallel with Piagetian operations, not exclusively after
these operations had been mastered. It turned out though that fully developed RCR
requires formal Piagetian operations (except their binary logic), and can therefore be
labelled as postformal, in that sense even for purists.
The other progress concerns the role of RCR in religious matters such as doctrines,
the theodicy, and religious development. The hypotheses were clearly put into place.
They are supported by subsequent empirical work (Reich, Developing the horizons
of the mind, Cambridge, England, Cambridge Universioy Press 2002, pp. 120-132).
- 79 5. RELATIONS- UND KONTEXTBEZOGENES DENKEN SOWIE
SEIN BEZUG ZU ANDEREN FORMEN DES DENKENS
[Relational and Contextual Reasoning and its Relations
with other Forms of Thought]
Zusammenfassung. Diese Studie weist die postformale Denkform relations- und kontextbezogenes erkennendes Denken (RKD) aus, die u.a. miteinander konkurrierende
‘Theorien’ A, B, (C, ...) zu einer umfassenden Theorie bzw. Synopse zu verschränken
gestattet, sowie die fünf Entwicklungsniveaus von RKD. Geleitet von den Ergebnissen zweier Pilotstudien wurden mit 32 Teilnehmern und Teilnehmerinnen (von 1368 Jahren; 17 m., 15 w.) individuelle Interviews von etwa 11/2 Std. Dauer über 9 Probleme bzw. Aufgaben durchgeführt. Die Auswertung der Transkripte führte zu
zwei Hauptergebnissen: Postulierte Teiloperationen von RKD sowie die vermutete
Intra-inter-trans-Entwicklungslogik der fünf Entwicklungsniveaus wurden
bestätigt. Das Forschungsdesign, die benutze Methode sowie Einzelergebnisse
werden vorgestellt und auf Anwendungen, vornehmlich jene im Klassenzimmer,
wird hingewiesen.
Summary. This study explicates postformal “relational and contextual reasoning”
(RCR), which serves in particular to link competing theories A, B, (C, ...) for constructing an overarching “theory” or synopsis, and its five developmental levels.
Following an analysis of two pilot studies, individual interviews with 32
participants (aged 13 to 68 years; 17 m., 15 f.) of approximately 11/2 h. each about
nine tasks are described. A structural analysis of the interview transcripts yielded
two main results: Certain postulated partial operations of RCR and the posited
”intra-inter-trans” developmental logic of the five developmental levels are
supported empirically. The research design, the method used and the results are
presented, and possible applications, primarily in the classroom, are pointed out.
5. 1 EINFÜHRUNG
Für die erfolgreiche Lösung eines spezifischen Problems ist es erforderlich, daß das
Denken der jeweiligen Eigenart des Problems angepaßt ist. Es wurde postuliert
(Reich, 1991, 1992, 1997a; Todt & Heils, 1992) und bereits teilweise demonstriert
(Nipkow und Schweitzer, 1991; Reich, 1987, 1991, 1992, 1994a, 1996a, c, 1997b;
Tamminen, 1991), daß Schüler und Schülerinnen, die mindestens frühe Formen von
relations- und kontext-bezogenem erkennendem Denken (RKD) praktizieren,
leichter zu gewissen Einsichten gelangen als solche, die nicht so denken. Diesbezügliche Beispiele sind das vertiefte Verstehen (a) des Wormser Konkordats von 1122
im Geschichtsunterricht (Reich, 1997a), (b) von Angst in Lebenskunde, (c) des
teilchenhaften und des wellenhaften Verhaltens von Licht im Physikunterricht sowie (d)
- 80 des Verhältnisses zwischen dem Schöpfungshymnus der Hebräischen Bibel und dem Urknall
sowie der Evolution im Religionsunterricht (Reich, 1996c). In allen diesen
exemplarischen Fällen geht es darum, zwei oder mehr Beschreibungen, Erklärungen,
‘Theorien’ usw. kontextabhängig so miteinander zu verschränken, daß das jeweilig
‘paradoxe’, ja ‘widersprüchliche’ Phänomen in seiner ganzen Breite, Tiefe und
Komplexität verständlich wird. RKD ist somit optimal bereichspezifisch anwendbar,
nicht generell.
Tabelle 1. Die drei Ebenen des vorliegenden Denkmodells.1
Ebene
Beispiel(e)
3 Gesamtoperation
(Form des Denkens)
Piagetsche Operationen, dialektisches Denken, Denken in Analogien, RKD und dergleichen mehr
2 Teiloperationen
Beziehung zwischen Sachverhalten erkennen
1 Elementaroperationen
Spezifischen Sachverhalt aus Ganzem herauslösen
Ziel der vorliegenden Beitrags ist es, erstens Aufschlüsse über die konstitutive Natur von RKD zu erarbeiten und zweitens dessen ontogenetische Entwicklung zu beschreiben. Dies u.a., um RKD im Unterricht gezielt fördern zu können. Es wird davon ausgegangen, daß ein derartiger Denkprozeß – wie bekanntere andere – eine
Kombination etlicher Elementarprozesse beinhaltet. Aus forschungspraktischen Gründen werden sie hier jedoch nicht einzeln, sondern als gruppierte Teilprozesse untersucht. Vom Gesamtprozeß RKD wird angenommen, daß er aus mehreren derartigen
Teilprozessen besteht (Tab. 1). Weiterhin wird angenommen, daß andere Gesamtprozesse (Formen des Denkens) jeweils mit RKD Teilprozesse gemeinsam haben. Die
hier angestrebte Kenntnis des Zusammenhanges von RKD und mindestens den
Denkformen 1 und 2 (umfangreichste Gemeinsamkeiten mit RKD – Abb. 1) sollte
bereits einen lohnenden Erkenntnisfortschritt darstellen.
RKD
1
2
3
4
1 Added in 2004: Eventually, level 2 was split into two partial operations. (cf. Reich, Devel-
oping the horizons of the mind, Cambridge University Press, 2002, p. 18).
- 81 Abbildung 1. Unterschiedliche Überlappung von RKD mit den
Denkformen 1, 2, 3, 4 (schematisch).
In einem ersten Teil werden (1) jene Ergebnisse der vorangegangenen Studien
von RKD kurz rekapituliert, auf die hier aufgebaut wird; (2) die theoretischen
Grundannahmen dargelegt und (3) die zu untersuchenden Hypothesen entwickelt
und präsentiert. Im zweiten Teil wird die neue empirische Studie vorgestellt. Vorab
geht es jedoch um eine Abgrenzung.
Was ist das Verhältnis von RKD zur Forschungsdomäne Lösen komplexer Probleme
mittels vernetztem (bspw. Todt & Heils, 1992), auch nichtlinearem Denken, die in der
Denkpsychologie im deutschen Sprachgebiet einen breiten Raum einnimmt (Dörner,
1993; Hussy, 21998; Putz-Osterloh, 1983; Themenheft Diagnostica, 1991)? Die vorliegende Studie hat mit jener Forschungsdomäne gemeinsam, daß die kognitiven Voraussetzungen für das erfolgreiche Umgehen mit gewissen Problemen untersucht
werden. Zusätzlich zu der Andersartigkeit der Probleme und Forschungsmethoden
besteht der Unterschied in der jeweiligen Akzentuierung von Komplexität. Bei Dörner
und seinen Fachkollegen betont der Begriff komplexe Situation, daß diese durch viele
Merkmale beschreibbar ist, die netzartig zusammenhängen und sich z.T. ‘von selbst’
verändern. Dagegen liegt beim RKD der Akzent auf kognitiv komplexem Denken, einem Denken, das sich durch Differenzieren (Benutzung verschiedener Kategorien,
um diverse Aspekte zu unterscheiden und sie zu beurteilen) und Integrieren
(Etablieren von Beziehungen und Verbindungen zwischen verschiedenen Aspekten
zwecks Gesamtschau und Globalurteil) auszeichnet.
5. 2 FRÜHERE ERGEBNISSE, VORÜBERLEGUNGEN UND HYPOTHESEN
5. 2. 1 Frühere empirische Untersuchungen von RKD
Empirisch wird RKD2 wie folgt erfaßt (Oser & Reich, 1987, 1991). Den Teilnehmern
und Teilnehmerinnen werden in mitgeschnittenen Einzelinterviews gewöhnlich drei
Probleme der folgenden Art vorgelegt und die verschrifteten Aussagen von geschulten Auswertern gemäß dem Auswertemanual (s.u.) analysiert:
Das Fernsehen berichtet über einen Unfall in einem Kernkraftwerk. Die Hauptkühlwasserpumpe war ausgefallen und die Reservepumpe nicht angesprungen. Die
Notabschaltung funktionierte auch nicht. Zu allem Unglück hatte die Betriebsmannschaft die Gefahr zu spät bemerkt und überdies unterschätzt. Die Temperatur stieg
plötzlich stark an. Eine Dampfleitung wurde leck und radioaktiver Dampf entwich.
Zu welchen Überlegungen regt Dich/Sie diese Meldung an?
2 In der ersten Teilstudie wurde es Denken in Komplementarität genannt – cf. Reich (1994b).
- 82 Die nachfolgenden Ausschnitte aus Interviewantworten sind exemplarisch für die
RKD-Niveaus I-V (Reich, 1995a, b); I-III stammen von Schülern und Schülerinnen
von rund 9, 12 und 15 Jahren, IV von einem Studenten und V von einem älteren Erwachsenen:
(I) “Das Kraftwerk wurde nicht richtig gebaut. Die Technik hat versagt [A]. Die Leute
können doch nicht schuld sein. Sie schauen jeden Tag nach“.
(II) “Das Kernkraftwerk hat nicht funktioniert. Die Technik hat schuld [A]. Aber die Männer
haben nicht aufgepaßt, die da im Kraftwerk arbeiten [B]. Da wurde es viel schlimmer“.
(III) “Beide haben schuld. Die Mannschaft hat es viel zu spät gemerkt [B], und die Technik ist
ausgefallen [A]. ... Die Leute waren hitzig.“
(IV) “Viele Einrichtungen sind ausgefallen [A]. ... Die Mannschaft, das sind Menschen [B],
die reagieren in dieser Streßsituation vielleicht ganz anders. Wenn die ganze Gruppe zusammen ist, passieren schnell Fehler. Irgendwie lenken die sich gegenseitig ab“.
(V) “Menschliches und technisches Versagen sind hier eng aneinander gekoppelt. Auch der
Mensch wird mit einer gewissen Wahrscheinlichkeit versagen. ... Man muß das ganze
System betrachten – Mensch [B] plus Technik [A] – und wie sich das aufschaukelt. Schwerpunkt der Ausbildung sollte eigentlich im Arbeiten mit Simulationen von solchen
Unglücksfällen liegen, also im Einschätzen von solchen möglichen Situationen. Daß also
auch unter realen Bedingungen richtig reagiert wird. Auch der Streß müßte in der
Simulation erzeugt werden. ... Was man vermutlich nur sehr schwer voraussehen kann, ist
diese Verkettung, diese Kettenreaktion. ... Ich würde nur Leute einstellen, die akzeptieren,
daß man jetzt etwas macht, wo ein Restrisiko vorhanden ist. Zweifler würde ich nicht 'ran
lassen, da könnte im Ernstfall Panik auftreten. ... Vielleicht waren die Leute überlastet.“
Tabelle 2. Entwicklungslogik von relations- und kontextbezogenem erkennendem
Denken (RKD). Dieses Denken fokussiert auf die Beschreibung/Erklärung entsprechender Sachzusammenhänge mittels der Teilerklärungen/Teiltheorien A, B, C,
RKD-Niveaus
I
II
III
IV
V
Kennzeichnung des Niveaus
A oder B (oder C)
A, aber auch B (C)
A und B (und C)
Logik von und
Synopse, Kontext
Stadien nach Piaget und Garcia
intra
inter
trans-intra
trans-inter
trans-trans
Beim Vergleich der fünf Antworten fallen die generell ansteigende Länge (hier nur
Ausschnitte) und die anwachsende Sachkenntnis ins Auge. Was hier jedoch vor
allem zählt, ist die Art und Weise, wie die Teilnehmer mit den beiden Aspekten
Technik [A] und Menschen [B] umgehen. Sie entspricht folgender Sequenz von fünf
Niveaus
(Tab. 2), die von Piaget & Garcia (1983) wissenschaftsgeschichtlich und ontogenetisch
- 83 eruiert wurde (cf. Claar, 1990 und Labouvie-Vief, 1994, S. 203-207):
Niveau I (intra) beinhaltet die Konzentration auf nur einen Aspekt, oben auf A.
(Strukturell gleichwertig wäre eine andere einseitige Antwort, nämlich eine solche,
die ausschließlich die Betriebsmannschaft [B] für verantwortlich erklärt.)
Niveau II (inter) deutet auf die Vermutung hin, daß A und B zu berücksichtigen
sind; beide sagen etwas Richtiges aus.
Niveau III (trans-intra) beinhaltet die klare Einsicht, daß immer alle in Frage
stehenden Aspekte zur Erklärung herangezogen werden müssen.
Niveau IV (trans-inter) bedeutet Fokussierung auf die subtile Verschränkung zwischen den verschiedenen Aspekten und gleichzeitig auf das tentative Erfassen der
Kontextabhängigkeit (zumindest rudimentär).
Niveau V (trans-trans) beinhaltet das Erstellen einer Synopse oder sogar einer
übergreifenden Theorie, die der Kontextabhängigkeit des Erklärungspotentials von
A und B Rechnung trägt (wie beispielsweise in der obigen Antwort der potentiellen
Gefährlichkeit von Zweiflern). Nur Denken auf diesem Niveau verdient voll die
Bezeichnung RKD.
Die angedeuteten Veränderungen von Niveau zu Niveau erklären sich aus einem
strukturgenetischen Prozeß: “In dem Maße, wie die Strukturen des Wissens sich entwickeln, verändern sich auch der Apparat und die Programme, mit denen das Subjekt die Information aufnimmt und verarbeitet“ (Seiler, 1994, S. 77). Die Entwicklung
von RKD kann also plakativ als Schritte von einem Entweder/oder zu einem Sowohlals-auch gekennzeichnet werden. Bezüglich der Vorstellungen von den Entwicklungsprozesse baut die vorliegende Studie u.a. auf Carey und Gelman (1991), Elman et al.
(1996), Moshman (1998), Piaget und Inhelder (1972), Reich, Oser und Valentin (1994)
und sowie auf Rümmele, Pauen und Schwarzer (1997, bes. S. 243-284) auf.
5. 2. 2 Grundannahmen hinsichtlich der Natur von RKD
Welches sind die mit RKD ‘verwandten’ Denkformen (Gesamtoperationen) 1, 2, 3, 4
(vgl. Abb. 1)? Für Secretan (1987) ist die Antwort: Piagetsche Operationen (Piaget &
Inhelder, 1972), dialektisches Denken (Riegel, 1981, Kap. 4) sowie Denken in Analogien (Todt & Heils, 1992). Bei jedem dieser drei Denkformen geht es wie bei RKD um
Beziehungen zwischen zwei oder mehr ‘Variablen’ A, B, (C, D) – hier Aspekte
genannt –, und zwar solche kausaler, raumzeitlicher, mengenlehrentheoretischer,
‘verwandtschaftlicher’, semantischer, oder sonstiger Art (vgl. Tab. 3).
Der Piagetsche Teilprozeß von RKD trägt zur Analytik bei, d.h. er unterstreicht
die epistemologische Zielsetzung von RKD. Der dialektische Teilprozeß beinhaltet
gewisse Annahmen über die Struktur der Wirklichkeit. Der Teilprozeß der Analektik
verbindet die gerade genannten Kennzeichen, wie auch die besondere, RKD unterstellte Logik (s.u.), die den weiten Bereich der Negation nicht einfach auf Gegensatz
- 84 und Ausschluß verengt. Anders gesagt, RKD hat mit Piagetschen Operationen das
Bestreben nach Erkenntnis mittels geeigneter Denkhandlungen im Suchraum gemeinsam, mit dialektischem Denken das ‘Zusammendenken’ von ‘widersprüchlichen’ Aspekten, die alle zu einem Ganzen gehören, und mit Denken in Analogien die
Methode, durch vergleichendes Herausarbeiten von Gemeinsamkeiten und Unterschieden das Verstehen zu vertiefen. Kognitiv komplexes Denken ist eine Folge des
Zusammenwirkens der entsprechenden verschiedenartigen Elementarprozesse von
RKD. Aufgrund dieser und weiterer Überlegungen ergibt sich die Arbeitshypothese
der Abbildung 1 zu 1 = Piagetsche Operationen, 2 = kognitiv komplexes Denken,
3 = dialektisches Denken und 4 = Denken in Analogien.
Tabelle 3. Hauptunterschiede der Denkformen Piagetsche Operationen (1), kognitiv
komplexes Denken (2), dialektisches Denken (3), Denken in Analogien (4) und RKD (5)
bzgl. der Annahmen über die Aspekte A, B, (C, D) eines Phänomens/einer Sachlage/einer Aufgabe/eines Problems.
Nr.
Natur der Aspekte A, B, (C, D)
Beziehungen zwischen A, B, (C, D)
1 Gehören zum selben Bezugssystem;
sind intrinsisch unabhängig voneinander;
können deshalb per se beliebig miteinander verknüpft werden. Bei Piaget-Aufgaben geht es häufig darum, derartige
äußere Beziehungen innerhalb eines geschlossenen Sytems zu eruieren, z.B.
beim Pendel und der Balkenwaage
Gemäß (zeitunabhängiger) binärer formaler Logik (tertium non datur) gelten Transitivität, Assoziativität, Distributivität,
Kommutativität, Reversibilität (die Negation einer Negation führt exakt zum Ausgangspunkt zurück). Logischer Widerpruch ist unzulässig; das Gesamtsystem
ist statisch und synchronisch
2Nicht festgelegt, weiter Spielraum wie im
Falle menschlicher Beziehungen. Der große Suchraum lädt zu vielseitigem Explorieren ein (Differenzieren und Integrieren)
Für deren Erkenntnis sind Lebenserfahrung, Motivation der Protagonisten, deren Handlungsziele, Persönlichkeitsvariablen usw. wesentlicher als ‘Logiken’
3Gehören innerhalb eines offenen Systems verschiedenen Teilsystemen an;
bestimmen sich gegenseitig wie Sein
und Nichtsein, An-sich und Für-uns,
Assimilation und Akkommodation
Beziehungen sind dynamisch und entwicklungsbezogen. Die Negation einer
Negation führt zu etwas Neuem: Aus
Sein und Nichtsein wird durch Werden
neues Sein und neues Nichtsein
4A, B gehören zu einem Bezugssystem
C, D zu einem anderen. Eigenschaften/
Funktionen von A und B entsprechen
analogen Eigenschaften/Funktionen von
C, D: Der Autofahrer surft auf der grünen
Welle wie der Surfer auf dem Meer
Damit die Analogie fruchtbar ist (Erweiterung des Suchraums, auch des Verstehens), müssen die Ähnlichkeiten der
Eigenschaften/Funktionen genügend
stark sein. Dennoch gibt es zwangsläuauch immer Unterschiede
5Gehören innerhalb eines übergeordneten
Explandums zu verschiedenen Kategorien; sind intrinsisch ‘unauflösbar’ verschränkt, in ihrem eigenen Kontext ‘voll’
Negationen beinhalten einen erkenntnisfördernden iterativen Wechsel der
Fokussierung auf A, B, (C, D) gemäß
der in Abbildung 2 illustrierten Logik der
- 85 erkennbar; alle sind für die ‘Lösung’ nötig Nichtkompatibilität
Ein Teilprozeß, den RKD nicht mit den anderen Denkformen gemeinsam hat, ist das
Umgehen mit der RKD-Logik. Hinsichtlich deren Verständnisses muß etwas wieter
ausgeholt werden (cf. Harris, 1987; Kainz, 1988). Im Gegensatz zu jener Philosophenschule, die nur die traditionelle Logik als Logik anerkennt, wird hier davon ausgegangen, daß Menschen nicht nur mit “unvergänglichen, unwandelbaren Objekten“ umzugehen haben, deren Beziehungen sich überdies notwendigerweiser als “so
und nicht anders“ ergeben (der Anwendungsbereich binärer formaler Logik, d.h. der
Piagetschen Operationen – Macnamara, 1994, S. 150), sondern vielmehr auch mit
Wechsel, Kontingenzen – also damit, daß etwas auch ganz anders oders gar nicht
sein könnte –, Kontextabhängigkeit und desgleichen mehr. Riegel (1981, S. 146) weist
darauf hin, daß man allein mittels binärer formaler Logik im alltäglichen Leben noch
nicht einmal im Supermarkt einkaufen könnte.
Bedau und Oppenheim (1961) zeigten, daß binäre formale Logik schon dann nicht
mehr anwendbar ist, wenn die Aspekte A, B jeweils unter unterschiedlichen Kontextbedingungen beobachtbar werden, wie die Natur des Menschen einerseits etwa auf
dem Operationstisch und andererseits zum Beispiel bei einem Schachturnier. Sie
führten einen dritten logischen Wahrheitswert ein, nämlich nicht-kompatibel, der sich
den binären Werten kompatibel und inkompatibel zugesellt. Dieser dritte Wert beinhaltet, daß unter einer Bedingung ein bestimmtes Resultat auftritt und unter einer zweiten Bedingung ein anderes Ergebnis, z.B. die Wahrnehmung von sechs bzw. von
sieben Würfeln in Abbildung 2.
Es handelt sich bei nichtkompatibel also nicht um den von Bredenkamp (1986)
diskutierten dritten Wahrheitswert unbestimmt. Es wird angenommen, daß RKD u.a.
dann ins Spiel kommt, wenn mit der binären formalen Logik kein Weiterkommen ist.
Was kann man von den postulierten Elementar- bzw. Teiloperationen bereits in
obigen und weiteren Interviewantworten ausmachen? Darüber wurde im Detail
anderweitig berichtet (Reich, 1996a). Insgesamt erschien das Ergebnis dieser Analysen genügend ermutigend, um eine zweite Teilstudie zu rechtfertigen.
- 86 Abbildung 2. Illustration logischer Nicht-Kompatibilität. (Wahrnehmung einer unterschiedlichen Anzahl von Würfeln, je nachdem ob die Strichzeichnung aufrecht
oder auf dem Kopf steht).
5. 2. 3 Die zweite Teilstudie
In einer zweiten Teil-Studie wurde an (anderen) 38 Kindern, Jugendlichen und jungen Erwachsenen die Frage des Verhältnisses von RKD und Piagetschen Operationen
untersucht (Reich, 1991, S. 85 [hier S. 73]; Oser & Reich, 1992, bes. S. 90 ; diese
Ergebnisse sind einfachheitshalber in Tabelle 4 reproduziert). Dabei wurden den
Teilnehmern und Teilnehmerinnen drei RKD-Probleme (Pianistin, KKW-Unfall und
Leib-Seele-Problem, s.u.) und drei Piaget-Aufgaben (Schnecke, Blattpflanze [s.u.] und
Pendelaufgabe) vorgelegt und die Interviewantworten gemäß den Standard-Rastern
eingestuft.
Bei Betrachtung der Ergebnisse (vgl. Tab. 4) erkennt man, daß in der rechten oberen Ecke dieser Tabelle sich keine Einstufungen finden: Keine der interviewten Personen argumentierte auf einem niedrigen Piaget-Niveau und auf einem hohen RKDNiveau. Es ist gemäß diesen Daten hingegen klar, daß auf einer bestimmten PiagetStufe verschiedene Niveaus von RKD möglich sind, Argumentieren auf einer solchen
Stufe also nicht hinreichend für das Erreichen des jeweils bestmöglichen RKD-Niveaus ist. Beispielsweise argumentieren Schüler und Schülerinnen, die die konkreten
Operationen sicher beherrschten, auf den RKD-Niveaus 1, 2 und (fast) 3. Andererseits scheint das jeweilige Erreichen eines RKD-Niveaus eine gewissen Piaget-(Unter-)Stufe notwendigerweise vorauszusetzen. Beispielsweise argumentierte niemand
auf dem Niveau IV von RKD, der nicht mindestens die frühen formalen Operationen
beherrschte. Cohens κ lag bei 0,59.
Tabelle 4. Häufigkeiten individueller Einstufungen von Piagetschen Operationen
und von Niveaus relations- und kontextbezogenen erkennenden Denkens (RKD).
Niveau I(II) liegt etwas über Niveau I, Niveau II(I) etwas unter Niveau II, usw. N=
38. (Quelle:[Reich, 1991, S. 85 – hier S. 81]; Oser & Reich, 1992, S. 90)3
Piagetsche
Operationen
Frühe konkrete
Gefestigte konkr.
Transition
Niveaus relations- und kontextbezogenen Denkens
I
I(II)
II(I)
II
2
1
1
II(III) III(II)
III
III(IV) IV(III)
IV
IV(V)
2
2
1
1
2
3 Added in 2004: The possible reaching of RCR level IV(V) followed from a data reanalysis.
- 87 Frühe formale
Gefestigte formale
(Transition)
8
3
6
3
2
3
1
Warum ist das Beherrschen der Piagetschen Operationen nicht hinreichend für
voll entwickeltes RKD? Die bereits erläuterte Annahme ist, daß eine oder mehrere
der erforderlichen Elementaroperationen oder selbst Teiloperationen des kognitiv
komplexen oder dialektischen Denkens oder auch des Denkens in Analogien fehlen.
Weiterhin könnte es an Kompetenz im Umgehen mit der RKD-Logik mangeln.
Aus dem Vorhergehenden folgt für das vorliegende Projekt: (1) Eine Studie des
Verhältnisses von RKD und kognitiv komplexem Denken ist unabdinglich. Dabei
wäre letzteres gradweise zu erfassen (Grad 1: kein Differenzieren und kein Integrieren, mittlere Grade: gutes Differenzieren, leidliches Integrieren; Grad 7: beide gut
ausgebildet – Baker-Brown et al., 1992). (2) Idem für die Kompetenz im Umgehen mit
verschiedenen Logiken. (3) Die Rolle der Piagetschen Operationen für RKD ist an
sich weitgehend klar, aber in Anbetracht von Punkt (2) und der unterschiedlichen
Personen der Teilstudie 2 und der neuen Studie, sollten sie wieder aufgenommen
werden. (4) Aus den gleichen Gründen müssen RKD-Probleme dort repräsentiert
sein. (5) Da von den 24 Elementaroperationen dialektischen Denkens (Basseches,
1989, S. 162f.) nur sieben in den Antworten der bis dahin rund 60 Befragten aufgefunden wurden – der Anteil also vergleichsweise klein ist –, die Rolle der dialektischen Teiloperation für RKD theoretisch klar ist, und der Belastung der interviewten
Personen, besonders von Kindern, Grenzen gesetzt sind, wird dialektisches Denken
hier nicht weiter verfolgt. (6) Das gleiche gilt für Denken in Analogien.
5. 2. 4 Hypothesen
Aus den bisherigen Betrachtungen folgen drei Hypothesen hinsichtlich von wesentlichen Teiloperationen (aber nicht von allen) der fünf Niveaus von RKD:
H. 1: Zu den RKD-Teiloperationen gehören solche, die auch Teil Piagetscher Operationen und kognitiv komplexen Denkens sind sowie zusätzlich mit der RKD-Logik
umgehen.
H. 2: Die Folge der RKD-Niveaus I-V und die Sequenz der Grade 1-7 komplexen
Denkens weisen Gemeinsamkeiten bezüglich des jeweiligen Maßes von Differenziertheit und Integriertheit auf.
H. 3: Die Entwicklung von RKD beinhaltet das Überschreiten jener Grenzen, die
durch die binäre formale Logik (vgl. Tabelle 3, oben rechts) und somit durch gewisse
Elementaroperationen der Piagetschen Gesamtoperation gesetzt werden.
Diese Hypothesen können wie folgt überprüft werden. Wenn die Aussagen einer
- 88 überzufälligen Anzahl von Teilnehmern und Teilnehmerinnen zu den jeweiligen
Problemen/Aufgaben zwar RKD aber keine Kompetenz hinsichtlich Piagetscher
Operationen, kognitiv komplexen Denkens und des Umgehens mit verschiedenen
Logiken erkennen ließen, wäre H. 1 falsifiziert. Wenn die RKD-Probleme nur auf
unteren Niveaus bearbeitet würden und die (unabhängigen) Komplexitätsprobleme
mittels kognitiv komplexem Behandelns gemäß Grad 6 oder 7 (oder umgekehrt), so
wäre H. 2 falsifiziert. Wenn die interviewten Personen einerseits die RKD-Probleme
auf Niveau V bearbeiten und andererseits bei der Bearbeitung des Logikproblems
nur eine Art von Logik (voraussichtlich binäre formale Logik) erkennen würden, so
wäre H. 3 falsifiziert.
Bei der Evaluierung der Ergebnisse wird die Stimmigkeit der Hypothesen einerseits mittels der (angenäherten) intraindividuellen Gleichheit bzw. der Unterschiede
der Einstufungen (für die verschiedenen Probleme/Aufgaben) überprüft – wie sie
oben anhand der Tabelle 4 andiskutiert wurden – und andererseits mittels statistischer Methoden.
5. 3 METHODE
5. 3. 1 Prinzip
Das schon für RKD und Piagetschen Operationen illustrierte Vorgehen wird auf kognitiv komplexes Denken und auf die Kompetenz im Erkennen von und Umgehen mit
verschiedenen Logiken erweitert – fortab logische Kompetenz genannt. Mittels geeigneter Probleme (s.u.) werden deren Grad bzw. Niveau für alle Teilnehmer und
Teilnehmerinnen erfaßt. So, wie Tabelle 4 Auskunft gibt über die Beziehung notwendig aber nicht hinreichend bezüglich RKD und Piagetschen Operationen – und dies für
die verschiedenen Niveaus von RKD –, so wird erwartet, daß diese neuen Ergebnisse
Aufschlüsse über RKD und kognitiv komplexes Denken sowie über RKD und logische Kompetenz geben. Dabei ist von der Methode her mehr ein grobkörniges Bild
als ein feinkörniges zu erwarten. Das mag Theoretiker unbefriedigt lassen, aber als
ersten Schritt in ein Neuland sollte es wenigstens für das Stimulieren von RKD im
Klassenzimmer hilfreiche Informationen liefern.
5. 3. 2 Stichprobe
Für diese Studie wurden individuelle Interviews von ca. 11/2 Std. Dauer über 9 Probleme bzw. Aufgaben mit 32 Personen (von 13-68 J.; 17 m., 15 w.) durchgeführt:
3 RKD-Probleme, 3 Piaget-Aufgaben, 2 Probleme zum Erfassen kognitiv-komplexen
Denkens und 1 Problem zum Aufweisen logischer Kompetenz. Die Interviewten waren nicht repräsentativ, weil sie eine überdurchschnittliche Schul- bzw. Berufsaus-
- 89 bildung hatten, ihre Gedanken besonders gut artikulieren konnten und ihnen ein
wissenschaftlicher Denkstil zu eigen war, also nicht ein dogmatischer oder ein Adhoc-Stil. Deshalb können die Ergebnisse nicht verallgemeinert werden, also es kann
beispielsweise nicht die Rede von typischen Entwicklungsniveaus bei einem bestimmten Alter sein. Es wird lediglich behauptet, daß die berichteten Zusammenhänge existieren und bis zu einem gewissen Grade verstanden werden können.
5. 3. 3 Interviews
Für eine ausführlichere Darstellung muß auf das Schrifttum verwiesen werden (Oser
& Reich, 1987, 1991; Reich, 1995a).4 Das grundsätzliche Vorgehen ist wie folgt. Geeignete Interviewprobleme (s.u.) werden individuell schriftlich vorgelegt und diskutiert;
ggf. werden durch Nachfragen für die Auswertung kritische Punkte geklärt. Ziel war
primär, die Denk- und Argumentationsverläufe der Probanden zu eruieren, nicht
aber vor allem festzustellen, inwieweit ihre Lösungen den wissenschaftlich anerkannten nahekommen – noch ihre Sprach- bzw. Ausdrucksfähigkeit zu testen.
5. 3. 4 Benutzte Probleme bzw. Aufgaben und Auswertung
Ein Problem für das Erfassen des RKD wurde oben bereits vorgestellt, (1) der KKWUnfall. Die beiden weiteren Probleme waren (2) Pianistin (wird wegen ‘guter Verträglichkeit’– auch für Kinder – gewöhnlich als erstes der drei vorgelegt):
Die junge Klavierkünstlerin geht ganz in ihrem Spiel auf: ihre Finger sprechen über
die Tasten zu den Saiten, ihre Körperbewegung folgt dem Rhythmus, und selbst
das Minenspiel verrät ihr intensives Miterleben. Nachdem sie den letzten Ton
gespielt hat, klatschen alle Leute stürmisch Beifall. Die Zuhörer sind hingerissen,
immer wieder muß die Künstlerin erscheinen, gibt eine Zugabe, und schließlich
noch eine. Tiefbewegt gehen die Zuhörer nach Hause. Die Pianistin ist mit ihrem
Erfolg sehr zufrieden, aber sie fragt sich manchmal, ob er mehr ihrem Üben oder
ihrer Veranlagung zuzuschreiben ist. Was meinst Du bzw. meinen Sie dazu?
und (3) Modell für den Menschen (Leib-Seele-Thematik):
Daß der Mensch sowohl einen Körper wie einen Geist / ein Gemüt / eine Seele
habe, ist seit dem Altertum allgemein anerkannt. Worüber sich seither Philosophen
– und neuerdings auch Wissenschaftler verschiedener Disziplinen – streiten, ist
über das Verhältnis dieser beiden Aspekte (die Leib-Seele-Thematik). Wie stellt sich
das für Dich/Sie dar?
Für das Einstufen der verschrifteten Tonbandaufzeichnungen wurden die vor4 Added in 2004: See Reich (2002, pp. 191-198) for a detailed description of the interview
method and prototypical responses.
- 90 liegenden Raster benutzt. Sie bestehen aus genauen Niveau-Beschreibungen (eine
Erweiterung von Tabelle 2) und Einstufungshinweisen sowie typischen Ankerbeispielen für alle Niveaus und alle drei Probleme.
Die drei Piaget-Aufgaben waren (siehe Reich, 1995a, S. 11 bezüglich der Abänderungen gegenüber den in der Literatur angegebene Fassungen): (4) die Schnekkenaufgabe (Piaget, [1946], 21972, S. 95-109 – Addition der Fortbewegung einer
Schnecke auf einem Brett, und dessen Fortbewegung auf einer Unterlage zur Absolutbewegung der Schnecke in bezug auf die Unterlage), (5) die Blattpfanzenaufgabe (Kuhn & Brannock, 1977 – aus 8 Bildern von gedeihenden und absterbenden
Pflanzen mit jeweils anderen Kombinationen von Wassermenge, weißem oder
schwarzem Dünger und Blattwaschmittel sollen die Bedingungen für gutes
Gedeihen ermittelt werden) sowie die (6) Balkenwaageaufgabe (Piaget & Inhelder,
1972, S. 74-84 – Ermittlung der Gleichgewichtsbedingung) – Das Einschätzen der
Lösungen dieser Piaget-Aufgaben erfolgte gemäß den Piagetschen Vorgaben. Da die
intraindividuellen Vergleiche der Feineinstufungen mit den RKD-Niveaus aus der
zweiten Teilstudie vorlagen, dienten die Piagetaufgaben hier vor allem als eine der
Eingaben in das Logikproblem (s.u.) und zur Überprüfung der formalen Operationen
der Teilnehmer und Teilnehmerinnen.
Das Erfassen kognitiv komplexen Denkens erfolgte mittels zweier dafür konzipierter
Probleme, (7) Stellenbesetzung (cf. Dettenborn und Boehnke, 1994):
Herr Boschung ist Laborleiter in einem erfolgreichen Betrieb. Er hat gerade eine
Stelle für einen qualifizierten neuen Mitarbeiter bekommen und möchte sie – trotz
Mangellage auf dem Arbeitsmarkt – schnell besetzen. Er bietet diese Stelle Franz
Riedo, einem jungen tüchtigen Mitarbeiter seines Kollegen Zosso an (der Chef eines
anderen Laboratoriums der gleichen Abteilung ist), jedoch ohne Herrn Zosso
darüber zu informieren. Als Herr Zosso davon erfährt, beschwert er sich bei Herrn
Goetschmann, ihrem gemeinsamen Chef, und verlangt, daß der Chef diese
Abwerbung verhindern soll. Was soll Herr Goetschmann tun?
und (8) Interview:
Bei einem Interview möchte man einerseits die interviewte Person möglichst
spontan und eigenständig erleben. Andererseits soll das Ergebnis des Interviews in
einem bestimmten Rahmen dargestellt werden. Welche Probleme ergeben sich
Deiner/Ihrer Ansicht nach daraus?
Für das Einstufen wurde die 7-Grad-Skala von Baker-Brown et al. (1992) benutzt.
Empirisch wurden (9) die Niveaus logischer Kompetenz wie folgt erfaßt. Die Teilnehmenden wurden gebeten, die acht anderen Aufgaben/Probleme (s.o.) gemäß der Art
jener Logik zu klassifizieren, die nach ihren Vorstellungen jeweils die Struktur des
- 91 Problems bzw. seiner Lösung mitbestimmt sowie deren Charakteristiken zu
beschreiben, also im wesentlichen die entsprechenden rechten Spalten von Tabelle 3
zu rekonstruieren. Es wurden keinerlei weitere Hinweise gegeben, also bspw. nicht,
daß es sich um drei Arten handele usw.
Fünf Entwicklungsniveaus wurden wie folgt definiert: (1) keine oder verwirrte
Aussagen über eine mögliche Klassifikation gemäß unterschiedlicher unterstellter
Logiken; (2) nur eine Art von Logik (Nr. 1) abgesondert (hier die binäre formale),
konfuse Aussagen über die anderen; (3) mindestens eine zusätzliche Art angegeben;
Art Nr. 1 klarer erfaßt; (4) Art Nr. 1 voll gekennzeichnet, andere Arten differenzierter
beschrieben; (5) drei Arten klar unterschieden und eingehend zutreffend beschrieben.
5. 4 ERGEBNISSE
5. 4. 1 Piagetsche Operationen und RKD
Die interessierenden individuellen Häufigkeiten sind in Tabelle 4 wiedergegeben.
Dieser Befund kann wie folgt interpretiert werden: Das Erreichen eines gewissen
Stadiums mathematisch-logischen Denkens ist eine notwendige, aber keine hinreichende Voraussetzung für das Erreichen eines bestimmten RKD-Niveaus. In dieser
Studie beherrschten alle Teilnehmer und Teilnehmerinnen formale Operationen, argumentierten aber dennoch wieder auf verschiedenen RKD-(Teil-)Niveaus.
5. 4. 2 Grade komplexen Denkens sowie Niveaus von
logischer Kompetenz und RKD
Wenn man die jeweiligen Häufigkeiten der individuellen Einstufungen in die entsprechenden Tabellen einträgt, so ergeben sich mit Tabelle 4 vergleichbare Muster
(Reich, 1995a [vgl. Tabelle 6, S. 99 unten]). Es gelten mutatis mutandis die zu Tabelle
4 gemachten Kommentare. Bezüglich kognitiv komplexen Denkens und RKD ergab
der H-Test für die Rangvarianzanalyse nach Kruskal und Wallis (korrigiert für Rangbindungen) eine hohe Signifikanz, H (3) = 11,9, p < 0,01. Der entsprechende U-Test
nach Mann und Whitney zeigte, daß die signifikanten Unterschiede die Grade 4 und
7 (U = 0; p = 0,05) und die Grade 5 und 7 (U = 4,5; p < 0,01) betreffen. Die Rangkorrelation (Spearman) zwischen Komplexitätgraden und RKD-Niveaus erwies sich als
signifikant und lag bei rs= 0.68, p < 0,01.
Hinsichtlich der Niveaus logischer Kompetenz und der RKD-Niveaus ergaben
sich gleichfalls signifikante H-Werte, H (2) = 11,7; p = 0,01. Die entsprechenden UTests zeigten, daß die signifikanten Unterschiede die Niveaus 3 und 4 (U = 33; p =
0,01) und etwas schwächer die Niveaus 3 und 5 (U = 1,5; p = 0,05) betreffen. Der
- 92 Kendallsche Rangkorrelationskoeffizient ist ebenfalls signifikant; er beträgt rK = 0,52;
p < 0,01.
Bei Vernachlässigung eines Drittel-Niveauunterschiedes (cf. Tab. 4 für solche
Unterschiede) waren die Übereinstimmungen der beiden unabhängigen Einschätzungen 97% (RKD), 81,8% (Komplexitätsgrade) und 81,8% (logische Kompetenz),
durchaus akzeptable Werte.
In Tabelle 5 sind die resultierenden, jeweiligen Stufen/Grade/Niveaus der einzelnen Denkformen, also der betroffenen RKD-Teiloperationen, die für das Erreichen
bestimmter RKD-Niveaus erforderlich sind, aufgeführt. Es zeigt sich u.a., daß auf
RKD-Niveau V die anderen Denkformen voll entwickelt sind.
Tabelle 5. Niveaus der Beiträge, die jeweils für ein bestimmtes Niveau relationsund kontextbezogenen erkennenden Denkens (RKD) erforderlich sind.
RKD-Niveaus
II
III
IV
Piagetsche
Operationen
konkrete Oper.
Transition
formale Oper.
V
Kognitive
Komplexität
Logische
Kompetenz
Grad 2
Grad 3
Grad 5-
Niveau 1
Niveau 2+
Niveau 3
Niveau 5
Grad 7
Die umfangreichen Aussagen zur logischen Klassifikation (9. Problem) können
wegen Platzbeschränkung nicht wiedergegeben werden (cf. Reich, 1995a).5 Zusammengefaßt ergab sich folgendes Ergebnis:
Nach Ansicht der Teilnehmer und Teilnehmerinnen (wie nach der des Verfassers)
können drei Arten von Logik unterschieden werden, nämlich hinsichtlich: (1) Aufgaben, bei denen die Lösung einfach richtig oder falsch ist (Schnecke, Pflanze und Balkenwaage – die Piaget-Aufgaben), (2) Problemen, bei denen verschiedene Aspekte für
sich genommen sich eigentlich widersprechen, sich aber auch ergänzen können und
alle für die Erklärung wichtig sind (Pianistin, KKW-Unfall, Modell für den Menschen
– die RKD-Probleme) und (3) Problemen, bei denen es u.a. auf die individuelle
Einstellung der Protagonisten ankommt und es insgesamt um den Blackbox-Menschen geht, dessen Verhalten oft nicht reproduzierbar ist, der von Stimmungen abhängt (Stellenbesetzung, Interview – die Probleme für das Erfassen kognitiv komplexen Denkens).
5. 5 DISKUSSION
5 Added in 2004: See Reich (2002, pp. 71) for these data; short version on p. 100 below.
- 93 Die Ergebnisse unterstützen H. 1. Sie besagt, daß die untersuchten Denkformen und
RKD gemeinsame Teiloperationen aufweisen. Das jeweilige Vorhandensein solcher
Teiloperationen ist eine zwar notwendige, aber keine hinreichende Voraussetzung
eines entsprechenden Niveaus von RKD. Das zeigen auch die statistischen Überprüfungen an: Gemeinsamkeiten, ja; Identität, nein. Die erforderliche Kompetenz im
Umgehen mit der RKD-Logik trägt zusätzlich zur Spezifizität von RKD bei.
RKD kann als ein pragmatisches Argumentationsschema (Cheng und Holyoak,
1985) betrachtet werden. Es ist also weder eine generalisierter Algorithmus (wie Rechenregeln) noch eine erfahrungsgeleitete Handlungsanweisung für persönliche Entscheidungen. RKD ist vielmehr eine allgemeine Verfahrensregel für den Umgang mit
einer bestimmten Klasse von Problemen. Probleme dieser Art – wie das Erklären von
Können mittels Veranlagung und Üben – bestehen aus den konkurrierenden
Ansprüchen von Aspekten wie Teil-Strebungen/-Beschreibungen/-Erklärungen/Theorien usw.
Der H-Wert wie auch der signifikante, hohe Korrelationswert zwischen den Graden kognitiv komplexen Denkens und RKD-Niveaus (rs= 0.68, p < 0,01) unterstützt
H. 2. Diese besagt, daß die Komplexitätsgrade nicht nur als Unterschiede in der
Informationsverarbeitungskompetenz, sondern auch als Entwicklungsniveaus
interpretiert werden können. Rollett und Kaminger (1996, S. 105) fanden ein
ähnliches Ergebnis. Dies entspricht auch der konsensuellen Vorstellung, daß das
Denken im Lebensverlauf allmählich allgemeiner, abstrakter, differenzierter,
integrierter, bewußter und strukturierter wird (Seiler, 1994, S. 79).
Das Erreichen des niedrigsten 'eigentlichen' RKD-Niveaus (Niveau III) setzt Niveau 2+ von Logik-Kompetenz voraus (vgl. Tabelle 5). Dieser Befund stützt H. 3,
denn auf RKD-Niveau III werden mindestens rudimentär zwei unterschiedliche Logiken erkannt. Die Analysen der Teilnehmer und Teilnehmerinnen beim Logik-Problem einerseits und die entsprechenden rechten Spalten der Tabelle 2 andererseits
weisen eine große Übereinstimmung auf.
Was die Niveaufolge angeht, so wurde die Intra-inter-trans-‘Logik’ bereits aufgrund
der RKD-Niveaubeschreibungen (z.B. Fischer et al., 1991, S. 33f.; Oser & Reich, 1991,
S. 22; 1992, S. 90) vermutet. Die neuen Ergebnisse stützen diese Vorstellung, da die
Sequenz der Komplexitätsgrade einerseits mit ihr kompatibel ist und andererseits
mit der Folge der RKD-Niveaus ‘übereinstimmt’.
Die Ergebnisse sprechen insgesamt dafür, daß RKD sich anfänglich parallel zu den
Piagetschen Operationen entwickelt, die Entwicklung jedoch über das Jugendalter
hinaus weitergehen kann und spätestens ab dem jungen Erwachsenenalter den Piagetschen Operationen gegenüber einen Entwicklungsvorteil aufweist. Er besteht darin, daß insbesondere der Kontext mehr berücksichtigt wird und die Begrenzungen
der formalen Logik dort überschritten werden können, wo das sachentsprechend zu
- 94 tieferen Einsichten führt: Man kann daher voll ausgebildetes RKD als postformales
Denken (bspw. Commons, Richard & Armon, 1984; Alexander & Langer, 1990; Kincheloe & Steinberg, 1993) verstehen. Insbesondere hat sich dieses Denken von einseitigen Absolutsheitsansprüchen befreit und ist ressourcenreicher geworden. Insofern
hat es auch mit Weisheitsvorstellungen zu tun (Staudinger & Baltes, 1996, S. 62).
Zusammenfassend darf festgehalten werden, daß jetzt besser verstanden wird,
welches die Eigenarten der postformalen Denkform RKD sind (vgl. Abb. 1, Tab. 3)
und was zu ihrer Entwicklungslogik (vgl. Tab. 2) beiträgt.
Praktische Bedeutung. Auf mögliches Einbringen von RKD in den Unterricht
wurde bereits in der Einleitung hingewiesen. Bisher ist der Rolle von RKD im Religionsunterricht und der entsprechenden Forschung die meiste Aufmerksamkeit geschenkt worden (Büttner & Rupp, 1996; Reich, 1987; 1991; 1992; 1994a; 1996a, c,
1997b; Reich & Schröder, 1995a, b). Die bisherigen Bemühungen schließen Unterrichtsversuche mit dem Ziel ein, kognitiv komplexes Denken, also insbesondere
Differenzieren und Integrieren (cf. Mandl & Huber, 1977) sowie die Kompetenz
unterschiedlichen logischen Denkens systematisch zu stimulieren. Auch für die psychophysiologische Forschung (Edelheit, 1976; Fahrenberg, 1992; Jackson, 1884/1958)
sowie das Umgehen mit gewissen gesellschaftlichen Problemen (Reich, 1996b) könnte sich RKD als fruchtbar erweisen. Zu oft wird noch die Lösung von komplexen Gesellschaftsproblemen wie Massenarbeitslosigkeit oder Drogenkonsum auf einem niedrigen RKD-Niveau gesucht, wo sie jedoch nicht zu finden ist. Auf dem Weg zum
RKD gilt es etliche Hürden zu nehmen (Reich, 1992, S. 137-140), aber auch Hilfen bieten sich an (Reich & Schröder, 1995; Reich, 1997a, b): RKD erweist sich als eine neue
pädagogische Herausforderung.
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5. 6 POSTSCRIPT
This paper is the first encompassing report on RCR in German. Unfortunately, for
space reasons, Tab. 6 and Tab. 7 could not be included. For completeness they are
reproduced here (cf. Reich, Developing the horizons of the mind, 2002, pp. 66, 70).
Tabelle 6. Häufigkeiten der individuellen Einstufungen von Graden kognitiv komplexen Denkens und von Niveaus relations- und kontextbezogenen erkennenden
Denkens (RKD). Komplexitätsgrad 3(4) liegt etwas über 3, 4(3) etwas unter 4 usw.
Entsprechendes gilt für die Niveaus komplementären Denkens. N = 32.
Grad kognitiver Komplexität (Baker-Brown)
Niveaus relations- und kontextbezogenen Denkens
III
III(IV)
IV(III)
IV
IV(V)
V(IV)
3(4)
4(3)
4
4(5)
5(4)
5
5(6)
6(5)
6
6(7)
7(6)
1
1
1
2
1
2
1
3
1
7
3
3
1
2
2
1
2
2
1
2
Tabelle 7. Häufigkeiten der individuellen Einstufungen von Niveaus logischer
Kompetenz (LK) und von Niveaus relations- und kontextbezogenen erkennenden
Denkens (RKD). Drittelstufen wie in Tabelle 4. N = 31.
Niveau von
LK
3(2)
3
3(4)
4(3)
4
4(5)
Niveaus relations- und kontexbezogenen Denkens
III
III(IV)
IV(III)
IV
IV(V)
V(IV)
1
1
1
3
1
3
2
1
1
1
3
3
2
2
2
2
- 100 5(4)
5
1
1
The formal similarities with Table 4 (p. 86 above) are obvious: no data are found in
the upper right-hand corner. An appropriate grade of cognitive complex reasoning is
a precondition for reaching a given RCR level. However, as illustrated particularly
well by the respondents scoring as grade 6, this is not sufficient: these persons argue
at RCR levels IV(III), IV, IV(V) and V(IV).
Mutatis mutandis, the same is true for the competence of dealing with various
logics and RCR levels (Table 7). Here is a sampling of responses (Reich, 2002, p. 71):
Class 1 [logic of Piagetian tasks]: Here we are dealing with natural laws in the domain of
physics and biology, which are unchangeable and reproducible. The physical systems are not
capable of learning; they do not develop. All these tasks primarily have nothing to do with
me. ... We are dealing with clear initial conditions and well defined objectives. Using the
right method leads to a single correct solution. The task is to establish mathematical relations
between the variables. Thus the competence for scientific work is tested. The solution can be
justified by logical arguments.
Class 2 [logic of RCR]: The task is to harmonise two statements, to create a link, to put
them under one umbrella, to find out whether they support each other or not. Both aspects
often "collaborate". Even if some statement is not "logical", it may be true. Native endowment
and the effects of exercising cannot be separated, nor mind and body; they are intrinsically
linked.
Class 3 [“logic“ of cognitive complex thinking]: Humans can act according to the most
diverse criteria ranging from the cold logic of focusing on gaining an advantage to the warm
logic of decent behaviour. But humans also react. Contrary to the experiments with the balance scale, one can't do experiments with humans as one fancies. When humans are concerned,
a different scale of values applies. When the psyche is involved, the situation often becomes
irreversible. There are no solutions which are a priori correct or wrong, because the idiosyncratic reaction of each individual counts ... Usually many solutions can be envisaged in prin ciple, but none predicted with a high probability. At best one can make statements beginning
with "probably" or "possibly", which indicate a tendency. At issue are not logical necessities,
but reaching an optimised solution for the future. ... At issue is the black box individual,
whose behaviour often is not reproducible, and who is given to emotional whims.
Another point worth mentioning concerns Table 1 (p. 80 above). After further
study, four levels rather than three were deemed closer to reality; this in analogy to a
child learning a language by mastering step by step syllables, words, phrases, and
full texts. The four levels are labelled elementary operations, composite operations,
conjunctive operations, and complete thought forms (Reich, 2002, p. 18). Notwithstanding this change, introducing the notion of “common“ structural levels pertaining to
the various thought forms clearly is a step ahead in the explanation of the data,
- 101 whatever the exact number of these structural levels (the empirical determination of
which involves more work than could be shouldered).
Finally, the references demonstrate that RCR has entered the classroom, at least in
religious education (as hoped for in chapters 2, 3 and 4).
- 103 6. EINE FREIERE MENSCH-GOTT-BEZIEHUNG UND KOMPLEXERES
DENKEN – ZWEI UNGLEICHE SEITEN DERSELBEN ENTWICKLUNG
[A more liberal person-God relationship and complex thinking – two differing
sides of the same development]
Zusammenfassung. Ein wesentliches Kennzeichen von Religion ist die Beziehung
zu einem Letztgü1tigen, einem Ultimaten. Die hier dargestellten theoretischen
Vorstellungen und empirischen Befunde hinsichtlich des religiösen Urteils
beschreiben die zeitliche Entwicklung dieser Beziehung systematisch und
längsschnittlich von Stufe zu Stufe.
Hand in Hand mit dieser Entwicklung verläuft die Denkentwicklung, insbesondere jene des relations- und kontextbezogenen (komplementaristischen) Denkens
(Kendalls tau = 0,70). Diese Denkform und ihre Beziehung zum religiösen Urteil
werden im Einzelnen diskutiert. Abschließend wird ein tentatives Modell der
Mikroentwicklung der Mensch-Gott-Beziehung vorgestellt
Abstract. An essential characteristic of religion is a person’s relationship with an
ultimate authority, an ultimate being. The theoretical concepts and empirical results
presented here with regard to religious judgements characterise the temporal development of this relationship from stage to stage both systematically and by way of a
longitudinal study.
The development of thinking, especially that of relational and contextual
(complementarist) reasoning, goes hand in hand with this religious development.
(Kendall's tau = 0.70). This form of thought and its relationship to the evolution of
religious judgment will be discussed in detail. In conclusion, a tentative model of
micro-development of the person-God relationship will be presented.
6.1 EINLEITUNG
Die Mensch-Gott-Beziehung steht im Zentrum aller Religionen, wenn unter Gott die
höchste übernatürliche Entität, ein Letztgültiges, das Ultimate verstanden wird, das
allerdings nicht in allen Religionen personale Züge aufweist. Die persönliche
Religion eines Menschen, seine Religiosität, entwickelt beziehungsweise verändert
sich im Laufe seiner Lebensspanne. Eine Reihe von psychologischen Theorien
beschreiben diese Entwicklung (Bucher & Oser, 1988; Fraas, 1990; Grom, 1992; Oser
& Reich, 1992; Oser & Bucher, 1995).
Wir wenden uns hier erstens der Entwicklung des religiösen Urteils zu (Oser &
Gmünder, 41996; Oser & Reich, 1996); bei diesem Urteil geht es um diese MenschGott-Beziehung in einer kontingenten Situation. Die jeweilige Infragestellung,
Erschütterung oder Verunsicherung der Vorstellungen auf der erreichten Stufe des
- 104 religiösen Urteils stellen einen zentralen Antrieb für seine Entwicklung dar. Einen
weiteren Antrieb der Entwicklung dieses Urteils trägt vermutlich die
leistungsfähiger werdende allgemeine Kognition (perzipieren, denken, urteilen,
planen) bei.
Deshalb befassen wir uns zweitens mit einer besonderen, relevanten Denkentwicklung, mit Denken in Komplementarität (Oser & Reich, 1987); es wird neuerdings
relations- und kontextbezogenes Denken (RKD) genannt (Reich, 1999). In einem
dritten Schritt beziehen wir beide Theorien aufeinander. Viertens stellen wir ein
etwas spekulatives Modell vor, wie man sich die Mikroentwicklung der
Mensch-Gott-Beziehung detaillierter vorstellen könnte; es geht also um die
betroffene geistig-seelisch-körperliche Dynamik.
6.2 THEORIE DES RELIGIöSEN URTEILS
Gemäß der Theorie des religiösen Urteils artikuliert sich seine Entwicklung in der
Veränderung und dem erneuten Ausbalancieren seiner inhaltlichen, gegenpoligen
Dimensionen wie Heiliges versus Profanes, Transzendenz versus Immanenz, Freiheit
versus Abhängigkeit und Hoffnung (Sinn) versus Absurdität ... (Oser & Gmünder,
41996, S. 31-41).
Die Theorie des religiösen Urteils sagt weiterhin aus, dass die Entwicklung der
Mensch-Gott-Beziehung nicht irgendwie verläuft, sondern systematisch zu vier bis
fünf Meilensteinen/Stufen hin geschieht. Ihre Reihenfolge entspricht einer Entwicklungslogik (Oser & Bucher, 31995).
Diese Stufenbeschreibungen (vgl. Tab. 1) resultieren aus der Analyse von mehreren
hundert Interviews über verschiedenen religiöse Kontingenzsituationen, die etwa im
Paul-Dilemma und ähnlichen Dilemmata, die die Mensch-Gott-Beziehung thematisieren, zum Ausdruck kommen.
Die Beziehungsverhältnisse, in denen sich Autonomie und Bindung artikulieren,
sind wie folgt: Auf Stufe eins wird nur Gott als mächtig verstanden; auf Stufe zwei
haben auch die Betroffenen eine gewisse Handlungsfähigkeit; auf Stufe drei trennt
man Religiöses von Weltlichem; auf Stufe vier herrscht ein gewisser Ausgleich zwischen menschlicher und göttlicher Handlungsfähigkeit und auf Stufe fünf durchdringen sich Geistliches und Weltliches.
Im Laufe einer ungestörten Entwicklung werden die verschiedenen Stufen nacheinander durchlaufen (Vergleiche Abbildungen 1-3; Di Loreto & Oser, 1996). Die
Abbildungen zeigen systematisch die Verteilung der Stufen des religiösen Urteils
verschiedener Altersgruppen zu drei Messzeitpunkten; es handelt sich dementsprechend um eine Längsschnittstudie.
- 105 Bei der ersten Messung (N = 89) war die jüngste Gruppe 5-7 Jahre alt, die mittlere
Gruppe 11-13 Jahre und die älteste Gruppe 15-16 Jahre. Die jeweils entsprechenden
Mittelwerte der Stufenhöhe sind 1,2 und 2,4.
Tabelle 1. Stufen des religiösen Urteils nach Oser/Gmünder sowie illustrierende
Interviewantworten von Kindern (Stufen 1 und 2) und Jugendlichen bzw. (jungen)
Erwachsenen (Stufen 3 und 4) (vgl. Abb. 1-3). (Quelle: Oser & Bucher 1995, S. 1050).
Stufe
Beschreibung
1
Orientierung an einem Letztgültigen, das direkt in die Welt eingreift, sei es belohnend und behütend, sei es sanktionierend und zerstörend. Der Mensch erfährt sich als reaktiv und genötigt, sich im Sinne des Letztgültigen zu verhalten.
Typische Antwort auf das Paul-Dilemma1: “Paul muß das Versprechen halten,
sonst macht Gott, daß er Bauchweh kriegt.“
2
Orientierung an einem Letzgültigen, mit dem ein Do-ut-des-Verhältnis gepflegt
wird (”Ich gebe, damit Du gibst“). Der Mensch kann auf das Letztgültige dieses
für eigene Ziele in Dienst zu nehmen: “Gott hat dem Paul geholfen, jetzt soll
der auch etwas Gutes tun.“
3
Orientierung an der Selbstbestimmung und Eigenverantwortung des Menschen, die auch gegenüber dem Letztgültigen reklamiert wird. Dieses erhält –
sofern nicht in seiner Existenz bestritten (Atheismus) – einen eigenen, vom
Zuständigkeitsbereich des Menschen getrennten Sektor: “Paul muß sich selber
entscheiden. Wenn er das Versprechen nicht hält und es ihm schlecht geht,
straft er sich selber. Mit Gott hat das nichts zu tun.“
4
Orientierung an der Freiheit des Menschen, die fortan an das Letztgültige zurückgekoppelt wird: dieses ist der transzendentale Grund menschlichen Daseins und scheint in der konkreten Immanenz zeichenhaft auf: Korrelation von
Gott und Welt. Zudem wird in den bisherigen Wirrnissen des Lebens ein sinnhafter Plan erkannt, gemäß dem sich der Mensch auf ein Vollkommeneres hin
entwickelt: “Gott will, daß sich Paul nach bestem Wissen und Gewissen selber
entscheidet.“
1 Ein junger Arzt legt in einem abstürzenden Flugzeug das Versprechen ab, sein Leben
fortan in den Dienst der Entwicklungshilfe zu stellen. Nachdem er überlebt hat, fällt ihm die
Entscheidung um so schwerer, als er eine Verlobte hat, die nicht unbedingt in ein Entwicklungsland mitkäme und ihm zwischenzeitlich eine lukrative Stelle angeboten wurde. Soll er
dennoch sein Versprechen halten, das er Gott gegebenen hat? Wenn er es nicht tut und dann
einen Autounfall erleidet, ist das Gottes Strafe?
- 106 5
Orientierung an religiöser Autonomie durch unbedingte Intersubjektivität. Das
Letztgültige wird im befreienden zwischenmenschlichen Handeln zum
Ereignis. Einnahme einer universalen Perspektive, die andere Religionen und
Kulturen einschließt; es bedarf keiner äußeren Organisation oder Sicherheit
mehr, um religiös zu existieren.
Bei der zweiten Messung (3 Jahre später, N = 65) sind die Altersgruppen 8-10, 4-16
und 18-19 Jahre. Die entsprechenden mittleren Stufenhöhen wurden zu 1,5, 2,6 und
3 ermittelt.
Bei der dritten Messung (weitere 3 Jahre später, N = 43) argumentierten die 1113-Jährigen im Mittel auf Stufe 2,4, alle anderen auf Stufe 3. Die Werte steigen also
generell mit steigendem Alter. (Allerdings kann Stufe 3 einen – temporären – Dekkeneffekt beinhalten). Das darf allerdings nicht darüber hinwegtäuschen, dass die
individuelle Entwicklung (intra-individuell wie inter-individuell) selbst im
Jugendalter sehr unterschiedlich verlaufen kann, von sehr schnell bis äußerst
stockend (keine Veränderung über mehr als 5 Jahre hinweg).
Verteilung rel. Urteil
zum 1. Messzeitpunkt
100
80
60
40
20
0
1
1.5 2
Altersgr. 3: 15/16
Altersgr. 1: 5/6/7
2.5
3
3.5
4
Stufenhöhe rel. Urteil
Abbildung 1. Verteilung des religiösen Urteils zum 1. Messzeitpunkt
- 107 -
Verteilung rel. Urteil
zum 2. Messzeitpunkt
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1
1.5
2
2.5
Stufenhöhe rel. Urteil
Altersgr. 3: 18/19
Altersgr. 2: 14/15/16
Altersgr. 1: 8/9/10
3
4
3.5
Abbildung 2. Verteilung des religiösen Urteils zum 2. Messzeitpunkt
Verteilung rel. Urteil
zum 3. Messzeitpunkt
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1
1.75 2.5
Stufenhöhe rel. Urteil
Altersgr. 3: 21/22/23
Altersgr. 1: 11/12/13
3.25
4
Abbildung 3. Verteilung des religiösen Urteils zum 3. Messzeitpunkt
Neben diesen Daten gibt es eine ganze Reihe anderer Untersuchungen, die die
Validität der Stufen des religiösen Urteils bestätigen (bspw. Bucher, 1990, S. 71-1572).
Abbildung 4 illustriert in abstrakter Weise die Vorstellung einer Entwicklung durch
Stufentransformation .
Die interviewten Personen wurden auch danach befragt, ob sich ihr religiöses
Denken seit dem vorhergehenden Interview verändert habe. Der frappierende Befund war, dass 85% der Antworten mit den jeweiligen individuellen Veränderungen
2 Added in 2004: Correction of an evident misunderstanding in the published version.
- 108 der wissenschaftlichen Einstufungen übereinstimmten. Wie bereits bemerkt, wird die
Mensch-Gott-Beziehung in der Theorie des religiösen Urteils als die Art und Weise
verstanden, wie Personen in Kontingenzsituationen ihre Beziehungen zu einem
Ultimaten, wie immer es beschaffen sein mag, artikulieren, um eine Antwort auf die
betreffende Situationsproblematik zu finden.
Die jeweiligen Einstufungen erfassen die Charakteristika genau dieser Antwort.
Die subjektiven Beurteilungen von Veränderungen beziehungsweise von Gleichbleiben des religiösen Denkens stimmen gut mit den empirisch erarbeiteten Stufenveränderungen überein. Das zeigt, dass die interviewten Personen, denen die Theorie
des religiösen Urteils unbekannt war, eine Vorstellung von der Mensch-Gott-Beziehung haben, die jener des religiösen Urteils ähnlich ist.
- 109 Abbildung 4. Doppelspirale der religiösen Entwicklung. Die Schleifen bedeuten
Durchgang zur Dezentrierung einerseits und neue Integration andererseits. (gezeichnet von Arthur Lotti – Oser & Gmünder, 41996, Abb. 7, S. 98).
6. 3 RELATIONS- UND KONTEXTBEZOGENES DENKEN
Wir beginnen mit einer Vorfrage: Was berechtigt uns, die Kognition und ihre Entwicklung als besonders wesentlich für die religiöse Entwicklung auszusondern? Wie
aus dem unten zu behandelnden Modell (Abbildung 5, S. 114) ersichtlich wird,
beruht die Veränderungsdynamik nicht auf einer einzigen Kausalbeziehung,
sondern beinhaltet ein multikausales Beziehungsnetz, das auch unbewusste
Verknüpfungen enthält, die in der Abbildung nicht explizit dargestellt werden.
Zunächst sei auf alle Fälle festgehalten, dass eine derartige Betonung der Kognition und ihrer Entwicklung andere Dimensionen nicht bedeutungslos macht, insbesondere nicht die der Emotionen und der Konation/Motivation (vgl. Drodge, 2000).
Es ist aber in der Tat so, dass gemäß zahlreicher sozialwissenschaftlicher Untersuchungen die verschiedenen Ausprägungen von Kognition sich in einer nachvollziehbaren Weise entwickeln (bspw. Oerter, 1998) und viele menschliche Verhaltensweisen und deren Ergebnisse mitbestimmt.
Somit werden Voraussagen über Veränderungen in Sozialverhalten, Schulerfolg,
moralischer und religiöser Entwicklung möglich, wenn der kognitive Entwicklungsstand bekannt ist. Wir wenden uns daher jetzt der spezifischen Denkform des relations- und kontextbezogenen Denkens (RKD) zu, die für eine weitergehende religiöse Entwicklung als besonders wichtig erachtet wird.
Die Grundvorstellung ist, dass die verschiedenen Denkformen – wie Piagetsches
logisch-mathematisches Denken, kognitiv komplexes oder dialektisches Denken,
solches in Analogien und eben RKD – eine Familie mit gemeinsamen, aber auch mit
individuellen Zügen bilden. (Reich, 1999; in Vorbereitung). Zur Lösung eines spezifischen Problems ist oft eine Denkform geeigneter als eine andere. Einige wesentliche
Merkmale von Passungen zwischen Problemen und Denkformen fassen wir hier
zusammen.
Stets geht es um die Beziehungen zwischen zwei oder mehr Entitäten beziehungsweise Variablen. Wenn sie intrinsisch unabhängig und nur durch äußere Kausalketten verbunden sind, so ist Piagetsches logisch-mathematisches Denken am Platz.
Sind die Entitäten/Variablen zahlreich, unübersichtlicht vernetzt und die Natur ihrer
Verknüpfung ist unklar, so ist kognitiv komplexes Denken hilfreich.
Ist die Verknüpfung dialektisch, das heißt Entitäten bedingen sich gegenseitig und
eine Negation einer Negation führt zu etwas Neuem, so gebührt dialektischem Den-
- 110 ken der Vorrang für erfolgreiches Arbeiten. Will man vom geeigneten Bekannten
zum Neuen voranschreiten, hilft oft Denken in Analogien weiter.
Welches sind demgegenüber die Kennzeichen von RKD? Voll entwickeltes RKD
gestattet es, miteinander konkurrierende Beschreibungen, Erklärungen, Theorien,
Interpretationen A, B, (C, ...) zu einer umfassenden Synopse zu verschränken. In
entsprechenden Fällen gilt das auch, wenn die zeitgenössische Kultur A oder B (oder
C) für falsch, widersprüchlich oder dergleichen hält und ein Ausmerzen fordert. Beispielsweise haben sich die Vertreter der Teilchentheorie des Lichts (A) und jene der
Wellentheorie des Lichts (B) während etwa 200 Jahren gegenseitig bekämpft, bis die
Lösung in der quantentheoretischen Elektrodynamischen Feldtheorie (QED) gefunden wurde.
Genauso bekämpften die Vertreter der Anlage-Theorie menschlicher Eigenschaften
sowie menschlichen Verhaltens (A) jene der Umwelt-Theorie (B) während etlicher
Jahrzehnte, bis sich die Anstrengungen auf die gemeinsame Frage richteten, wie genau beide Einflüsse zusammen dazu beitragen.
Der Kern von RKD besteht in der Einsicht, dass der Geltungsbereich formaler binärer (Aristotelischer) Logik Grenzen hat, jenseits derer ein tieferes Verstehen öfter
erst möglich wird. Im obigen und ähnlich gelagerten Fällen ist diese Logik sowie die
zugehörige Denkform zu ersetzen durch eine Logik, die zeit- beziehungsweise kontextabhängig ist (Bedau & Oppenheim, 1961) sowie die entsprechende Denkform,
eben RKD.
Tabelle 2. Hauptunterschiede der Denkformen (1) Piagetsches Denken, (2) kognitiv
komplexes Denken, (3) dialektisches Denken, (4) Denken in Analogien und (5) RKD bzgl.
der Annahmen über die Aspekte A, B, (C, D) eines Phänomens / einer Sachlage /
einer Aufgabe / eines Problems (Quelle: Reich, 1999).
Nr.
Natur der Aspekte A, B, (C, D)
1Gehören zum selben Bezugssystem;
formaler
sind intrinsich unabhängig voneinander;
können deshalb per se beliebig miteinander verknüpft werden. Bei Piaget-Aufgaben geht es häufig darum, derartige
äußere Beziehungen innerhalb eines
geschlossenen Sytems zu eruieren, z.B.
beim Pendel und der Balkenwaage
2
Beziehungen zwischen A, B, (C, D)
Gemäß
(zeitunabhängiger)
binärer
Logik (tertium non datur) gelten Transitivität, Assoziativität, Distributivität, Kommutativität, Reversibilität (die Negation einer Negation führt exakt zum Ausgangspunkt zurück). Logischer Widerpruch ist
unzulässig; das Gesamtsystem ist statisch
und synchronisch
Nicht festgelegt, weiter Spielraum wie im Für deren Erkenntnis sind LebenserfahFalle menschlicher Beziehungen. Der gro- rung, Motivation der Protagonisten, de-
- 111 ße Suchraum lädt zu vielseitigem Explo- ren Handlungsziele, Persönlichkeitsvaririeren ein (Differenzieren und Integrieren) ablen usw. wesentlicher als 'Logiken'
3 Gehören innerhalb eines offenen Systems verschiedenen Teilsystemen an;
bestimmen sich gegenseitig wie Sein
und Nichtsein, An-sich und Für-uns,
Assimilation und Akkommodation
Beziehungen sind dynamisch und entwicklungsbezogen. Die Negation einer
Negation führt zu etwas Neuem: Aus
Sein und Nichtsein wird durch Werden
neues Sein und neues Nichtsein
4
A, B, gehören zu einem Bezugssystem,
C, D zu einem anderen. Eigenschaften /
Funktionen von A und B entsprechen
analogen Eigenschaften / Funktionen von
C, D: Der Autofahrer surft auf der grünen
Welle wie der Surfer auf dem Meer
Damit die Analogie fruchtbar ist (Erweiterung des Suchraums, auch des Verstehens), müssen die Ähnlichkeiten der
Eigenschaften / Funktionen genügend
stark sein. Dennoch gibt es zwangsläuauch immer Unterschiede
5
Gehören innerhalb eines übergeordneten
Explandums zu verschiedenen Kategorien; sind intrinsisch 'unauflösbar' verschränkt, in ihrem eigenen Kontext 'voll'
erkennbar; alle sind für die 'Lösung' nötig
Negationen beinhalten einen erkenntnisfördernden iterativen Wechsel der Fokussierung auf A, B, (C, D) gemäß der Logik
der Nichtkompatibilität (A erklärt mehr
in einem Kontext, B in einem anderen)
In einem Kontext erklärt das Teilchenbild mehr, in einem anderen das Wellenbild
(Einspalt-/Doppelspalt-Experiment) und Entsprechendes gilt für die Anlagevariable
und die Umweltvariable (Körpergröße/derzeitige Kondition). Darin besteht nicht
nur kein logischer Widerspruch, sondern ohne diese Einsicht können die fraglichen
Phänomene überhaupt nicht tiefergehend verstanden werden.
Allerdings kommen Kinder nicht mit voll entwickeltem RKD auf die Welt. Unsere
Studien (Oser & Reich, 1987; Reich, 1992 [hier Kapitel 2 & 5]) führten zu fünf
Entwicklungs- Niveaus von RKD (Tabelle 3).
Tabelle 3. Niveaus der Entwicklung des Denkens in Komplementarität
(Quelle: Oser & Reich 1987, S. 182; dt.: Reich, 1992, S. 140).
Niveau
Beschreibung
I
Die Theorien A und B (C ...) werden jeweils für sich allein betrachtet: Spontanreaktion «richtig» oder «falsch». (Alternative, nicht Komplementarität
als Konzept stark im Vordergrund.) Je nach Kenntnissen bzw. Sozialisation
erfolgt gewöhnlich einspurige Wahl von A oder B, gelegentlich von beiden,
jedoch ohne deren differenzierte Begründung.
II
Die Möglichkeit, daß A und B beide gelten können, wird ausdrücklich in
Betracht gezogen. A kann richtig sein, B kann richtig sein, beide können
(mit im Grenzfall sehr unterschiedlichem Gewicht) richtig sein.
- 112 III
Die Notwendigkeit, dass das Referenzobjekt sowohl mittels A als auch mittels B erklärt werden muß, wird überprüft. Weder A noch B werden generell (allein) als richtig anerkannt, beide sind nötig (evtl. teilweise). Die Grenze des Gültigkeitsbereichs formaler binärer Logik wird (unbewusst) überschritten.
IV
A und B werden bewusst zusammengebracht, die Beziehung zwischen beiden wird explizit angesprochen. Weder A noch B wird als (allein) richtig erklärt. Die Beziehung zwischen A und B wird reflektiert (z.B. ''Der von B beschriebene Aspekt erlaubt den von A beschriebenen auszunutzen'' usw.)
Auf die Kontextabhängigkeit der Erklärungsbeiträge von A und von B
wird hingewiesen. Die Kompetenz in der Benutzung von anderen Logiken
als der formalen binären ist etabliert.
V
Es wird eine umfassende Theorie (oder mindestens Synopse) für die
(rekonstruierten und eventuell ergänzten) Rollen von A und B (sowie ggfs.
C) konstruiert, deren komplexe Beziehung und Kontextabhängigkeit
verstanden und erläutert wird.
Auf dem Niveau I kommt im Wesentlichen nur ein Aspekt in den Blick: “Sie spielt
gut Klavier, weil der Vater auch schon gut spielte”, beziehungsweise ”Das gute Spielen kommt vom Üben.”
Auf dem Niveau II werden beide Aspekte in Betracht gezogen: “Vererbung ist
gut, aber ohne Üben bringt das vielleicht auch nicht so viel.”
Auf Niveau III ist klar, dass alle betroffenen Aspekte berücksichtigt werden müssen: ”Beides ist nötig, Veranlagung und Üben.”
Auf Niveau IV werden die Zusammenhänge thematisiert: “Wenn man begabt ist,
dann bringt das Üben mehr, und dann hat man mehr Freude und ist motiviert, eine
noch bessere Technik zu erarbeiten”.
Niveau V beinhaltet auch das Einbringen zusätzlicher Überlegungen und insbesondere der Kontextabhängigkeit: ”Wenn man sehr gut spielen kann, dann hat man
auch mehr Kontakt mit anderen Spitzenkünstlern und wird durch sie angeregt. Und
natürlich bewirken die Zuhörer auch viel an Motivation. Und vergessen wir nicht
den Kontext: Wenn völlig fehlerfreies Spielen das Wichtigste ist, dann geht es nur
mit üben; beim Vom-Blatt-Spielen hilft eine diesbezügliche Begabung."
Warum ist hier von Niveaus und nicht von Stufen die Rede? Stufen implizieren
die Transformation mentaler Strukturen, deren Elemente im Wesentlichen erhalten
bleiben. Das gibt es auch beim RKD, aber dort spielen auch Substitutionen eine
wesentliche Rolle, beispielweise beim Erwerb der spezifischen Logik. Auch sind
Inhalte recht wichtig, genauer die Horizonterweiterung der Wissensstrukturen.
- 113 6. 4 RELIGIÖSES URTEIL UND RKD
Wieso ist eine Mensch-Gott-Beziehung auf der Stufe 4 (vgl. Tab. 1, hier S. 103) eine
”reifere” und RKD auf Niveau IV (vgl Tab. 3, hier S. 109) ein komplexeres? Unter
reiferen Menschen versteht man jene, der die Dinge besser übersehen und zwar in
ihrem geschichtlichen und allgemeinen Zusammenhang. Überdies können sie ihre
Überzeugungen und Gefühle verständlich machen und zu ihrem Recht kommen
lassen, ohne andere in ihren Rechten zu beeinträchtigen; sie verstehen und achten
sie. Dementsprechend ist die ausgewogenere Mensch-Gott-Beziehung auf Stufe 4
eine “reifere“ als die jeweils anders unausgewogenen Mensch-Gott-Beziehungen auf
den Stufen 1, 2 oder 3.
Hinsichtlich von RKD geht es unter anderem um kognitive Komplexität. Darunter
verstehen wir den Grad des Differenzierens, also der Benutzung verschiedener Kategorien, um diverse Aspekte zu unterscheiden und sie zu beurteilen, und den des Inegrierens, dem Etablieren von Beziehungen und Verbindungen zwischen verschiedenen Aspekten zwecks Gesamtschau und Globalurteil. Klarerweise findet auf Niveau I kein Differenzieren statt und daher auch kein Integrieren. Auf Niveau II beginnt das Differenzieren und auf Niveau III das Integrieren. Auf Niveau IV sind beide gut entwickelt und noch besser auf Niveau V. Eindeutigerweise ermöglicht RKD
auf Niveau IV daher auch eine “reifere“ Betrachtung.
Aber nun zu einem Vergleich der Meilensteine in den beiden Tabellen:
Auf Stufe 1 des religiösen Urteils kommt nur die Macht Gottes (A) in den Blick, nicht
jene der Betroffenen (B). Die Argumentation entspricht also Niveau I von RKD.
Auf Stufe 2 erscheint zusätzlich die Handlungsfähigkeit der Betroffenen (B) im Blickfeld; dies entspricht dem Niveau II von RKD.
Stufe 3 des religiösen Urteils ist insofern besonders interessant, als der bisher beobachtete Parallelismus der beiden in Rede stehenden Entwicklungen eine andere Ausprägung annimmt. Beim religiösen Urteil auf Stufe 3 bleibt es beim Niveau-II-Denken, aber die Gewichtung von A und B schlägt um. Das zentrale A wird periphär,
das periphäre B umgekehrt zentral.
Auf Stufe 4 kommt es dann zur Einsicht, dass A und B nicht nur vereinbar sind, sondern sich bedingen. Das entspricht dem Denken auf den RKD-Niveaus III oder IV.
Die empirisch kaum validierte religiöse Stufe 5 lässt einen Parallelismus mit
RKD-Niveau V erkennen.
Was kann man zur skizzierten Entwicklungslogik des religiösen Urteils noch sagen? Im Rahmen ihrer Dissertation untersuchte Kerstin Steiner (1986) die Entwicklung des staatspolitischen Denkens im Jugendalter. Entwicklungslogisch ist dieses
Thema der Mensch-Gott-Beziehung ähnlich, bei aller sonstiger Verschiedenheit. Das
- 114 Ergebnis ist, dass die insgesamt 84 Schüler im Alter von elf bis fünfzehn Jahren fünf
(Wunsch-)Vorstellungen von staatspolitischen Weltbildern die altersbezogen waren:
1. uneingeschränkte Diktatur,
2. durch das Volk eingeschränkte Diktatur,
3. unmittelbare Volksherrschaft
4. eingeschränkte unmittelbare Demokratie und
5. repräsentative Demokratie.
Weltbild 1 fand sich nur bei Elfjährigen, Weltbild 5 erst bei Dreizehnjährigen. Wie
bei dem religiösen Urteil (von Stufe 2 zu Stufe 3) gibt es also auch hier den Fall, dass
die Gewichtung zwischen A und B umschlägt, nicht aber das Niveau RKD. Beim
staatspolitischen Denken gilt das aber nicht nur für die Unterschiede zwischen den
Weltbildern 2 und 3, sondern auch für jene zwischen den Weltbildem 1 und 3. Im
religiösen Fall fehlt die Entsprechung dieses Umschlagens des staatspolitischen Weltbildes von 1 zu 3. Das ist aber wegen der sehr großen Unterschiede zwischen Mensch
(Kind) und Gott auch so zu erwarten. In allen Fällen ist jedoch klar, dass die “reiferen“ Stufen mindesten RKD-Niveau III voraussetzen, das erste Niveau von eigentlichem relations- und kontextbezogenen Denken, weil A und B nötig sind.3
Diese Feststellung kann auch noch anders untermauert werden. Nehmen wir eine
der gegenpoligen Dimensionen des religiösen Urteils, nämlich Freiheit versus Abhängigkeit: Naiverweise werden diese Begriffe als Gegensatz empfunden. Das Kind
auf Stufe 1 des religiösen Urteils fühlt sich abhängig von Gott. Es mag zwar glauben,
dass Gott alles zum Besten richtet und damit zufrieden sein, aber es ist Gott gegenüber nicht frei, zu tun und zu lassen, was es will. Auf Stufe 2 ist das Kind schon
etwas freier, aber der (scheinbare) Gegensatz zwischen den beiden Polen ist nicht
verschwunden. Auf Stufe 3 gerät er momentan aus dem Blick, weil Mensch sich von
Gott unabhängig dünkt.
Anwendung von RKD mindestens auf Niveau III zeigt jedoch, dass dies eine Illusion ist: Unheilbare Krankheiten, Altern und Sterben, ja selbst das alltägliche Funktionieren von Körper und Geist entziehen sich weitgehend dem menschen Willen
und seinen Möglichkeiten, die Gegebenheiten zu verändern. Gott hat seinen Platz im
universellen Geschehen sowie in jedem individuellen Leben. Die wahre Freiheit besteht darin, dies anzuerkennen und in dieser Perspektive das eigene Leben zu gestalten. Genau diese Erkenntnis liegt auch der Stufe 4 des religösen Urteils zu Grunde.
3 Added in 2004: When comparing and contrasting the knowledge levels concerning forms of
goverment with RJ stages, one should bear in mind that the latter are based on a (slowly)
developing psychic structure, not just on on evolving knowledge.
- 115 Freiheit und Abhängigkeit schließen sich nicht aus, sondern ermöglichen sich gegenseitig.
Dieser Sachverhalt stützt die Vorstellung, dass die Entwicklung des religiösen Urteils auch die Frucht entwickelten RKDs ist und damit die Affirmation des Titels:
Eine freiere Mensch-Gott-Beziehung und komplexeres Denken – Zwei ungleiche
Seiten deselben Entwicklung. Die empirische Überprüfung ergab für den Rang-Korrelationskoeffizienten nach Kendall den sehr signifikanten hohen Wert tau = 0,70;
p < 0.01 (N = 30) (Reich, 2002, S. 131; Schenker & Reich, 2002, S. 188 ).
Gut entwickeltes RKD wirkt sich auch anderweitig positiv auf die persönliche
Religiosität aus. Es erlaubt, gewisse Glaubenslehren, wie zum Beispiel die Lehre von
den zwei Naturen Jesu Christi oder jene vom dreieinigen Gott, nicht nur zu glauben,
sondern auch zu verstehen (Reich, 1992). Auch vermag solches Denken eine
eventuelle kognitive Dissonanz aufzulösen, die aus scheinbaren Widersprüchen
zwischen biblischem und naturwissenschaftlichem Verständnis entstehen könnten
(Reich, 1996). Deshalb hat RKD auch in der Religionspädagogik einen angemessenen
Platz gefunden (Bornhauser, 2000; Nipkow, 1998; Rothgangel, 1999). Aber, wie
bereits gesagt, das entwertet in keiner Weise alle anderen Ingredienzen (Oser, 31993)
einer reifen Religiosität.
6. 5 DIE DYNAMIK DER MENSCH-GOTT-BEZIEHUNG
Sowohl die Theorie des religiösen Urteils als auch jene des relations- und kontextbezogenen Denkens sind inzwischen etabliert und haben sich als nützlich erwiesen.
Sie geben jedoch eher indirekt Auskunft darüber, wie man sich denn selbst kleine
Veränderungen der Mensch-Gott-Beziehung vorstellen kann.
Ein tentatives Modell dieser Beziehung ist in Abbildung 5 dargestellt (Reich,
2000a, b). Es beruht vor allem auf der kognitiven und erfahrungsbezogenen Theorie
des Selbst (CEST) von Seymour Epstein (1990, 1994) sowie auf der Theorie der
Objektbeziehungen von Ana-Maria Rizutto (1979, 1992).
Das zentrale Element des Modells ist das menschliche Selbst (die mittlere Spalte)
und darin wieder zentral der Kern des Selbst: eigene Körperlichkeit, Kognition, Emotionen (Beile, 1998, 1999; Drodge, 2000; Kager, 1995; Oser & Reich, 1996) sowie Konation / Motivation. Darunter ist das erweiterte Selbst mit seinen Zielen und seinem
Weltbild angedeutet, darüber das soziale Selbst. In der rechten Spalte geht es um das
religiöse Selbst sowie um Gott, genauer um die Beziehung zwischen beiden (vgl. Mallery, Mallery & Gorsuch, 2000). Die linke Spalte beinhaltet die äußere Welt und
religiös potentiell relevante Ereignisse. Im untersten Teil geht es wieder um das
Selbst, aber jenes, wie es die anderen sehen, bzw. wie die betroffene Person sich selbst
von außen sieht.
- 116 Es bedarf es mindestens einer von zwei Klassen von Vorgängen, unbewusster
oder bewusster, um die Dynamik von Veränderungen der Mensch-Gott-Beziehung
in Gang zu setzen.
Bei Kindern und selbst Jugendlichen ist wahrscheinlich eine Vielzahl der hier betroffenen Vorgänge unbewusst. Mit dem körperlichen und geistigen Wachstum, der
Sozialisation, den veränderten Lebensverhältnissen ändert sich auch die MenschGott-Beziehung. Wenn man die Betroffenen danach befragt, ist eine Antwort: ”Dazu
habe ich gar nichts getan, das ist einfach so gekommen.” Das gilt möglicherweise auch für
unerklärliche Stimmungen, Lust- und Unlustgefühle und ihre Auswirkungen auf die
Mensch-Gott-Beziehung. Aber selbst in dieser Altersklasse kann es zu bewussten
Auslösern kommen, beim Weihnachtsfest, in der Kirche, oder auch im Alltag. Entsprechende Aussagen sind: “Und da standen wir Kinder in verschiedenen Gruppen [in der
Kirche] und haben alle mitgesungen, und ich fand das unheimlich schön” oder auch ”Man
wird halt älter, kritischer, denkt selbständiger”.
- 117 Abbildung 5. Dynamik der Mensch-Gott-Beziehung.
Wir illustrieren die dynamischen Veränderungen, die das Modell von Abbildung
5 verständlich machen soll, anhand der Geburt eines Kindes (vergleiche die linke
Spalte). Der Mann kommt mit in den Kreißsaal und unterstützt seine Frau nach
besten Kräften. Ein Kaiserschnitt wird nötig und als das Kind da ist, legt es die
Operationsschwester in seine Arme. Da ist es, sein erstes Kind, so klein und
zerbrechlich! Das Selbst des Vaters ist in seinem Kern betroffen; bisher unbekannte
Gefühle und Gedanken bewegen ihn (Auslöserpfeil) und die verschiedenen TeilSelbsts interagieren, sie beeinflussen sich gegenseitig (Pfeile mit zwei Spitzen).
Sobald seine Frau das Kind nehmen kann, gibt er es ihr. Er teilt seine Freude mit
allen Beteiligten (Reaktionspfeil). Und dann verändern sich sein erweitertes Selbst,
seine Ziele und sein Weltbild, sein soziales Selbst (er spricht mit anderen Vätern über
Säuglinge ...), und mit der Zeit auch sein religiöses Selbst. Schließlich führen die
gemachten Erfahrungen zu einer mittel- beziehungsweise langfristigen
Rückmeldung (Rückmeldungspfeil). Eine positive Erfahrung verstärkt die bisherige
Entwicklung und stabilisiert ihre Richtung (zu Gott hin), eine negative Erfahrung
kann die Entwicklung hemmen und eventuell zu einer Richtungsänderung (von Gott
weg) führen.
Die wissenschaftliche Abbildung dessen, was wir als Bezug eines Menschen zu einem Ultimaten in einer kontingenten Situation verstehen, ist stets unvollständig. Wir
haben aber versucht, ein valides Ergebnis dieser wissenschaftlichen Bemühungen je
von einem anderen Blickpunkt aus herbeizuführen.
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6. 7 POSTSCRIPT
- 120 Chapter 6 provided an opportuninty, to present my work on “Religious development according to the theory of Religious Judgement (RJ) by Oser/Gmünder and
RCR” in as much detail as possible in a book chapter. A comparative analysis of the
RJ stage descriptions and the corresponding RCR levels brought out clear parallelisms between these two developments. This finding was supported by the significant high value of the rank correlation coefficient tau = 0.70. – The literature quoted
indicates that in the meantime religious educators and (practical) theologians have
taken note of these findings and use them in their work.
Given that the present chapter was first published in a volume titled ”The
programming of children’s and youth’s brains” triggers another comment. What is
one to make of the claims of certain neuroscientists that they hold the key to
humanity’s last terra incognita, namely human consciousness, and therefore will be
able to answer finally Kant’s question ”Was ist der Mensch?“. While at this stage
such a claim seems overblown (Reich, 2003, in press), it is true that the neurosciences
of late make remarkable progress and have produced results of general interest, concerning, for instance, (a) how the brain deals with various inputs, processes, and
registers them, (b) the brain’s remarkable plasticity (e.g, development of areas for
reading compentence, for learning a foreign language after the end of the childhood
latency period, replacement of eye-sight by the sense of touch [via camera and computer-driven gadgetery], etc.), and (c) the role of the brain in regard to religious
activities (e.g., Asbrook & Albright, 1997).
In time the neurosciences (neuroanatomy, neurophysiology, neuropsychology,
neurolinguistics, neurodidactics, etc.) may well attain a position comparable to that
of physics in the 16th to 18th century, or biology in the 19th and 20th century, namely
that of a wide-ranging challenger of traditional views. From here to there, it seems
wise to make already use of well-established research results, especially if there is
consonance between the neurosciences and other disciplines. In the present work this
was done to some extent regarding the (four) structural levels of RCR (Table 1 on p.
88) and also in the elaboration of the dynamic model to be dealt with in chapter 7.
REFERENCES to 6. 7
Ahbrook, James B., & Albright, Carol Rausch (1997). The humanizing brain. Where
religion and neuroscience meet. Cleveland, OH, The Pilgrim Press.
Reich, K. Helmut (2003/2004). Was sollten Religionspädagog/innen über die
Neurowissenschaften wissen und warum? Religionspädagogische Beiträge
51/2003, 121-132.
- 121 Reich, K. Helmut (in press). Psychology of religion and neurobiology: Which
relationship? Archiv für Religionspsychologie, vol. 26.
- 123 7. THE PERSON-GOD RELATIONSHIP: A DYNAMIC MODEL
Abstract. The proposed dynamic model of the person-God relationship is conceived
as a distinct, self-contained complement to the stage models of Fowler (1981, 1987,
1996) and of Oser and Gmünder (1991/1984). The presuppositions of, and the input
into the dynamic model are explained, especially the underlying root conceptualization of human psychology, the nature and range of changes to be accommodated, and the partly guiding action theory. An example of a changing person-God
relationship is discussed. The model elements and subelements, for example, the
central self, striving self, social self, religious self, and the ”outer world,” their interactions, and the functions of the nested feedback loops are presented. Finally, a
comment on the further development of the model is provided.
7. 1 INTRODUCTION
A major aim of this article is to present the initial stage of a dynamic model for the
person-God relationship. lt is hoped that this model contains most of the relevant
parameters and variables; at this stage they are used for describing change. The
ultimate model would aim to reconstruct previous changes in an individual's person-God relationship and predict future changes. Therefore the model is constructed
as a general case and then applied to an individual case as an explanatory device. For
full implementation of the model all the parameters and variables will need to be
operationalized and their relationships and mutual interactions explained. Relevant
indications of this future work are given at the end of the article. The initial stage of
the model is presented now to encourage collaborations with the author about the
further development of the model. Modifications of the basic model structure may
yet need to be effectuated in case progress with the operationalization demands it.
For simplicity, God stands for any entity that the individual concerned perceives
as the Highest Being, that is, as a being not simply extending but transcending the
biological and the physical, thereby violating intuitive biological and physical knowledge. The obvious candidate for this role is the monotheistic God of Judaism,
Christianity, and Islam, with whom a deep-going personal relationship develops.
However, probably with a different operationalization, the Highest Being could be
the Brahma of Hinduism, the impersonal Godhead (Nirvana) of Buddhism (Smith,
1965, pp. 126-127), or whatever is conceived in a broadly comparable way. At least at
this initial stage the attempt is to aim for an all-inclusive model.
The dynamic model of the person-God relationship as presented in this introduction (see Figure 1) merely features the posited different parts of the self itself
(central self, striving self, social self, religious self) as well as the “outer world,“
which includes the self as seen from the outside, and indicates by D the location of
- 124 major dynamic interactions of various types. (Further interactions take place inside
the subelements but are not dealt with in this article.) The representation is schematic
also in the sense that the size of the rectangles has no universal significance. For
instance, if the rectangle representing the religious self is larger than other parts of
the self, this is merely so because this model is about a person-God relationship, and
that has much to do with the religious self, at least in the case of very religious
persons, for instance Teresa of Avila. In all cases the self is understood as the result of
a partly conscious, partly unconscious construction by the individual concerned,
effectuated with the help of persons around him or her. Across time and space there
exist many varieties of self-constructions (e.g., Taylor, 1989). Both the contents of the
world and the self (and its parts) as well as the interactions between all of these are
dealt with in detail after discussing the need for such a model, its presuppositions,
and a candidate case for its use. Whoever finds it easier to approach the various
issues of model building from a “user's“ perspective may want to turn first to
Kushner's (1983) narrative before continuing (section 7.4 , p. 125 below).
Self
World
World
per se
Social self
D
Events
Self as
seen by
others
D
Central self
D
D
Religious
self
Striving self
Figure 1. Schematic representation of main elements and subelements of the multidimensional model. D = dynamic interaction (cf. Figure 3).
Where is God in this model? The answer will depend on the particular relationship under study. For some persons, God will be recognizable and active in the
world per se and/or in the events concerned (see the left column of Figure 1); for
others, God will be within the self, in particular the religious self; and for yet others,
God will be in all or even in none of these. Although all religions deal with God, self,
community, and nature (world), the weighting and the focus may be quite different,
for instance, on the individual or the community, on justice or brotherly and sisterly
love (compassion). This state of affairs shows up one of the strengths and the
weaknesses of the model: Aiming for all-inclusiveness almost necessarily makes for
complication. In the end a balance between the two may have to be struck, but at this
stage all-inclusiveness seems a worthwhile aim.
- 125 The current zeitgeist favors wholeness, integration, and connectedness, and therefore some readers will possibly disagree with the “cutting up“ of the self – despite
the thickly lined unifying rectangle around the parts. However, is not dealing in
depth with parts how science often progresses? And in a way how our brains are
organized? Another objection concerns presumably the detailed way the cutting up
is done and the labeling of the partial selves. The argument could be as follows: Does
not the “center of gravity“ part of the self vary from person to person? Is that center
not the religious self for a very religious person, the social self for a person whose life
is built on relationships, and the striving self for a very ambitious person? An answer
to that objection would be that nevertheless all parts are involved – in particular, the
central self (dealing directly with the incoming information) – and that the issue of
the center of gravity will translate itself into the weighting and the relationships
between the parts and hence the operationalization of the variables in the second, yet
to come stage of model building. Implied here is the assumption that there exists
indeed a central self as against a domain-specific distribution of its functions (cf. Oser
& Reich, 1990).
7. 2 THEORIES OF A DEVELOPING PERSON-GOD RELATIONSHIP
The present model is understood as a distinct, self-contained complement to the usual stage models of the God-person relationship and their underlying theories (Reich,
1992, 1993), for instance, those of Fowler (1981, 1987, 1996) and of Oser and Gmünder
(1991/1984; Oser & Reich, 1996). The dynamic model focuses on the process of
change and modification rather than the state reached or a succession of states as
discrete time categories. The extant theories describe a number of stages (usually four
or more) that are said to be reached in the course of religious development. There is
widespread agreement that cognitions, emotions, motivations, worldviews,
person-God relationships, and so forth over the life course become more differentiated (bringing out differences of fact, of possible interpretations, and valuing) and
more integrated (linking various elements in order to arrive at an overall assessment), more abstract and more sophisticated, more reflected and more outreaching.
Despite this agreement, and considerable empirical evidence for the (restricted) adequacy as well as the general usefulness of these models or theories, particularly in
religious education and in pastoral counseling, they have been critiqued in various
ways (e.g., Fowler, Nipkow, & Schweitzer, 1991; Wulff, 1993). Thus, usually only few
data – if any – exist to support empirically the description of the “highest“ stage,
which moreover as a rule incorporates the concepts of a given theology as the developmental aim. Apart from being hypothetical, these developmental aims are also
judged ethnocentric (cf. Wheeler, Ampadu, & Wangan, 2002, p. 74) or otherwise not
- 126 universal (cf. Ray & MacFadden, 2001). Furthermore, these models, respectively, the
underlying theories, are said to deal insufficiently with a number of relevant aspects
such as rituals, emotions, social influences, and so on. Other critiques concern perceived specific shortcomings from a developmental psychological perspective and
have led to remedial proposals (e.g., Bucher & Reich, 1989; Clore & Fitzgerald, 2002;
Schenker & Reich, [2003]; Streib, Corveleyn, & Paloutzian, 2001; Wagener, 2002).
Although some of these critiqued aspects have been remedied in the meantime, in
particular the role of religious emotions (e.g., Beile, 1999; Fowler, 1996; Rollett &
Kager, 1999), enough limitations remain to justify looking for a distinct self-contained
complement.
Moreover, stage theories like those of Fowler (1981, 1987, 1996) and Oser and
Gmünder (1991/1984) in essence are not meant to be descriptions of each and every
individual developmental path. They characterize the main shared features of the
person-God relationship of a “similar“ group of people, and at an even higher level
of abstraction the shared features of different groups. Thus, from a theoretical perspective, a sequence of developmental stages demonstrates the developmental logic
posited to “govern“ the corresponding development, but from the perspective of an
individual the sequence merely represents milestones, some of which many religious
persons reach sooner or later. However, even with expectations thus lowered, these
theories do not explain in detail by what mechanisms development proceeds. Furthermore, in real life, there are also cases of religious conversion – even in adulthood
– and, antisymmetrically, cases of apostasy (deconversion; e.g., Shand, 2000). Less
dramatically, a person may change, for instance, from a religiosity based on traditional theology to a religiosity based on liberation theology. (Oser would presumably
argue that his structural model is unaffected by such content changes, but such an
independence is not absolute; Oser, Fetz, Reich, & Valentin [2003]). An encompassing
model should describe, and preferably explain, the dynamics involved in all types of
changes of a particular person-God relationship, including “regression“ to an earlier
stage, conversion, and deconversion. Here change means a “movement“ in any
direction, and development usually signifies a continuation broadly in the same direction; microdevelopment denotes the initial small step of either change or development. In contrast to the existing theories of religious development, the dynamic
model presented here aims to deal eventually with all these changes.
7. 3 PRESUPPOSITIONS OF AND INPUTS INTO THE DANAMIC MODEL
Major presuppositions and inputs concern (a) the root conceptualization of human
psychology, and (b) the basic psychological framework. They are dealt with in that
order, and each time it is indicated what is retained as model input.
- 127 7. 3. 1 Root conceptualization of human psychology
A complete model of psychological change should cover, first, the biological grounding; second, the person-centered (conscious and unconscious) factors; and, third, the
biophysical and sociocultural environments involved in such changes and should
integrate the various elements (Overton, 1998, 1999). Summarized briefly, Daniel
Dennett (1996, pp. 83-101), taking an evolutionist's view, correspondingly discerns
and describes the aspects (a) to (d) of the first and second of these points, with all fully valid for adults yet (c) and (d) only partly for infants: (a) the native endowment of
humans, which has evolved through the ages by way of gene mutation and “field
tests“; (b) wired-in reinforcers, (partly unconscious) mechanisms that favor actions
more beneficial for the individual or the species than the alternatives; (c) an inner environment, in which various surrogate actions (involving specifically cognitions and
emotions) can be tried out mentally before taking risks in the real world; and (d) use
of mental tools, for instance words, numbers, symbolic logic, and eventually virtual
cyberworlds to orient oneself and decide on various actions in case of need.
Retained for model construction are the following five inputs: (I) the biological
grounding – native endowment (Point [a] above) including individual differences
particularly concerning religious sensitivity and interests; (II) the workings of unconscious processes (implicitly) (Point [b]); (III) the important role of cognition and emotions ([c]) and [d]); (IV) an internal balancing process and feedback based on the outcome ([b] to [d]); and (V) the external world as testing ground, possible trigger and
limitation of change and development (cf. the aforementioned point [c]). Given all
that was said so far, for optimal performance, the "values" of the model parameters
and variables will have to be adjusted to match the individual under consideration,
but the totality of parameters and variables built in should cover nearly all persons.
7. 3. 2 Basic psychological framework
To specify a single psychological framework covering inputs I to V just listed is a
daunting task in view of the huge potential of humans for change and the variety of
changes. A few cases that illustrate this are as follows:
(1) Jacob's fight with the angel (Genesis 32: 24-30, NRSV) led to his being renamed
Israel (= contender [perseverer] with God), a change brought about by exertion, by
no longer running away but facing what has to be faced. In this case change was initiated largely through Jacob's decision, at least the initial step, to send away his family and to stay back himself.
(2) Joan of Arc (1412-1431), at age 13 1/2, turned from an unknown farmer's
daughter into a hearer of voices who created a state of patriotic exaltation and, at
age 17, inspired the French soldiers to such an extent that they freed the important
- 128 cities of Orleans and Reims. Through the hearing of outer voices she was led to
change and development toward action: It is God who commands it.
(3) Leo Tolstoy (1828-1910) turned from a self-confessed criminal life to a deeply
pious search for The Kingdom of God that is within you. Here the inner life is the
center of gravity, even if making peace in the outer world is not neglected.
(4) Malcolm X (1925-1965) lost his father at age 6, was placed in a juvenile home at
age 14 after his mother was committed to the State mental hospital, got involved in
criminal activities at age 18 and was eventually convicted to a 10-year prison term,
converted at age 22 to the Nation of Islam, became a Minister of the Nation of Islam
at age 32, at age 39 embraced true Islam in Makkah after seeing there the beauty of
the unity of humanity, and came back to the United States thinking differently about
White people. In brief, he experienced a series of conversions, mostly triggered by
particular events.
Obviously, many more different cases could be added, including the conversion of
cocaine addicts (Priester, 2000).
Clearly, the dynamics of these cases differ greatly. Major changes occurred (a)
“spontaneously“ (Joan of Arc, Tolstoy), (b) initiated by a decision (Jacob), and (c) as a
consequence of certain events and reflecting about them (Malcolm X). At this stage, I
tackle the “easier“ cases, (b) and (c), leaving (a) for a later date.
Anticipating part of Kushner' s (1983) self-report reproduced below, one mechanism of change seems to be tied to an unfavorable outcome when acting within a specific view of the person-God relationship. Kushner stated that he changed because he
realized that he gained little and lost so much when he blamed God for his misfortunes (p. 134). Arguably, a basic framework of the model for dealing with cases (b)
and (c) is therefore provided by action theory (see Figure 2): An actor defines (consciously or unconsciously) aims, applies the necessary means to obtain the desired
results, and assesses the consequences (e.g., Eckensberger, 1993; Pargament, 1997). If
they are positive, then the conceptualizations and guidelines for action are
reinforced; in the opposite case, they are liable to be changed. In Pargament's words,
that action is chosen that is “expected to bring the greatest gain and the least loss of
significance through the use of the fewest resources and the accumulation of the least
burden” (p. 114). Pargament also recalled that “culture shapes events, appraisals, orienting systems, coping activities, outcomes and objects of significance“ (p. 117). Regarding the changes in the person-God relationship, a "cost-benefit" evaluation –
where it applies – is hardly in terms of money but is rather in terms of spiritual gain,
life satisfaction, and the like. Whether the action model is applicable or not clearly
depends on the detailed nature of the aims and on the interpretation of the results of
an action and their sequel, in particular on the attributions made to God (e.g., Hutsebaut, 2003; Mallery, Mallery, & Gorsuch, 2000). In this attribution, the thought form
- 129 used with its underlying logic (Reich, 2002) is of relevance. If, for instance, those in
Alcoholics Anonymous “surrender to win,” “die to live,””give it away to keep it,”
this is clearly not an expression of everyday rational linear logic, which would be
used more customarily in evaluating a given everyday action.
In this regard the following (further) triggers are retained for model construction:
first, the incidence of culture, specifically on the social self, and, more indirectly, on
the central, striving, and religious selves as well as on the concomitant interactions
(Input VI); and, second, the feedback loops from the medium-term and/or longerterm outcome back to the actor (Input IV, here p. 123). What is still missing is, third,
the nature of the “trigger“ for a new action (Input VII) and – if needed – the ensuing
reequilibration inside the self via internal feedback loops (Input IV). Here, "trigger"
takes into account, or may even be tantamount to, the context and its changes.
Figure 2. An example of a partial model dynamic, based on action theory.
Why such a complicated system with nested feedback loops'? Is not a straightforward cognition-behavior or attitude-behavior relation sufficient for explaining
anticipating actions? Already Paul of Tarsus knew (Letter to the Romans 7:19) that
the answer is, unfortunately, “No.“ As discussed by Kuhl and Beckmann (1985, p. 2),
it is also necessary to consider (a) the arousal of motivational states and (b) their
changes, (c) the formation and enactment of intentions, and (d) performance control.
Issues (a) and (c) have an incidence on the central self, (b) justifies part of the internal
loops (not considered here), and (d) the “external“ loops D of Figure 1.
7. 4 AN EXAMPLE CASE FOR USING THE MODEL
To clarify the ideas about the detailed requirements of the model and make the
discussion more concrete, let us focus on the family of Harold S. Kushner (1983, pp.
1-5). Their oldest son, Aaron, stopped gaining weight at the age of 8 months, and his
hair fell out from age 1 year. The Kushners learned that their son suffered from the
Hutchinson-Gilford Progeria Syndrome, rapid aging, which meant looking like an
old man while still a child and dying in his early teens. If some readers find this example too much outside the everyday lives of the majority of people, think of parents
- 130 whose children suffer from AIDS or even from attention deficit / hyperactivity disorder, and so on. Or substitute a case you have personally lived through or experienced
in your surroundings. And remember that experiencing injustice, suffering, and the
death of a loved person are among the long-standing central challenges to the
person-God relationship, namely, the problem of theodicy, the justification of God's
attitude and actions in such situations.
Back to Kushner (1983): On the day of the announcement of Aaron's likely destiny,
Kushner, by then an inexperienced rabbi in a Boston suburb, felt a deep, aching sense
of unfairness. It did not make sense. He had been a good person. He had tried to do
what was right in the eyes of God. He lived a more religiously committed life than
people with large, healthy families. He believed that he had been doing God's work.
How could this then happen to his family? Even if he was rightly punished, why did
his 3-year-old son have to suffer? His wife and he himself had grown up with an
image of God as an all-wise, all-powerful parent figure. If we were obedient and
deserving, He would reward us. That their son had progeria contradicted everything
Kushner had been taught. Tragedies like this one were supposed to happen to selfish,
dishonest people. Why do bad things happen to good people? Reflecting on the
biblical book of Job, Kushner came to the conclusion that we can turn to God for
things He can do instead of holding onto unrealistic expectations (p. 45). Likewise,
we can be angry at what has happened to us without being angry at God. Over and
above that we can interpret our anger as God-sent so that we feel motivated to fight
injustice and feel compassion for the afflicted. Fifteen years later, Kushner wrote as
follows:
I had gone beyond self-pity to the point of facing and accepting my son's death. ... I
am a more sensitive person, a more effective pastor, a more sympathetic counselor
because of Aaron's life and death than I would have been without it . ... I believe in
God. But I do not believe the same things about Hirn that I did years ago. ... I no
longer hold God responsible for illness, accidents, and natural disasters, because I
realize that I gain little and I lose so much when I blame God for those things. (pp.
133-134)
From “Why did this happen to me?,“ the development is to “Now that it has
happened, what shall I do about it?“(Kushner, 1983, p. 137). And Kushner experienced that in such a context God inspires people to help other people who have
been hurt by life.
In summary, Kushner' (1983) person-God relationship went from expecting justice
and reward for correct religious behavior from God, to blaming God for the perceived injustice experienced by his family, and then to limiting God's responsibility
for everything that happened to him and his family, yet being thankful for God's
- 131 presence, inspiration, and support. There are also changes in Kushner's relation to his
human environment. What does this already tell us about the appropriateness of the
model as indicated in Figures 1 and 2?
As to be expected from a rabbi, the posited center of gravity of Kushner's (1983)
self resides in his religious self. However, both "external" events (the illness and
death of his son) and the workings of the central self (emotions and cognitions) and
presumably his social self involving his parenting are instrumental in the changes of
the religious self. The social self per se changes too: from a reliance of the result of his
(religious) socialization to becoming more independent, yet more sensitive, caring,
and helpful in his human relations. The changes of the striving self are less clearly
indicated. Is it unreasonable to claim that this part of the self moved from doing
God's will as taught by the doctrine to actually finding out how others could be helped and doing so? As already intimated, in conformity with Figure 2, the outcome of
his actions very much determined the next steps (“because I realize that I gain little
and I lose so much“; Kushner, 1983, p. 134). In sum, the elements of Figure 1 and the
mechanism of Figure 2 permit one to describe the changes of Kushner's person-God
relationship. (Others in a comparable situation might reason quite differently, of
course, from abstaining to “judge“ God [Isaiah 55:8-91] to attributing the event to the
forces of evil [Vieth, 1988, p. 25] or to other “gods“ in polytheism.) Thus encouraged
in as much as can be said on the basis of a single case, we turn to a more detailed discussion of the model, not forgetting though that in other cases change may be much
more driven by affect (e.g., a mystical experience, fear, rage, boredom, joy, a
beginning feeling of wholeness, etc.). And in yet other cases change might be initiated by a felt divinely ordered mission, or by altogether different causes such as curiosity or emulation.
7.5 MAIN FEATURES AND DYNAMICS OF THE MODEL
7.5.1 Contents of the elements and subelements
Having designed the model in terms of self and world, and having retained for incorporation Inputs I to VII from the foregoing considerations, the present task is to flesh
out the skeleton indicated in Figure 1. First, we deal successively with the central self,
the striving self, the social self, the religious self, and the outer world.
Of what consists the central self? Regarding the native endowment (Input I), one
consequence of the view adopted is that the central self has to include the body, because it is, among other things, a result and a transmitter of that endowment (e.g.,
Johnson, 1987). Inclusion of the body is also advocated by the wish to take into account the reinforcers (II). Is it not often the body that signals that something works
- 132 well or not so well and thereby actuates reinforcement? Also, the genes and, in a different rubric, the central nervous system are part of the body, and each in their way
are involved in the person-God relationship (cf. Wulff, 1997, pp. 49-116). As far as the
inner environment and the mental tools (III) are concerned, cognition (basically perception, thinking, attributions, judgment, planning, etc.), emotions, conation, motivation (e.g., Gorsuch, Mylvaganam, Gorsuch, & Johnson, 1997) and more are involved, for instance, a continuous updating of the awareness of the world (Yates, 1985).
Cognitive development (Reich, 2002, pp. 26-33) and the role of cognition for religious
development (Fetz, Reich, & Valentin, 2001; Reich, [2003, 2004]; Reich, Oser, &
Valentin, 1994) were dealt with previously. Likewise, let me recall that “human life is
always an inextricably braided flow of emotioning and rationality through which we
bring forth different domains of reality“ (Maturana, as quoted in Drodge, 2000, p.
187; cf. O'Connor, 1996). Also of relevance, the reigning computer model of the mind
during the last 50 years has unduly restricted the concept of cognition (understood
too narrowly merely as information processing): The time has come to reclaim the
primacy of action, intention, and emotion (Nüñez & Freeman, 1999) and, likewise, to
recognize the role of the imagination (e.g., Johnson, 1993).
Extending the central self, one's short-term objectives and long-term aims as well
as one's worldview and values (Fontaine, Luyten, & Corveleyn, 2000) are the domain
of the striving self. Worldview here means both a conceptualization of the universe
and its history and a point of view concerning the position and role of humanity in
this universe. In connection with the system of values adopted, worldviews also
comprise guide rules for certain actions. According to Epstein (1973, 1990, 1991), as a
rule persons strive for (a) attaining "the good life"; (b) understanding and, if possible,
controlling events; and (c) increasing, or at least maintaining, self-esteem. As already
indicated earlier in connection with action theory, for religious believers, the good
life may mean a particular type of “controlling events” and a differing understanding
of “self-esteem,“ namely, to do the perceived will of God, “walking the ways of God“
(cf. Kushner's, 1983, biography), or even to get rid of an overpowering ego.
The social self includes the relations with significant others (family, friends, etc.)
and a major interaction with the culture (Ozorak, 1997; Input VI). It may well be that
it plays a greater role for women than for men and is their center of gravity.
The person-God relationship itself and what it involves is part of the religious self.
Why this separate part, and not a distribution of its functions and contents between
the central, the striving, and the social self, which in itself would presumably be a
possibility? The main reason is that the religious self has unique specific aspects,
which likely might be “diluted“ or even get lost by incorporating them elsewhere in
the self – although the other parts are indeed involved in the dynamics of change of
the religious self. As it stands, the religious self (with the help of other parts of the
- 133 self) constructs complex representations of the divinity, of the order of things from a
religious perspective, as well as private psychic rituals to deal with the private godhead (Rizzuto, 1979, 1991; cf. Reich, 1997). This includes a search for religious guidance of one's life, giving expression of one's religious feelings such as thanksgiving
and adoration, and attempting to correct one's shortcomings to improve the personGod relationship. The religious self also evolves attributions concerning God's involvement in the outcome of situations (Mallery et al., 2000).
The outer world (Input V) comprises (a) what is “out there“ (nature, things, human groups, individuals), (b) particular events (birth of a child, death of a loved one,
discovering a beautiful nature spot, being saved miraculously from a grave illness, a
deep-going religious-spiritual experience, etc.), and (c) the “public” mirroring of an
individual's personal character and problems (the “me” as others see it). Obviously,
artificially separating the outer world from its (positive, negative, or neutral) impact
does not correspond to what happens in actual life but seems unavoidable for arriving eventually at the final state of model.
Memory, too, has to be present in the model – however, it is not obvious to do so
diagrammatically in an encompassing manner. In a different rubric, the unconscious
has to be part of it (Hill & Hood, 1999), given its considerable influence, but again,
how to picture it?
7.5.2 Dynamics
With the contents of all the elements and subelements indicated, we come now to the
dynamics (Input IV), hinted at by D in Figure 1 and partly already explained in regard to Figure 2. As previously intimated, dynamic events, possibly leading to microdevelopment, in certain cases are initiated by triggers (V, VII) reaching the central
self. There are two types of triggers for starting the next step of the microdevelopment of the person-God relationship: (a) As shown in Figure 3, the trigger can originate from the outside, that is, the external world itself, from particular events involving oneself (e.g., Argyle, 2000, pp. 60-66), or from becoming aware of a particular
feature or problem of the me; or (b) the trigger originates from inside (not shown
explicitly in Figure 3), for instance, from some enduring, at first incomprehensible
inner tension or from unexpected strong emotions (e.g., Kushner's, 1983, becoming
aware that he was angry at God when he learned about the nature of his son's illness).
Alternatively, change and development may go on without a trigger of which one
becomes aware, even without being conscious of a change. In childhood and adolescence, the growing brain enables cognitive development, thereby opening up the
possibility of (positive) change. Alternatively, emotional configurations may build up
- 134 imperceptibly that lead to hostility, denial, rationalization, loss of memory, and so on
(Hull, 1999), impacting the person-God relationship but not necessarily being recognized as the cause by the person concerned. With reaching new stations of life (adolescence, partnership, parenthood, midlife crisis, old age), the relationship presented
here may "move" one way or another without any particular clearly recognizable
trigger. If a majority of the latter "originators" listed as examples may eventually lead
to a positive impact on the person-God relationship, at least some of them may well
have no impact or even a negative one, the outcome depending at least as much on
the characteristics of the self concerned and the various interactions and feedbacks as
on the triggering event as such.
World
Self
World
per se
Events
Social self
T
Self as
seen by
others
= interaction
Central self
Religious
self
Striving self
= reaction
= feedback
Figure 3. Schematic representation of a specific dynamic change: trigger 1, interaction, reaction, and feedback.
What happens after the trigger has arrived at the central self? Basically, the ensuing activated chain (see Figure 3) consists of event –> initial cognitive-emotional
response of the various recipients (interaction) –> overall reaction of self –> impact
and response (external feedback) –> evaluation and reconsideration if applicable –>
internal feedback (rebalancing if applicable).
What is the theoretical background for such a posited chain reaction? Previously
(Reich, 1997), Epstein's (1973, 1990, 1991) cognitive-experiential self-theory was referred to as a partial base of the detailed model dynamics (cf. Kelly, 1955). In the
meantime, Epstein (1993, 1994) has further written about his theory, and other psychologists of religion have taken up his theory (e.g., Hill, 1999; Hill & Hood, 1999).
Given those recent writings, we can be brief. Epstein posited that personality emerges as the product of (a) the Freudian and Jungian unconscious, (b) conscious processing of information in a rational manner, and (c) an experiential system involving
emotions and operating preconsciously that interprets reality and directs behavior in
- 135 everyday life (including the person-God relationship). This conceptualization translates into the model dynamics in terms of interactions between the different parts of
the self (and within these parts), shown as <–> in Figure 3. These interactions prepare
a reaction <= to the area from which the trigger originated (in this case the external
world). The response to the reaction then feeds back (cf. Figure 2) - -> onto the self
and leads to a reinforcement of the status quo, if positive, or to a new round of interactions between the subelements concerned and their reequilibration in the case of a
negative feedback from the outer world.
What else can be said about this dynamic? Kegan (1991, pp. 313-316) presented the
idea that a relationship can be prior to its parts and create its elements. That may lead
to an interpenetration self-other, and to interindividuation. In our context this means
that the person-God relationship may codetermine the development of the self
(Reich, 2000; Reich, Oser, & Scarlett, 1999) provided it goes deep enough (Lehtsaar,
2000) and corresponding spiritual abilities are present – namely, (a) the capacity to
transcend the physical and the material; (b) the ability to experience heightened
states of consciousness; (c) the ability to sanctify everyday experiences; (d) the ability
to use spiritual resources to solve problems; and (e) the capacity to show forgiveness,
express gratitude, be humble, and to display compassion (Emmons, 2000).
7.6 THE TENTATIVE MODEL
Putting the skeletons of Figures 1 and 3 plus the meat of Figure 2 and that of the preceding text together finally yields the model in its current state (see Figure 4).
Recall that the model at present only permits to describe the dynamics of change.
It does not as yet represent automatically, or justify, the current state of the personGod relation nor predict future changes. In no case does it involve explicitly a particular developmental aim, let alone an end point of development. Nevertheless, the
assumption is that eventually the model in its personalized state will yield the outcome of an individual's changes of his or her person-God relationship and anticipate
likely coming changes. Getting to that stage of the model will involve quite some
research specifically aimed at understanding the various interacactions and the apportioning and elaboration of a given feedback after reacting to a trigger-originator.
7. 7 THE NEXT STEPS
An example illustrating the scope and difficulty of the work yet to be done is Hutsebaut's (2003) research on differing theodicy models of religious believers as a function of their ontological and epistemological orientation, labeled religious attitude,
and other parameters such as a positive or negative self-image. Following van der
Ven, Hutsebaut distinguished an implicit theodicy (i.e., specific affections and cognitions pertaining to the religious consciousness of persons battling with suffering)
- 136 from an explicit theodicy (i.e., systematic pertinent considerations by philosophers and
theologians). As to theological models of God, they include (a) the apathetic God, (b)
the retributive God, (c) the planning and controlling God, (d) the therapeutic God, (e)
the compassionate God, (f) the vicarious God (the innocent sufferer surrenders to
other sufferers and thus takes on God's role in regard to the latter), and (g) the God
of the mystical union (transformation of suffering into mystical suffering of
separation from God). A factor analysis of the empirical data (N= 251) reduced these
theological models to four, (a) the compassionate God ([e} and [f] from the
immediately preceding list); (b) the therapeutic, planning, and controlling God ([c]
and [d]); (c) the apathetic God ([a]); and (d) the retributive God ([b]).
Hutsebaut and his colleagues (Duriez, Hutsebaut, & Fontaine, 2000; Fontaine,
Luyen, & Corveleyn, 2000) took the cue for their concept of religious attitude from
Wulff (1997, pp. 634-641). Accordingly, they differentiated between (a) orthodoxy (li-
Figure 4. The tentative dynamic model of a person-God relationship. A = social self,
B = central self, C = striving self, D = religious self. Not shown explicitly, but involv-
- 137 ed: the unconscious, the imagination, the memory, values, and dynamic loops internal to A to D..
teral and believing); (b) external critique (literal and unbelieving); (c) relativism
(symbolic and unbelieving-indifferent); and (d) historical awareness or second naiveté (symbolic and believing), also called postcritical belief.
To go into all the various intercorrelations between religious attitude and God
models would clearly be beyond the scope of this article. As examples, the religious
attitude “external critique” correlates moderately (.40) with the apathetic God model
and negatively (-.52) with the compassionate God model, and the postcritical belief
correlates fairly highly (.66) with the compassionate God model (Hutsebaut, 2003, p.
91).
Back to the present dynamic model: Once all the various interactions and (cor)relations are in place after the operationalization of the model parameters and variables
has reached a level comparable to Hutsebaut's (2003) level, one still needs to assess
and feed in the respondent's current developmental stage, respectively, state of
cognition, emotions, conation, motivation, aims, worldview, religious attitude, God
image, and so forth in order to bring the state of the model in line with the person's
state. In the meantime, the model can be used to describe a changing person-God
relationship, thereby finding out whether the major parameters and variables have
actually been taken care of. Elsewhere, I have made that exercise concerning
Nietzsche's (1844-1900), and Rilke's (1875-1926) person-God relationships or, rather,
their differing evolutions (Reich, 2000).
The model as it stands already conveys a sense of the complexity and the openness
of microdevelopment and changes of the person-God relationship. It constitutes a
base, it is hoped, for further research work and refinement of the model. (Apart from
benefitting from brain modelling as such, the software going into such programs,
Holland, 2003, might come in useful). Could one at least not dream about a
computer-assisted diagnostic tool for researching the person-God relationship and its
changes in a manner comparable to how extant computer programs for medical
diagnostics work – and envisage a future instrument for effective self-assessment
and, above all, for providing input for clinical work, given the recent marked rise of
interest in religion as it affects mental and even physical health?
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7.8 POSTSCRIPT
In chapters 2 to 6 the focus was largely narrowed down to cognition, and to quite
some extent even more so, namely to relational and contextual reasoning (RCR). In
contrast, chapter 7 looks at a person’s religiosity and its changes with a wide-angle
lens, and attempts to situate cognition within a more encompassing dynamic model,
involving the various aspects of both the self and the world. It is very much hoped
that this model can be developed further, taking into account also the latest findings
of the neurosciences.
- 143 SUMMARY
In this work, The Role of Cognition in Religious Development is researched and
discussed from various perspectives.
The origin as well as the planning of this research project and the sequence of its
stepwise execution are presented. After the author had familiarised himself with the
scientific background from the perspective of religious studies and psychology of
religion, a first theme evolved via the interpretation of a world view study with
children and adolescents: While some participants fell victim to cognitive dissonance
on account of divergences between a religious and a scientific world view, others
managed to “co-ordinate” the two views to their satisfaction.
This co-ordinating capacity was diagnosed as an indication of a particular form of
reasoning, eventually labelled Relational and Contextual Reasoning, RCR. Its systematic
study was planned accordingly, and a series of studies carried out (chapters 2, 3, 4, 5,
6). This research showed that RCR ingredients are elements of (a) Piagetian operations, (b) cognitive complex thought, (c) dialectical thinking, (d) analogical thinking
and it involves (e) a specific, trivalent logic as well as (f) advanced epistemic
cognition (specifically an awareness of mental tools and their roles and importance
for gaining dependable knowledge).
As the outcome of the theoretical and empirical studies of RCR demonstrated
(chapters 2, 3, 4), RCR is particularly useful for understanding religious doctrines
such as the Divine Creation of the universe, the Chalcedonian Definition of the two
natures of Christ, and the doctrine of the Holy Trinity.
Likewise, RCR furthers religious development on account of lessening the danger
of cognitive dissonances, and supporting a second naiveté (Ricoeur), as well as coordinating conceptual polar pairs such as the holy and the profane, divine providence
and luck, freedom and dependence (chapters 4, 6).
Building on the results reported in chapters 2 to 6, the basics of a dynamic model
of the Person-God Relationship were elaborated (chapter 7).
- 144 SAMENVATTING
Deze dissertatie onderzoekt en bespreekt vanuit uiteenlopende perspectieven de rol
van cognitie in religieuze ontwikkeling.
Het beginpunt evenals de indeling van dit onderzoeksproject en de opeenvolgende stapsgewijze uitvoering ervan worden geïntroduceerd. Nadat de auteur
zich de wetenschappelijke achtergrond vanuit het perspectief van religiestudies en
godsdienstpsychologie had eigengemaakt, ontwikkelde zich een eerste thema via een
studie naar de interpretatie van een wereldbeeld door kinderen en tieners: terwijl
sommige deelnemers slachtoffer werden van cognitieve dissonantie omdat een
religieus en een wetenschappelijk wereldbeeld uiteenlopen, slaagden anderen erin de
twee beelden naar hun tevredenheid te “co-ordineren“.
Dit vermogen tot coördinatie wordt gediagnosticeerd als een indicatie van een
bepaalde vorm van redeneren, uiteindelijk aangeduid als Relationeel en Contextueel
Redeneren, RCR. De systematische studie hiervan werd aldus beraamd, en een serie
studies werd uitgevoerd (hoofdstukken 2, 3, 4, 5, 6). Dit onderzoek toont dat tot de
ingrediënten van het RCR de volgende elementen behoren (a) Piagetaanse operaties,
(b) cognitief complex denken, (c) dialectisch denken, (d) analoog denken, en het
involveert (e) een specifieke, driewaardige logica alsmede een (f) geavanceerde
epistemische cognitie (met name een besef van mentale middelen en hun rol en
belang bij het verwerven van betrouwbare kennis).
Zoals de uitkomsten van de theoretische en empirische studies naar het RCR hebben aangetoond (hoofdstukken 2, 3, 4), kan het RCR in het bijzonder worden gebruikt voor het begrijpen van religieuze doctrines zoals de goddelijke schepping van
het universum, de definitie van de twee naturen van Christus door het Concilie van
Chalcedon, en de doctrine van de heilige drieëenheid.
Bovendien bevordert RCR religieuze ontwikkeling, omdat het het gevaar van cognitieve
dissonanties vermindert en een tweede naïviteit (Ricoeur) ondersteunt. Het coördineert evenzo
paren van tegengestelde begrippen zoals het heilige en het wereldse, goddelijke voorzienigheid en
geluk, vrijheid en afhankelijkheid (hoofdstukken 4, 6).
Op grond van de resultaten, als besproken in de hoofdstukken 2 tot 6, werd de basis voor een
dynamisch model van de Persoon-God-verhouding uitgewerkt (hoofdstuk 7).
- 145 -
Curriculum vitae of Karl Helmut REICH
University studies (1946-1955): Physics and Electrical Engineering (and some psychology) at the (technical) universities of Köln (Cologne), Aachen (Aix-la-Chapelle),
Braunschweig (Brunswick), Paris (France), and Nottingham (UK). From 1984: Social
sciences, mainly at Fribourg University and the Geneva Piaget Archives.
Positions as Research Fellow (in physics): Harvard University (1955), Brookhaven
National Laboratory, L.I., N.Y. (1965/1966), Dortmund University, FRG (1983);
Tokyo State University [Todai] (1984).
Position as (senior) scientist (applied physics): European Laboratory for Particle Physics (CERN), Geneva (Switzerland), December 1955 - May 1983.
Position since summer term 1984: (Senior) Research Fellow (Wissenschaftlicher
Forschungsmitarbeiter) at the School of Education of the University of Fribourg
(German branch); on occasion lecturer on cognitive development, the psychology of
religion and religious education.
Additional position since October 1994: Professor at the (non-residential) Stratford
International University at Richmond (British Columbia, Canada) and Evanston
(Wyoming, USA), School of Consciousness Studies and Wisdom Traditions.

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