Ceramics Manufacturing

Expert Fachmedien GmbH
Ceramics Manufacturing
Raw Materials
Silicate ceramics, such as porcelain, are made from materials including kaolin, clay, feldspar and silica sand. Oxide ceramics and non-oxide ceramics, on the other hand,
are based on oxides, nitrides, borides and carbides with
precisely specified composition and particle morphology.
These powders commonly need to be synthetically manufactured since natural products don’t meet the necessary requirements for chemical purity, homogeneity and
stability. The industry trend is toward finer (down to
nanometre-range) and more pure ingredients.
Deposits
Continuous prospecting and exploration – recording of deposits and assessment of clay types and
amounts – is necessary to meet the demands of the
ceramics industry for raw materials. Procurement of
new deposits creates a balance between the consumption and supply for the processing industry.
Open-pit mining is still the prime source for raw materials. The daily extraction capacity reaches 1.500
tons in larger mines. Extraction is strictly monitored
and controlled.
Final Treatment
After shaping and sintering the ceramic components often need additional
processing to meet requirements for dimensional accuracy and surface quality. Cutting and finishing of high-strength ceramics is quite costly due to their
durability and wear resistance and because it requires expensive tools and
utilities. Only abrasive procedures like grinding, honing, and lapping and special techniques like ultrasound- and laser-shaping are effective against these hard and durable materials. Ultrasound technology allows for economical
processing of tough and brittle components. High-performance ceramics like
alumina, zirconia, silicon nitride and silicon carbide can also be processed in
the same manner as glass and glass ceramics. That opens up a number of
new applications in mechanical engineering, medical and laser technology,
and in the field of optics.
Preparation
The natural characteristics of most raw materials and
powders don’t satisfy the needs of the majority of ceramic manufacturers. In addition, the consistency of
composition is – as with any other mineral raw material – insufficient for industrial production. Further
preparation is needed. The ideal characteristics are
determined in the laboratory and processing instructions are compiled for different raw ingredients. The
actual preparation involves grinding and homogenous
mixing of all components in the specified proportions.
Grinding is normally done in aqueous suspension. In
rare cases, dry grinding is also employed. Spray drying is often used after the wet grinding for technical
ceramics. The watery suspension is first atomised
and the droplets are dried in a hot airflow. This results
in a flowable granulate.
Wide Range of Applications
Ceramics play natural and important roles as building materials (roofing tiles, wall and
floor coverings, etc.), in fine porcelain, as practical or decorative containers, and in
bathroom products. New applications in ceramic technology have been continually
developed since the mid-19th century. Ceramic components have solved many problems, especially in industry. High temperature resistance was needed in materials
used for steel and glass production. Also important was the use of ceramic insulation
on electrical wires. Today, artificial hip joints and dental inlays made from ceramic materials give many people an improved quality of life. In modern automotive engineering
ceramic products are used in spark plugs, filters, valves and exhaust manifolds. The
heat shield tiles on the Space Shuttle were made of a low-density ceramic composite
material. Ceramics is one of the most popular and versatile high-tech materials.
Sintering
The complex process in which ceramic particle bodies fuse together under high temperatures is called sintering. Compression
occurs since every powder particle has a
desire to minimize its surface energy. This compaction results in the component shrinking by
20 % without losing its shape. A ceramic product with desired characteristics is created
after firing is performed. Common sintering
temperatures – depending on the raw materials – are between 1.000 - 2.200 °C. The sintering process can be controlled by varying the
atmospheric conditions in the furnace (air, inert gases, etc.). In addition, pressure – up to
2.000 bars – is used for some raw materials
(in processes known as hot or hot-isostatic
pressing and gas pressure sintering).
Shaping
During the shaping process the prepared mixture (in granules or in
liquid form as slurry) are moulded into a form that, for cost efficiency
reasons, should be as close to the required shape as possible. This
minimizes costly finishing. The most economical shaping for further
processing is primarily determined by the component’s geometry and
required tolerance measurements. In any case the work pieces (components) need to be slightly larger at this stage since they shrink by
about 20% during the sintering process that follows. The method of
shaping is determined by the moisture content in the component:
r Press (5 % water)
r Extrusion (25–30 % water)
r Slip casting (60–70 % water)
In hot pressing and hot isostatic pressing two production steps are
combined into one: shaping and firing. In thermal spraying two kinds
of processing are common: plasma- and flame-spraying. This involves spraying of melted ceramic powders, e.g., onto rotating tubular
tools.
Green Machining
The contour finishing of a green body manufactured
by a pressing process, followed by turning, milling
and drilling is called green machining. This is done
before sintering takes place. Green machining is
normally suitable only for single component or small
production volumes.
G5593
No. 2 pp. 71–134
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